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Physics 72 Arciaga

CHAPTER 21. ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD



Review vector addition, geometry and calculus (differentiation and integration)
Four fundamental forces:
o Gravitational force ! involves mass
o Electromagnetic force ! involves electric charge
o Strong force (or Nuclear force)
o Weak force

A. Electric charge
Electric charge is a scalar; it has no direction.
SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C)
Three properties of electric charge:
1. Dichotomy property
" The electric charge is either positive (+) or negative ().
" Like charges repel; opposite charges attract.
2. Conservation property
" The algebraic sum of all the electric charges in any closed system is constant.
" In charging, charge is not created nor destroyed; it is only transferred from one
body to another.
" This is a universal conservation law.
3. Quantization property
" The magnitude of charge of the electron or proton is a natural unit of charge.
" Basic unit of charge ! e = 1.60210
-19
C
a. Charge of 1 proton = +e = 1.60210
-19
C
b. Charge of 1 electron = e = 1.60210
-19
C
" Every observable amount of electric charge is always an integer multiple of this
basic unit.
Other keywords:
o Electrostatics involves electric charges that are at rest (i.e. speed is zero) in the
observers reference frame
o Atom composed of electron, proton, and neutron
o Neutral atom atom with zero net charge (# of electrons = # of protons)
o Positive ion (cation) atom with positive net charge (lost one or more electrons)
o Negative ion (anion) atom with negative net charge (gained one or more electrons)
o Ionization gaining or losing of electrons

B. Types of materials in terms of electric conduction
Conductors
o Objects that permit the easy movement of electrons through them
o Ex: most metals, copper wire, earth
o In metals, the mobile charges are always negative electrons ! sea of free electrons
o The earth can act as an infinite source or sink of electrons ! grounding
Insulators
o Objects that does NOT permit the easy movement of electrons through them
o Ex: most nonmetals, ceramic, wood, plastic, rubber, air
o The charges within the molecules of an insulator can shift slightly ! polarization
Physics 72 Arciaga
Semiconductors
o Objects with properties between conductors and insulators
o Ex: silicon, diodes, transistors
Superconductors
o Objects with zero resistance against the movement of electrons
o Ex: some compounds at very low temperatures

C. Ways of charging a material
Charging by rubbing charge of charger changes; electrons transfer
Charging by contact charge of charger changes; electrons transfer
Charging by induction (without grounding) charge of charger does NOT change
Charging by induction (with grounding)
charge of charger does NOT change
negative charger induces a positive charge (positive charger induces a negative charge)
Charging by polarization
charge of charger does NOT change
charged object can still attract a neutral object by polarization

D. Coulombs law
The amplitude of the electric force between two point charges is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Mathematically:
1 2 1 2
e
2 2
o
q q q q
1
F k
4 r r
= =


; where F
e
= magnitude of the electric force between two point charges
q
1
and q
2
= electric charges of the two point charges
r = distance between the 2 point charges
k = proportionality constant = 1/4
o


o
= permittivity of free space (permittivity of vacuum)
NOTES: 1. The direction of
e
F
!
is along the line joining the two point charges.
2. The electric force on q
1
by q
2
is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to
the electric force on q
2
by q
1
. [Recall: Newtons third law of motion]
3. It is an inverse square law. [Compare: Newtons law of gravity]
4. k = 1/4
o
= 8.98810
9
Nm
2
/C
2

5.
o
= 8.85410
-12
C
2
/Nm
2

6. If there are more than two point charges, use the principle of superposition of forces.
Use vector addition (not scalar addition).
7. For atomic particles, the electric force is much greater than the gravitational force.

E. Electric field and electric forces
Electric field:
"
e
test
F
E
q
=
!
!

; where E
!
= electric field at a particular position
q
test
= charge of a test charge placed at the particular position

e
F
!
= net electric force experienced by the test charge at the particular position
NOTES: 1. Electric field is a vector.
2. Electric field is an intermediary for the electric force; an aura of electric charges.
Physics 72 Arciaga
3. A charged body experiences an electric force when it feels an electric field
created by other charged bodies.
4. Compare it with the gravitational field.
5. SI unit of electric field is newton per coulomb (N/C).
Electric force experienced by a point charge due to a given electric field:
"
e
F qE =
! !

; where
e
F
!
= net electric force experienced by a point charge at a particular position
q = charge of a point charge placed at the particular position
E
!
= electric field at the particular position
NOTES: 1.
e
F
!
and E
!
are in the same direction if q is positive.
2.
e
F
!
and E
!
are in the opposite direction if q is negative.
Electric field created by a point charge:
"
2
o
1 q
E r
4 r
=

!

; where E
!
= electric field created by a point charge
q = charge of the point charge
r = distance from the point charge
r = unit vector pointing away from the point charge (i.e. radially outward)
NOTES: 1. E
!
points away from a positive charge.
2. E
!
points toward a negative charge.
3. The electric field by a point charge is an inverse-square relation.
4. If there are more than one point charge, use the principle of superposition of
electric fields. Use vector addition (not scalar addition).
5. Other keywords:
o Source point location of the point charge that creates the electric field
o Field points locations at which the electric field are being determined
o Vector field infinite set of vectors drawn in a region of space
o Uniform field constant vector field (i.e. magnitude and direction are constant)
Electric field created by a continuous distribution of charge:
1. Use principle of superposition of electric fields; perform an integration!
2. Imagine the continuous distribution of charge as composed of many point charges.
3. Sometimes symmetry analysis makes the solution easier.
4. Other keywords:
o linear charge density [] charge per unit length (C/m)
o surface charge density [] charge per unit area (C/m
2
)
o volume charge density [] charge per unit volume (C/m
3
)

F. Electric field lines (also called lines of force)
Electric field lines
o imaginary line or curve drawn so that its tangent at any point is in the same direction of the
electric field vector at that point
o tangent at an electric field line ! determines direction of the electric field
o spacing of electric field lines ! determines magnitude of the electric field
" electric field lines are closer together ! indicates strong electric field
" electric field lines are farther apart ! indicates weak electric field
o electric field lines never intersect
o electric field magnitude can vary along one electric field line
Physics 72 Arciaga

G. Electric dipoles
Electric dipole
o a pair of point charges with equal magnitude and opposite sign separated by a
particular distance
o ex: water molecule, polar molecules, TV antenna
Electric dipole moment
"
p
p qd r =
!
; where p
!
= electric dipole moment of a dipole
q = magnitude of the electric charge (of a charge) in the dipole
d = separation distance between the two charges
p
r = unit vector pointing from the negative to the positive charge
NOTE: Electric dipole moment is a vector:
a. magnitude = |qd|
b. direction = from the negative to the positive charge
Torque of an electric dipole in a uniform electric field
" p E =
!
! !
; where
!
= torque experienced by an electric dipole in an electric field
p
!
= electric dipole moment of a dipole
E
!
= electric field
NOTE: Torque is a vector [recall Physics 71]:
a. magnitude = pE sin
; where = small (tail-to-tail) angle between p
!
and E
!

b. direction = use right-hand rule [recall Physics 71]
Potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform electric field
" U p E =
!
!
; where U = potential energy experienced by an electric dipole
in an electric field
p
!
= electric dipole moment of a dipole
E
!
= electric field
NOTE: Potential energy is a scalar [recall Physics 71]:
a. magnitude = pE cos
; where = small (tail-to-tail) angle between p
!
and E
!

Equilibrium concepts [recall Physics 71]
" If both the net force and the net torque on an object are ZERO, then that object is in
EQUILIBRIUM; otherwise, that object is NOT in equilibrium.
" If the potential energy of an object is a MINIMUM, then that object is in STABLE
equilibrium. But if the potential energy of an object is a MAXIMUM, then that object is in
UNSTABLE equilibrium.

Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 22. GAUSSS LAW

A. Electric flux
Electric flux like a flow of the electric field through an imaginary surface
For a uniform electric field through a flat surface:
!
E
E A E n A E A cos = = =
! ! ! ! ! !

; where
E
= electric flux
E
!
= electric field
A n A =
! !
= vector area
n = unit vector perpendicular to the area (unit normal vector)
= tail-to-tail angle between E and A
! !
(or equivalently, E and n
!
)
NOTES: 1. Electric flux is a scalar.
2. Electric flux is zero if E
!
is parallel to the surface.
3. The vector area has:
a. magnitude equal to the area of the surface; and
b. direction perpendicular to the surface.
General definition: For any electric field through any surface
!
E
E dA E n dA Ecos dA = = =
! ! !
! ! !

NOTES: 1. This is called a surface integral of E dA
! !
.
2. For a closed surface:
a. unit vector n points outward (by convention)
b. electric flux is positive if flowing outward the closed surface
c. electric flux is negative if flowing inward the closed surface

B. Gausss law
Qualitative statements of Gausss law:
1. The net electric flux through a closed surface is outward (/inward) if the net enclosed
charge is positive (/negative).
2. The net electric flux through a closed surface is zero if the net enclosed charge is zero.
3. The net electric flux through a closed surface is unaffected by charges outside the closed
surface.
4. The net electric flux through a closed surface is directly proportional to the net amount of
enclosed charge.
5. The net electric flux through a closed surface is independent of the size and shape of the
closed surface (if the net amount of enclosed charge is constant).
Mathematically:
!
enc
E
o
Q
E dA E n dA = = =

! !
! ! !
" "

NOTES: 1. The symbol
! "
means surface integral for a closed surface.
2. The closed surface to be used is imaginary !!! " called a Gaussian surface
3. Two possible uses:
a. Given a charge distribution, enclose it with a proper Gaussian (imaginary) surface
that utilizes the symmetry of the situation, then determine the electric field.
b. Given an electric field, construct a Gaussian (imaginary) surface, then determine
the charge distribution inside it.
Physics 72 Arciaga
C. Conductors in electrostatics
The electric field is zero ( E 0 =
!
) in the bulk material of a conductor.
Any excess charge resides entirely on the surface of the conductor; no charge can be found in the
bulk material.
The electric field at the surface of the conductor is always perpendicular to the surface; there is no
tangential or parallel component.
The electric field at the surface of the conductor has a magnitude equal to /
o
.
The magnitudes of electric field and surface charge density on the surface of the conductor are
higher at the sharper locations.
The electric field is discontinuous (in magnitude and/or direction) wherever there is a sheet of
charge.
Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 23. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

A. Electric potential energy
Review of some important remarks [recall Physics 71]:
1. Work done by a force F
!
on a particle that moves from position a to position b.
!
b
a b
a
W F ds

=
!
!
!

2. Electric force is a conservative force. A conservative force has the following properties:
a. The work it does on a particle is independent of the path taken by the particle and
depends only on the initial and final positions.
b. The total work it does on a particle is zero when the particle moves around any
closed path, in which the initial and final positions are the same.
c. The work it does on a particle is reversible, i.e. energy can always be recovered
without loss.
d. The work it does on a particle can be expressed as the difference between the initial
and final values of a potential-energy function.
! W
a!b
= U = (U
b
U
a
) = U
a
U
b

; where W
a!b
= work done by a conservative force when a particle
moves from position a to position b
U = change in the potential energy
U
a
and U
b
= potential energies at positions a and b, respectively
3. Conservation of mechanical energy can be applied when only internal force and
conservative force do work on the system.
4. A system tends to attain the lowest possible potential energy (i.e. it tends to attain a state of
stable equilibrium).
A charged particle in a uniform electric field:
! U = U
o
+ qEh ; where U = electric potential energy of a charged particle
in a uniform electric field
q = electric charge of the charged particle
E = magnitude of the uniform electric field
h = position of the charged particle against E
!

U
o
= reference potential energy (i.e. value of U at h = 0)
! W
a!b
= U = qE(h
a
h
b
)
; where h
a
and h
b
= positions at a and b, respectively
NOTE: Compare with the gravitational potential energy (i.e. U
GPE
= U
o
+ mgh).
Two point charges:
!
1 2
o
o
q q 1
U U
4 r
= +


; where U = electric potential energy of two point charges
q
1
and q
2
= electric charges of the two point charges
r = separation distance of the two point charges
U
o
= reference potential energy
NOTES: 1. Commonly, U
o
= 0. Meaning, U = 0 at r = ".
2. U is negative if the two charges have opposite signs.
3. U is positive if the two charges have the same sign.
4. The above formula can also be used if one or both of the point charges is/are replaced
by any spherically symmetric charge distribution (in that case, r is the distance
between the centers).
Physics 72 Arciaga
!
a b 1 2
o a b
1 1 1
W U q q
4 r r

! "
= =
# $

% &

; where r
a
and r
b
= separation distance of the two point charges at
positions a and b, respectively
A point charge with other point charges:
!
3 2 i
o 1 o 1
i o 12 13 o 1i
q q q 1 1
U U q ... U q
4 r r 4 r
! "
= + + + = +
# $

% &
'

; where U = electric potential energy of a point charge with other point charges
q
1
= electric charge of the point charge
q
2
, q
3
, = electric charges of the other point charges
r
12
, r
13
, = separation distance of q
1
from q
2
, q
1
from q
3
,
U
o
= reference potential energy
NOTES: 1. Commonly, U
o
= 0. Meaning, U = 0 if q
1
is very far away from the other charges.
2. The above formula can also be used if any of the point charges is replaced
by any spherically symmetric charge distribution (in that case, r is the distance
between the centers).
3. The above formula is just scalar addition of electric potential energies.
!
a b 1 i
i o 1i,a 1i,b
1 1 1
W U q q
4 r r

! " ! "
= = # $ # $
# $ # $

% & % &
'

Interpretations of the electric potential energy
1. The work done by the electric force when a charged particle moves from position a to
position b is equal to (U
a
U
b
).
! W
by electric force
= U = U
initial
U
final

2. The work that must be done by other external force to move the charged particle slowly
from position a to position b is equal to (U
b
U
a
).
! W
by other external force
= U = U
final
U
initial


B. Electric potential
Electric potential electric potential energy per unit charge
often called simply as potential
!
test
U
V
q
= ; where V = potential
U = electric potential energy
q
test
= electric charge of a test charge
NOTES: 1. Compare with electric field (
e test
E F q =
! !
).
2. Potential is a scalar.
3. SI unit of potential is volt (V) : 1 V = 1 J/C
By a uniform electric field:
! V = V
o
+ Eh ; where V = potential in a uniform electric field
E = magnitude of the uniform electric field
h = position against E
!

V
o
= reference potential (i.e. value of V at h = 0)
Physics 72 Arciaga
By a point charge:
!
o
o
1 q
V V
4 r
= +

; where V = potential by a point charge


q = electric charges of the point charge
r = distance from the point charge
V
o
= reference potential
NOTES: 1. Commonly, V
o
= 0. Meaning, V = 0 at r = !.
2. The above formula can also be used if the point charge is replaced by any spherically
symmetric charge distribution (in that case, r is the distance from the center).
By a collection of point charges:
!
3 2 i
o o
i o 2 3 o i
q q q 1 1
V V ... V
4 r r 4 r
! "
= + + + = +
# $

% &
'

; where U = potential by several point charges
q
2
, q
3
, = electric charges of the point charges
r
2
, r
3
, = separation distance from q
2
, from q
3
,
V
o
= reference potential
NOTES: 1. Commonly, V
o
= 0. Meaning, V = 0 somewhere very far away from the point charges.
2. The above formula can also be used if any of the point charges is replaced
by any spherically symmetric charge distribution (in that case, r is the distance from
the centers).
3. The above formula is just scalar addition of potentials.
By a continuous distribution of charge:
!
o
1 dq
V
4 r
=

(

NOTES: 1. The integration is done over the entire distribution of charge (length, area, or volume).
2. For finite distribution of charge, you can set V = 0 at r = .
3. For infinite distribution of charge, you cannot set V = 0 at r = . What you can do is
to set V = 0 somewhere else.

C. Potential difference (or Voltage)
Some important relations:
! W
a"b
= U = (U
b
U
a
) = U
a
U
b

! W
a"b
= qV = q(V
b
V
a
) = q(V
a
V
b
) = qV
ab

!
b b
a b e
a a
W F ds qE ds

= =
( (
! !
! !

!
b
ab a b
a
V V V E ds = =
(
!
!

; where W
a"b
= work done by the electric force in moving a charged particle
from position a to position b
q = electric charge of the charged particle
U = change in the electric potential energy
U
a
and U
b
= electric potential energies at positions a and b, respectively
V
a
and V
b
= potential at positions a and b, respectively
V
ab
= V
a
V
b
= potential at a with respect to b (or voltage between a and b)

e
F
!
= electric force
E
!
= electric field
Physics 72 Arciaga
NOTES: 1. The E
!
points toward decreasing V.
2. If E 0 =
!
in a certain region, V is constant in that region (e.g. body of a conductor).
3. If E 0 =
!
at a certain location, it does not necessarily mean that V = 0 at that location.
4. If V = 0 at a certain location, it does not necessarily mean that E 0 =
!
at that location.
Some common units:
! Units of electric field
! newton per coulomb (N/C)
! volt per meter (V/m) : 1 V/m = 1 N/C
! Units of energy
! joule (J)
! electron volt (eV) : 1 eV = 1.60210
-19
J

D. Equipotential surfaces
Equipotential surface 3D surface on which the potential is the same at every point (V = constant)
Some notes:
1. Contour lines on a topographic map " curves of constant grav. potential energy per test mass
Equipotential surfaces " curved surfaces of constant elec. potential energy per test charge
2. Electric field lines " curved lines (arrows) to represent E
!
;
E
!
is not necessarily constant in an electric field line
3. Equipotential surfaces " curved surfaces to represent V;
V is constant in an equipotential surface
4. Electric field line is perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.
5. Electric field points toward decreasing potential.
6. Magnitude of electric field is large in regions where equipotential surfaces are close to each
other.

E. Potential gradient
Gradient operator
!

i j k
x y z

= + +

!

NOTES: 1.
!
= gradient operator (also called as grad or del operator)
2. A mathematical operation that can convert a scalar to a vector.
3. Utilizes partial differentiation.
Potential gradient
!
V V V

E V i j k
x y z
! "
= = + +
# $

% &
! !

E
!
= electric field
V = potential

!
= gradient operator
NOTES: 1. V
!
= gradient of V (also called as the potential gradient)
2. From the scalar V, a vector E
!
can be obtained.
3. V
!
is directed toward the rapid decrease of V.
4. If V depends only on the radial distance [i.e. V = V(r)], then
!
V
E V r
r
! "
= =
# $

% &
! !
; where r = unit radial vector
Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 24. CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

A. Capacitors
Capacitor composed of two conductors separated by an insulator or vacuum
can store electric potential energy and electric charge
Capacitance characteristic property of a capacitor
measure of the ability of a capacitor to store energy
!
ab
Q
C
V
=
; where C = capacitance of a capacitor
Q = charge of the capacitor (i.e. charge on one conductor is +Q;
and charge on the other is Q)
V
ab
= potential difference between the two conductors
NOTES: 1. SI unit of capacitance is farad (F) : 1 F = 1 C/V
2. The capacitance depends on the insulator between the two conductors. [see Section D]
3. In vacuum, the capacitance depends only on the shape, configuration,
and size of the capacitor.
4. In vacuum, the capacitance does NOT depend on the charge and potential difference
of the capacitor.
Parallel-plate capacitor (in vacuum):
!
o
A
C
d
=
; where C = capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum
A = area of the parallel plates
d = distance separation between the two parallel plates

B. Connections of capacitors
Key idea: A connection of several capacitors can be replaced by a single capacitor with a certain
equivalent capacitance (also called effective capacitance in other textbooks).
Capacitors in series connection
!
1
eq
1 2 3
1 1 1
C ...
C C C

! "
= + + +
# $
% &

; where C
eq
= equivalent capacitance of a series connection
C
1
, C
2
, C
3
, = capacitances of the capacitors in the series connection
NOTES: 1. C
eq
is less than any of C
1
, C
2
, C
3
,
2. Q
series
= Q
1
= Q
2
= Q
3
= [i.e. equal charges]
3. V
series
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
+ [i.e. sum of potential differences]
Capacitors in parallel connection
!
eq 1 2 3
C C C C ... = + + +
; where C
eq
= equivalent capacitance of a parallel connection
C
1
, C
2
, C
3
, = capacitances of the capacitors in the parallel connection
NOTES: 1. C
eq
is greater than any of C
1
, C
2
, C
3
,
2. Q
parallel
= Q
1
+ Q
2
+ Q
3
+ [i.e. sum of charges]
3. V
parallel
= V
1
= V
2
= V
3
= [i.e. equal potential differences]

Physics 72 Arciaga
C. Energy stored in capacitors
Capacitors can store electric potential energy and electric charge.
Two equivalent interpretations of energy storage in capacitors:
1. Energy stored is a property of the charge in the capacitor
!
2
2
1 Q 1 1
U CV QV
2 C 2 2
= = =
; where U = electric potential energy stored in a capacitor
Q = charge of the capacitor
V = potential difference across the capacitor
C = capacitance of the capacitor
NOTES: 1. These assign U = 0 if the capacitor is uncharged (Q = 0).
2. Work needed to charge the capacitor:
2
charge
1 Q
W U
2 C
= =
2. Energy stored is a property of the electric field produced by the capacitor
!
2
o
1
u E
2
=
; where u = electric energy density stored in a capacitor (in a vacuum)
E = electric field in the capacitor
NOTES: 1. Electric energy density is electric potential energy per unit volume:
U
u
volume
=
2. Total electric potential energy:
volume
U u dv =
!


D. Dielectrics
Dielectric a nonconducting material (i.e. insulator)
usually inserted between the plates of a capacitor
Characteristic properties associated with a dielectric:
1. Dielectric constant:
o symbol: K
o pure number; dimensionless; no units
o in general, K 1
o for vacuum, K = 1
o for air (at 1 atm), K = 1.00059 1
o for Mylar, K = 3.1
2. Permittivity:
o symbol:
o = K
o

o SI unit is C
2
/Nm
2
or F/m
o
o
= permittivity of free space (permittivity of vacuum)
o in general,
o

o for air (at 1 atm),
o

3. Dielectric strength:
o dielectric strength maximum electric field (magnitude) that a dielectric can withstand
without the occurrence of dielectric breakdown
o dielectric breakdown phenomenon at which the dielectric becomes partially ionized
and becomes a conductor
Physics 72 Arciaga
Effects of inserting a dielectric in the capacitor:
1. Separates the two plates even at very small distances
2. Increases the maximum possible potential difference between the plates (because some
dielectrics have higher dielectric strength than air)
3. Increases the capacitance of the capacitor
! C
w
= KC
wo

4. Decreases the potential difference between the plates when Q is kept constant
! V
w
= V
wo
/ K
5. Decreases the electric field when Q is kept constant (because of polarization and induced
charges in the dielectric)
! E
w
= E
wo
/ K
6. Decreases the electric potential energy stored when Q is kept constant (because the electric
field fringes do work on the dielectric)
! U
w
= U
wo
/ K
! u
w
= u
wo
/ K = E
w
2


; where K = dielectric strength of the inserted dielectric
= permittivity of the inserted dielectric
C
w
, C
wo
= capacitances with and without the inserted dielectric
V
w
, V
wo
= potential differences with and without the inserted dielectric
E
w
, E
wo
= electric fields with and without the inserted dielectric
U
w
, U
wo
= electric potential energies with and without the inserted dielectric
u
w
, u
wo
= electric energy densities with and without the inserted dielectric
Remark: In solving problems about capacitors, you must determine whether the voltage or the
charge is constant. Here are some common situations:
1. capacitor is directly connected to a battery (or emf source) " implies constant voltage
2. charged capacitor is isolated (i.e. not connected to anything) " implies constant charge

Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 25. CURRENT, RESISTANCE, AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

A. Current
Remarks about conductors (particularly metals):
1. In electrostatics,
a. electric field is zero within the material of the conductor.
b. the free electrons move randomly in all directions within the material of the conductor;
comparable with the motion of gas molecules.
c. there is no net current in the material of the conductor.
2. In electrodynamics,
a. electric field is nonzero within the material of the conductor.
b. the free electrons move with a drift velocity in the opposite direction of the electric field
(aside from the random motion described in 1b).
c. there is a net current in the material of the conductor.
Current
o any motion of charge from one region to another
o rate of flow of charge (i.e. charge flowing per unit time)
o moving charges:
a. metals electrons
b. ionized gas (plasma) electrons, positive ions, negative ions
c. ionic solution electrons, positive ions, negative ions
d. semiconductors electrons, holes (sites of missing electrons)
o direction of current flow = same direction as the electric field in the conductor
= same direction as the flow of positive charge
= opposite direction to the flow of negative charge
o mathematically:
!
d
dQ
I n q v A
dt
= = ; where I = current flowing through an area
dQ = net charge flowing through the area
dt = unit time
n = concentration of the charged particles
(i.e. number of particles per unit volume)
q = charge of the individual particles
v
d
= drift speed of the particles
A = cross-sectional area
NOTES: 1. Current is a scalar; not a vector.
2. SI unit of current is ampere (A) : 1 A = 1 C/s
3. If there are different kinds of moving charges, the total current is the sum of the
currents due to each kind of moving charge.
Current density
o current per unit area
o mathematically:
!
d
J nqv =
!
!
; where J
!
= current density
n = concentration of charged particles
q = charge of the individual particles
d
v
!
= drift velocity of the particles
Physics 72 Arciaga
NOTES: 1. Current density is a vector.
2. Magnitude:
d
J I / A n q v
3. Direction: same direction as the electric field in the conductor (see direction of
current flow described above)
4. SI unit of current density is ampere per meter squared (A/m
2
)
5. If there are different kinds of moving charges, the total current density is the sum of
the current densities due to each kind of moving charge.
Two classifications of current:
1. Direct current direction of current is always the same (i.e. does not change)
2. Alternating current direction of current continuously changes

B. Resistivity

E
J
; where = resistivity of a material
E = magnitude of electric field in the material
J = magnitude of current density in the material
NOTES: 1. Resistivity is a scalar; not a vector.
2. Summary:
a. perfect conductors: = 0
b. (nonperfect) conductors: low
c. insulators: high
d. semiconductors: between conductor and insulator
e. superconductos: = 0 (at temperatures below a critical temperature T
c
)
3. Conductivity reciprocal of resistivity (i.e. = 1/ )
4. A material with high resistivity has low conductivity.

o o
1 T T ! "
# $

; where = resistivity of a conductor at a temperature T
T
o
= reference temperature (usually T
o
= 20
o
C or 0
o
C)

o
= resistivity of the conductor at the reference temperature T
o

= temperature coefficient of resistivity
NOTES: 1. The above equation is an equation of a line.
2. The above equation is only an approximation valid for small temperature range
(usually up to 100
o
C).
3. Summary:
a. most conductors (especially metals): > 0 [i.e. increases if T increases]
b. manganin: = 0 [i.e. does not change with T]
c. graphite: < 0 [i.e. decreases if T increases]
d. semiconductors: < 0 [i.e. decreases if T increases]

C. Resistance

V L
R
I A
; where R = resistance of a conductor
V = potential difference between the ends of the conductor
I = current flowing through the conductor
= resistivity of the conductor
L = length of the conductor
A = (cross-sectional) area of the conductor
Physics 72 Arciaga
NOTES: 1. R = V/I is a definition of resistance for any conductor.
2. SI unit of resistance is ohm (): 1 = 1 V/A
3. SI unit of resistivity is ohmmeter (m): 1 m = 1 Vm/A
( )
o o
R R 1 T T = + ! "
# $

; where R = resistance of a conductor at a temperature T
T
o
= reference temperature (usually T
o
= 20
o
C or 0
o
C)

o
= resistance of the conductor at the reference temperature T
o

= temperature coefficient of resistance
NOTES: 1. The above equation is an equation of a line.
2. The above equation is only an approximation valid for small temperature range
(usually up to 100
o
C).
3. In most conductors, the temp. coeff. of resistivity is equal to the temp. coeff. of
resistance (especially if the length and area do not change much with temp.).
Resistor a circuit element or device that is fabricated with a specific value of resistance
between its ends

D. Ohms law
Ohms law:
o At a given temperature, the current density flowing through a material is nearly directly
proportional to the electric field in that material.
o Mathematically: J E
! !
(or equivalently, I V )
NOTE: This is not actually a law because it is obeyed only by some materials (i.e. not all).
Two classifications of materials:
1. Ohmic material (or linear material)
o material that obeys Ohms law
o ex: resistors, metals, conductors
o at constant temperature, its and R are constant (i.e. do not depend on E
!
or V)
o its I-V curve (i.e. current vs. voltage plot) is a straight line passing through the origin
2. Nonohmic material (or nonlinear material)
o material that does not obey Ohms law
o ex: semiconductors, diodes, transistors
o at constant temperature, its and R vary (i.e. depends on E
!
or V)
o its I-V curve (i.e. current vs. voltage plot) is not a straight line, or a straight line but
does not pass though the origin

E. Circuits
Circuit a path for current
Two classifications:
1. Incomplete circuit
o also called open loop or open circuit
o no steady current will flow through it (i.e. current eventually stops or dies)
2. Complete circuit
o also called closed loop or closed circuit
o a steady current will flow through it (i.e. current does not stop or die)
o needs a source of emf

Physics 72 Arciaga
F. Electromotive force
Electromotive force
o something that can make the current flow from lower to higher potential energy
o abbreviation: emf
o symbol: !
o its not a force; its a potential (i.e. potential energy per unit charge)
o SI unit of emf is volt (V)
Source of emf
o any device that can provide emf (i.e. potential or voltage)
o ex: battery, electric generator, solar cell, fuel cell, etc.
o can transform a particular for of energy (ex: chemical, mechanical, thermal, etc.) into
electric potential energy
o two classifications:
1. ideal source of emf
! no internal resistance
! provides a constant voltage across its terminals (called terminal voltage)
! V
ab
= ! ; where V
ab
= terminal voltage provided by the source of emf
! = emf in the source of emf
2. real (or nonideal) source of emf
! has an internal resistance
! provides a terminal voltage that depends on the current and resistance
! V
ab
= ! Ir
; where V
ab
= terminal voltage provided by the source of emf
! = emf in the source of emf
I = current through the source of emf
r = internal resistance in the source of emf
NOTES: 1. For an ideal source of emf, the terminal voltage is always equal to !.
2. For a real source of emf, the terminal voltage becomes equal to ! only when there is
no current flowing (i.e. open circuit).
Some keywords:
1. Ammeter a device that measures the current passing through it
must be connected in series to a circuit element or device
ideal ammeter = has zero resistance inside (so that there is no potential difference
across its terminals)
2. Voltmeter a device that measures the potential difference (or voltage) across its terminals
must be connected in parallel to a circuit element or device
ideal voltmeter = has infinitely large resistance inside (so that there is no current
passing through it)
3. Short circuit a closed circuit in which the terminals of a source of emf are connected directly
to each other
creates very large current that can damage the devices in the circuit !!!

Physics 72 Arciaga
G. Energy and power in electric circuits
Recall: Power = energy per time = rate of energy change or flow
P = IV ; where P = power delivered to or extracted from a circuit element or device
I = current passing through the device
V = voltage across the terminals (or ends) or the device
NOTES: 1. Power is delivered to a resistor. A resistor dissipates energy (transforms electric
potential energy into thermal energy or heat).
! P = IV = I
2
R = V
2
/R
2. Power can be extracted from a source of emf. A source of emf provides energy
(transforms chemical energy, mechanical energy, fuel energy, etc. into electric
potential energy).
! P = IV = I(! Ir) = I! I
2
r
3. Power can be delivered to a source of emf (ex: charging of batteries).
! P = IV = I(! + Ir) = I! + I
2
r
Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 26. DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS

A. Connections of resistors
Key idea: A connection of several resistors can be replaced by a single resistor with a certain
equivalent resistance (also called effective resistance in other textbooks).

Resistors in series connection
!
eq 1 2 3
R R R R ... = + + +
; where R
eq
= equivalent resistance of a series connection
R
1
, R
2
, R
3
, = resistances of the resistors in the series connection
NOTES: 1. R
eq
is greater than any of R
1
, R
2
, R
3
,
2. I
series
= I
1
= I
2
= I
3
= [i.e. equal currents]
3. V
series
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
+ [i.e. sum of potential differences]

Resistors in parallel connection
!
1
eq
1 2 3
1 1 1
R ...
R R R

! "
= + + +
# $
% &

; where R
eq
= equivalent resistance of a parallel connection
R
1
, R
2
, R
3
, = resistances of the resistors in the parallel connection
NOTES: 1. R
eq
is less than any of R
1
, R
2
, R
3
,
2. I
parallel
= I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
+ [i.e. sum of currents]
3. V
parallel
= V
1
= V
2
= V
3
= [i.e. equal potential differences]

B. Kirchhoffs rules
Keywords:
o Junction (or node) any point in a circuit where three or more conductors meet
o Loop any closed conducting path in a circuit

Kirchhoffs junction rule (or Kirchhoffs current law):
o The algebraic sum of the currents into any junction is zero.
o Mathematically: ! I = 0 (at any junction)
NOTES: 1. This is a consequence of conservation of electric charge.
2. At any junction, I
in
= I
out
.

Kirchhoffs loop rule (or Kirchhoffs voltage law):
o The algebraic sum of the potential differences in any closed loop is zero.
o Mathematically: ! V = 0 (for any closed loop)
NOTES: 1. This is a consequence of conservation of energy.
2. Consider voltage rise and voltage fall carefully.

Problem-solving tips:
1. Usually, you first have to assume the direction of the current in each branch of the circuit. If
the calculated current in the end is positive, then the assumed direction is correct (but if the
calculated current is negative, then the assumed direction is opposite to the correct one).
2. Recall that current flows from high to low potential across a resistor.
3. Using Kirchhoffs rules, setup a number of independent equations equal to the number of
unknowns. Usually, you first apply the junction rule to all the junctions; then, complete the
number of equations by applying the loop rule.
Physics 72 Arciaga
C. R-C circuits
Charging a capacitor:
!
( ) ( )
t / RC t /
F
Q C 1 e Q 1 e

= =
!
t / RC t /
o
dQ
I e I e
dt R

= = =


; where Q and I = charge on and current through the capacitor, respectively
t = time
R and C = resistance and capacitance, respectively
= terminal voltage (of the ideal emf source)
Q
F
= final charge on the capacitor = C
I
o
= initial current = /R
= time constant (or relaxation time) = RC
NOTES: 1. Charge in the capacitor exponentially increases with time:
a. t = 0: Q = 0
b. t = : Q = Q
F
(1 1/e) = 0.63 Q
F

c. t = !: Q = Q
F

2. Current (magnitude) through the capacitor exponentially decreases with time:
a. t = 0: I = I
o

b. t = : I = I
o
/e = 0.37 I
o

c. t = !: I = 0
3. Recall the voltages across the resistor and capacitor: V
R
= IR and V
C
= Q/C
4. Rule of thumb
a. Transient voltage across a charging capacitor is zero if it has no initial charge
" like a short circuit element
b. At steady-state of a fully-charged capacitor, current is zero
" like an open circuit element
Discharging a capacitor:
!
t /
o
Q Q e

=
!
t / RC t / o
o
Q dQ
I e I e
dt RC

= = =
; where Q
o
= initial charge on the capacitor
I
o
= initial current = Q
o
/RC
= time constant (or relaxation time) = RC
NOTES: 1. Charge in the capacitor exponentially decreases with time:
a. t = 0: Q = Q
o

b. t = : Q = Q
o
/e = 0.37 Q
o

c. t = !: Q = 0
2. Current (magnitude) through the capacitor exponentially decreases with time:
a. t = 0: I = I
o

b. t = : I = I
o
/e = 0.37 I
o

c. t = !: I = 0
3. Recall the voltages across the resistor and capacitor: V
R
= IR and V
C
= Q/C
4. Rule of thumb
a. At steady-state of a fully-discharged capacitor, current is zero
" like an open circuit element
Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 27. MAGNETIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC FORCES

In understanding the concepts of magnetism, I strongly suggest that you compare, contrast, or find
analogies with the concepts of electricity (Chaps. 21 and 22).
Please review the cross product (vector product) that you learned from Physics 71 !!!

A. Magnetic pole
Key ideas:
1. A permanent magnet has a north pole and a south pole.
2. North pole repels north pole, but attracts south pole.
South pole repels south pole, but attracts north pole.
3. No experimental evidence of a magnetic monopole. Poles always appear in pairs.
4. A bar magnet sets up a magnetic field.
The earth is a magnet:
! North geographic pole " it is actually (near) a south magnetic pole
! South geographic pole " it is actually (near) a north magnetic pole

B. Magnetic field
Analogy:
1. Electric field ( E
!
)
! produced by electric charges that may be at rest or moving
! exerts an electric force ( F qE =
! !
) on another electric charge that may be at rest or
moving
2. Magnetic field ( B
!
)
! produced by moving electric charges (i.e. current)
! exerts a magnetic force ( F qv B =
! !
!
) on another electric charge that must be moving
Direction of magnetic field:
o same direction where the north pole of the compass needle points to
o for a permanent magnet, the magnetic field points out of its north pole and into its south
pole (but inside the magnet, the field points from the south to the north)
NOTES: 1. SI unit of magnetic field is tesla (T): 1 T = 1 N/Am
2. Another common unit of magnetic field is gauss (G): 1 G = 10
-4
T

C. Magnetic force on a moving charged particle
Mathematically:
! F qv B =
! !
!
; where F
!
= magnetic force on a moving charged particle
q = electric charge of the moving charged particle
v
!
= velocity of the charged particle
B
!
= (external) magnetic field acting on the charged particle
NOTES: 1. Magnetic force is a vector.
! Magnitude: F = |q|v

B = |q|vB

" perpendicular components !!!


! Direction: use right-hand rule " perpendicular to both v
!
and B
!

2. The direction of the magnetic force depends on the sign of q and the directions
of both v
!
and B
!
.
3. Compare with the electric force ( F qE =
! !
).


Physics 72 Arciaga
Implications:
o The magnetic force can never do work on a charged particle.
o The magnetic force can only change the direction but not the magnitude (i.e. speed) of the
velocity of a charged particle.
Remark: When a situation involves both the electric force and the magnetic force, be careful on
how you use the principle of superposition.
o You can add together all electric fields (vector addition)
o You can add together all magnetic fields (vector addition)
o You can add together electric forces and magnetic forces (vector addition)
o Never add electric fields with magnetic fields !!!

D. Magnetic field lines
Key ideas:
! Magnetic field lines represent magnetic field in space.
! Direction: The magnetic field is tangent to the magnetic field line at a particular point.
! Magnitude: The closer (i.e. denser) the magnetic field lines are, the stronger the magnetic
field is at that region.
! Different magnetic field lines do not intersect.
Compare with the concept of electric field lines.
Recall: The north pole of a compass needle points toward the same direction as the magnetic field
at that position.

E. Magnetic flux
Similar idea as the electric flux (
E
). It is like a flow of magnetic field though a surface.
Mathematically:
!
B
B dA B n dA B dA B dA

= = = =
! ! ! !
! ! !

NOTES: 1. Magnetic flux (
B
) is a scalar.
2. Magnetic flux is zero if B
!
is parallel to the surface.
3. Recall the unit normal vector ( n ) and the vector area ( A
!
) " (Chap. 22)
4. SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb): 1 Wb = 1 T!m
2

5. Sometimes the magnetic field is also called magnetic flux density (i.e. flux per
unit area).

F. Gausss law for magnetism
Similar idea as the Gausss law for electrostatics " (Chap. 22)
Mathematically:
!
B
B dA B n dA 0 = = =
! !
! ! !
" "

NOTES: 1. Magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero !!!
2. This is because of the absence (at least experimentally) of magnetic monopole.
3. This implies that magnetic flux lines always form closed loops (but not necessarily
circular loops). A magnetic field line has no end points.


Physics 72 Arciaga
G. Motion of charged particles
Recall the following (from Physics 71):
1. Newtons 2
nd
law: F ma =
!
!
!

2. Circular motion:
2
C
v
a
r
= ; v = r ;
2
2 f
T

= =
Examples:
1. Circular motion
! uniform magnetic field; velocity has perpendicular component only
! cyclotron radius (or Larmor radius or gyroradius) :
mv
r
q B
=
! angular speed :
q B
v
r m
= =
! cyclotron frequency (or Larmor frequency or gyrofrequency):
q B
1
f
2 2 m

= =


2. Helical motion
! uniform magnetic field; velocity has perpendicular and parallel components
! cyclotron radius (or Larmor radius or gyroradius) :
mv
r
q B

= " [v

matters!]
! angular speed :
q B v
r m

= = " [v

matters!]
! cyclotron frequency (or Larmor frequency or gyrofrequency):
q B
1
f
2 2 m

= =


! pitch :
P
m
x v T v 2
q B
= =
" "
" [v
||
matters!]
3. Mirror motion
! non-uniform magnetic field; magnetic mirror (or magnetic bottle) configuration
Some applications:
1. Velocity selector (or velocity filter)
! purpose: to select ions moving with the prescribed velocity
! how: balance the electric force and the magnetic force
! example:
select
E
v
B
=
2. Thomsons e/m experiment
! purpose: to determine the value of e/m
! how: velocity selector with speed determined from conservation of mechanical energy
! example:
2
2
e E
m 2VB
=
3. Mass spectrometer
! purpose: to determine the mass (or the species) of ions assuming |q| is known
! how: cyclotron radius due to a uniform magnetic field
! example:
r q B
m
v
=
Remark: Do NOT memorize the above formulas !!! Just start thinking from the fundamentals and
learn to derive the above formulas.
Physics 72 Arciaga
H. Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor
Straight wire:
! F IL B =
! ! !
; where F
!
= magnetic force on a current-carrying straight wire
I = current flowing through the straight wire
L
!
= vector length (see NOTE 2 below)
B
!
= magnetic field acting on the straight wire
NOTES: 1. This comes from adding the magnetic force ( F qv B =
! !
!
) acting on all the charged
particles in the conductor.
2. L
!
let us call it the vector length:
a. direction: along the wire, same direction as the flow of current
b. magnitude: equal to the length of the straight wire
Any shape:
! F I dL B =
!
! ! !

NOTES: 1. This is a line integral.
2. The integration is done throughout the length of the wire (not necessarily straight).

I. Current loop
Current loop a conductor that forms a loop and has a current flowing through it
Magnetic dipole any object that experiences a magnetic torque
most common example is a current loop
analogy: electric dipole
Magnetic dipole moment property of a magnetic dipole
also called magnetic moment
analogy: electric dipole moment
! IA =
!
!
; where
!
= magnetic dipole moment
I = current flowing through the current loop (i.e. magnetic dipole)
A
!
= vector area
NOTES: 1. Magnetic dipole moment is a vector; same direction as the vector area (see Chap. 22)
2. Direction: use the right-hand rule " curl fingers to the direction of the current
3. Its arrow head is the north pole; while its arrow tail is the south pole.
Torque on a current loop (in a uniform magnetic field)
! B =
!
! !
; where
!
= torque acting on a current loop in a uniform magnetic field

!
= magnetic dipole moment of the current loop
B
!
= magnetic field acting on the current loop
NOTES: 1. Compare with torque on an electric dipole ( p E =
!
! !
).
2. Torque on a magnetic dipole is NOT always zero, but the magnetic force on the
current loop in a uniform magnetic field is always zero.
3. Recall: If both the net force and the net torque on an object are ZERO, then that
object is in EQUILIBRIUM; otherwise, that object is NOT in equilibrium.
Physics 72 Arciaga
Potential energy of a current loop (in a uniform magnetic field)
! U B =
!
!
; where U = potential energy of a current loop in a uniform magnetic field

!
= magnetic dipole moment of the current loop
B
!
= magnetic field acting on the current loop
NOTES: 1. Compare with potential energy of an electric dipole ( U p E =
!
!
).
2. Recall: If the potential energy of an object is a MINIMUM, then that object is in
STABLE equilibrium. But if the potential energy of an object is a MAXIMUM, then
that object is in UNSTABLE equilibrium.
Remark: For multiple loops or conducting coils consisting of several plane loops that are close
together (e.g. solenoid), all the magnetic force, magnetic dipole moment, torque, and potential
energy increase by a factor of N (i.e. number of loops).

Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 28. SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD

Recall:
! Electric field produced by electric charges that may be at rest or moving
! Magnetic field produced by moving electric charges (including current)
Please practice your right-hand rules.

A. Magnetic field of a moving point charge with constant velocity

o
2
qv r
B
4 r

=

!
!
; where B
!
= magnetic field of a moving point charge with constant velocity
q = electric charge of the moving point charge
v
!
= velocity of the point charge
r = distance from the point charge
r = unit vector (indicates direction)

o
= permeability of free space (permeability of vacuum)
NOTES: 1. This expression is valid only for constant velocity (or approximately constant).
2. This is an inverse square law.
3.
o
= 410
-7
Tm/A
4. If there are more than two moving point charges, use the principle of superposition of
magnetic fields. Use vector addition (not scalar addition).

B. Magnetic field of an infinitesimal current element

o
2
I dL r
dB
4 r

=

!
!
; where B
!
= magnetic field of an infinitesimal current element
I = current through the current element
dL
!
= infinitesimal vector length
NOTES: 1. This is called the Biot-Savart law.
2. This is used for infinitesimal current element only.
3. To find the total magnetic field of a current element of any shape:
!
o
2
I dL r
B dB
4 r

= =

! !
!
! !

! The integration is done over the entire length of the current element.

C. Amperes law

o enc
B dL I =
!
! !
"
; where I
enc
= net current enclosed by the integration path
NOTES: 1. This is a line integral for a closed path.
2. The sign of the current is determined by the right-hand rule.
3. Only enclosed current matters.
4. Compare with Gausss law:
enc
o
Q
E dA =

!
! !
"

How to use Amperes law:
1. Very useful only for highly symmetrical situations.
2. Create a closed path for integration; this path is usually imaginary.
3. Assign a direction for the integration along the path.
4. Determine the net enclosed current; be careful with the proper signs.
5. Use Amperes law to determine the magnetic field.
Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 29. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

A. Electromagnetic induction
Key idea: When the magnetic flux through a circuit or loop changes, then an emf and current are
induced in the circuit or loop.
Keywords: electromagnetic induction, induced emf, induced current

B. Faradays law
The induced emf in a closed loop equals the negative of the time rate of change of magnetic flux
through the loop.
Mathematically: !
B
d
dt

=
; where ! = induced emf in the circuit or loop

B
= magnetic flux through the circuit or loop
d
B
/dt = rate of change of the magnetic flux
Remarks:
1. ! depends on the change of
B
only. ! [independent of the material of the circuit]
2. Induced current depends on ! (hence
B
) and resistance (since I = !/R). ! [depends on the
material of the circuit]
3. Recall:
B AB
B A BAcos = =
! !
! It can be possibly changed by the following:
a) Changing magnitude of B
b) Changing magnitude of A
c) Changing angle between B and A
! !
(i.e. orientation)
4. ! is larger if the rate of change of
B
is faster.
5. The sign is related to the polarity of ! ! related to right-hand rule and Lenzs law
6. To know the polarity of !, it is important to know whether
B
is increasing or decreasing.
7. For a coil with N identical loops or turns under the same change of
B
, the ! = N(d
B
/dt).

C. Lenzs law
The direction of any magnetic induction effect is such as to oppose the cause of the effect.
Remarks:
1. If
B
increases ! d
B
/dt is positive ! ! is negative
If
B
increases ! ! must create an induced magnetic field to decrease
B
!!!
2. If
B
decreases ! d
B
/dt is negative ! ! is positive
If
B
decreases ! ! must create an induced magnetic field to increase
B
!!!
3. Right-hand rule must be utilized.

D. Motional electromotive force
Key idea: When a conductor (either loop or not) moves through a region of magnetic field, then
an emf can be induced on the conductor depending on the orientation of the magnetic field,
conductor, and its motion.
Keyword: motional emf
d!
( )
v B dL =
! !
!
; where d! = motional emf produced on the conductor
v
!
= velocity of the conductor
B
!
= (external) magnetic field
dL
!
= infinitesimal vector length of the conductor
Physics 72 Arciaga
Remarks:
1. d! may be zero or nonzero depending on the orientation of v, B, and dL
! !
!
.
2. For a closed conducting loop (i.e. conductor is part of closed circuit):
! !
( )
v B dL =
!
! !
!
"
" [closed line integral over the entire loop]
3. This is actually an alternate form of Faradays law for the case of moving conductors.
4. Motional emf is just a special case of induced emf for the case of moving conductors.

E. Induced electric fields
Key idea: When the magnetic flux through a stationary loop changes, then an electric field is
induced in that loop.
Keyword: induced electric field

B
d
E dL
dt

= =
!
! !
"
!
; where d
B
/dt = rate of change of the magnetic flux through a stationary loop
E
!
= induced electric field produced in the loop
dL
!
= infinitesimal vector length along the loop
! = induced emf on the loop
Remarks:
1. The above expression is actually an alternate form of Faradays law for the case of changing
magnetic flux through stationary conductors.
2. The induced emf has an associated induced electric field.
3. Changing magnetic field creates an electric field !!!
4. Two classifications of electric field:
a) Electrostatic field (also called conservative electric field)
- electric field produced by stationary charge distributions
- conservative
- causes an electric force qE
!

b) Nonelectrostatic field (also called nonconservative electric field)
- induced electric field produced by changing magnetic flux
- nonconservative
- causes an electric force qE
!


F. Generalized Amperes law
Displacement current:
!
E
D o
d
I
dt

= ; where I
D
= displacement current through a region

E
= electric flux through the region
d
E
/dt = rate of change of
E
through the region
NOTES: 1. Fictitious current invented by Maxwell to correct or complete Amperes law and
to satisfy Kirchhoffs junction rule.
2. No actual flow of charged particles in a displacement current.
3. For distinction, current with flow of charged particles is called conduction current.
4. Changing electric flux has an associated displacement current.
5. Example: in the region between the plates of a charging capacitor
6. Displacement current can produce a magnetic field just like the conduction current.
7. Changing electric field creates a magnetic field !!!

Physics 72 Arciaga
Generalized Amperes law:
!
( )
o C,enc D,enc
B dL I I = +
!
! !
"
; where I
C,enc
= enclosed conduction current
I
D,enc
= enclosed displacement current

G. Maxwells equations of electromagnetism
These are not new equations. They were just summarized neatly by Maxwell to emphasize their
significance, particularly in building the idea of electromagnetic wave.
Maxwells four equations for electromagnetism:
1. Gausss law for electric fields:
!
enc
o
Q
E dA =

!
! !
"

! Implications:
o static charges create an electric field (i.e. conservative electric field)
o electric field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges
o Coulombs law can be derived from the above expression
2. Gausss law for magnetic fields:
! B dA 0 =
!
! !
"

! Implications:
o magnetic monopoles do not exist
o magnetic field lines have no start and end (i.e. they are closed loops)
3. Amperes law with Maxwells correction:
!
( )
E
o C,enc D,enc o C,enc o
enc
d
B dL I I I
dt
" # $ %
= + = +
& ' ( )
* +
, -
!
! !
"

! Implications:
o moving charges (i.e. conducton currents) create a magnetic field
o varying electric fields create a magnetic field
o Biot-Savart law can be derived from the above expression
4. Faradays law:
!
B
d
E dL
dt

=
!
! !
"

! Implication:
o varying magnetic fields create an electric field (i.e. nonconservative electric
field)
Amazing remark: Equations 1 and 2 look similar!!! Equations 3 and 4 look similar!!!

Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 30. INDUCTANCE

Recall the concept of electromagnetic induction (Chap. 29).

A. Mutual inductance
Key idea: A time-varying current in a coil (or circuit) causes an induced emf and induced current
in another coil (or circuit), depending on their mutual inductance.
Keywords: mutual inductance, mutually-induced emf
Mutual inductance:
!
B2 B1
2 1
1 2
M N N
I I

= =
; where M = mutual inductance (between coils 1 and 2)
N
1
, N
2
= number of turns of coils 1 and 2, respectively

B1
,
B2
= magnetic flux through each turn of coils 1 and 2, respectively
I
1
, I
2
= current in coils 1 and 2, respectively
NOTES: 1. Mutual inductance is scalar.
2. It is a shared property of two separated and independent coils (i.e. M = M
12
= M
21
).
3. Depends on the geometry of the 2 coils (i.e. size, shape, number of turns, orientation,
and separation) and the core material enclosed by the coils (vacuum, air, iron, etc.)
4. Independent of the current.
5. SI unit of mutual inductance is henry (H):
1 H = 1 Wb/A = 1 Vs/A = 1 s = 1 J/A
2

6. High mutual inductance means that the 2 coils highly affect each other.
Mutually-induced emf:
! !
2
1
dI
M
dt
=
! !
1
2
dI
M
dt
=
; where !
1
, !
2
= mutually-induced emf in coils 1 and 2, respectively
M = mutual inductance (between coils 1 and 2)
I
1
, I
2
= current in coils 1 and 2, respectively

B. Self-inductance and inductors
Key idea: A time-varying current in a coil (or circuit) causes an induced emf and induced current
in itself, depending on its self-inductance.
Keywords: self-inductance, self-induced emf
Self-inductance:
!
B
L N
I

=
; where L = self-inductance (of a coil)
N = number of turns of the coil

B
= magnetic flux through each turn of the coil
I = current in the coil
NOTES: 1. Self-inductance is scalar.
2. It is a self property of a single coil.
3. Depends on the geometry of the coil (i.e. size, shape, number of turns) and the core.
4. Independent of the current.
5. SI unit of self-inductance is the same as that of mutual inductance.
Physics 72 Arciaga
Self-induced emf:
! !

dI
L
dt
=
; where ! = self-induced emf in a coil
L = self-inductance (of the coil)
I = current in the coil
Inductor:
o a circuit device that is designed to have a particular inductance (i.e. self-inductance)
o also called choke
o opposes any variation of current through the circuit
o voltage across an inductor depends on the time-rate of change of the current
!
dI
V L
dt
=
; where V = voltage across an inductor (i.e. V
entry
V
exit
)
L = inductance of the inductor
dI/dt = time-rate of change of the current through the inductor
NOTES: 1. V is zero if dI/dt is zero (i.e. constant current).
2. V is either a rise or a drop depending on the sign of dI/dt (i.e. whether the current is
increasing or decreasing).

C. Magnetic-field energy
Inductors can store magnetic-field energy (or simply magnetic energy).
Magnetic-field energy:
!
2
1
U LI
2
= ; where U = magnetic energy stored in an inductor
L = inductance of the inductor
I = current through the inductor
NOTES: 1. Energy in the inductor is constant if the current is constant.
2. The inductor is storing energy while the current is increasing.
3. The inductor is releasing energy while the current is decreasing.
4. Compare with a capacitor that can store or release electric-field energy (U = Q
2
/C).
5. Compare with a resistor that always dissipates energy.
Magnetic energy density:
!
2
o
U 1 B
u
volume 2
= =

; where u = magnetic energy density in an inductor


B = magnetic field produced by the inductor
NOTES: 1. Energy stored in an inductor is proportional to the square of the magnetic field.
2. Compare with the electric energy density of a capacitor (u =
o
E
2
).

Physics 72 Arciaga
D. The R-L circuit
Time constant for an R-L circuit
!
L
R
= ; where = time constant of an R-L circuit
L = inductance of the inductor
R = resistance of the resistor
! High slow growth or decay of current
! Low fast growth or decay of current
Current growth in an RL circuit (if connected with an emf source):
! Exponential increase
o t = 0 ! I = 0 and dI/dt = !/L
o t = ! I = 0.63 I
max

o t = ! I = I
max
and dI/dt = 0
! Rule of thumb
o Transient current through a charging inductor is zero if it has no initial current
" like an open circuit element
o At steady-state of a fully-charged inductor, current is constant and voltage is zero
" like a short circuit element
Current decay in an RL circuit (if disconnected from an emf source):
! Exponential decrease
o t = 0 ! I = I
max
and dI/dt = I
max
R/L
o t = ! I = 0.37 I
max

o t = ! I = 0 and dI/dt = 0
! Rule of thumb
o At steady-state of a fully-discharged inductor, current and voltage is zero
" like a short circuit element but no current
Remark: Compare the above situations with that of the R-C circuit (Chap. 26).

E. The L-C circuit
Key ideas:
a. Electrical oscillation happens in an L-C circuit.
i. Charge and current oscillate back and forth " the oscillation is sinusoidal in time
ii. Total energy is conserved; but energy transforms from electric-field energy to
magnetic-field energy back and forth " the oscillation is sinusoidal-squared
iii. When charge is full, current is zero. When current is full, charge is zero.
b. Analogous to a mechanical oscillation (review your Physics 71).
i. Position and velocity oscillate sinusoidally " simple harmonic motion
ii. Total energy is conserved; but energy transforms from potential energy to kinetic
energy back and forth
iii. For more interesting analogies, see Table 30.1 of Young (but this is OPTIONAL).
Angular frequency of the electrical oscillation.
!
1
LC
= ; where = angular frequency of an L-C electrical oscillation
L = inductance of the inductor
C = capacitance of the capacitor
NOTES: 1. Recall from Physics 71: T = 2/ and f = /2.
2. High L ! slow oscillation [and Low L ! fast oscillation]
3. High C ! slow oscillation [and Low C ! fast oscillation]
Physics 72 Arciaga

F. The L-R-C circuit
Key ideas:
a. Resistance is analogous to friction; they both dissipate energy.
b. Damped electrical oscillation happens in an L-R-C circuit.
c. Analogous to the damped mechanical oscillation (review Physics 71).
Three cases:
1. Underdamped
! happens for low R (i.e. R 2 L C < )
! charge and current still oscillate
! but they die with an exponential decay envelope
! increasing R causes slower oscillation but quicker death
2. Critically damped
! happens at moderate R (i.e. R 2 L C = )
! charge and current do not oscillate
! they die the quickest possible way
3. Overdamped
! happens for high R (i.e. R 2 L C > )
! charge and current do not oscillate
! they die slower compared to the critically damped case
! increasing R causes slower death
Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 31. ALTERNATING CURRENT

Start thinking or visualizing sinusoidal graphs. This skill will help you a lot!

A. Alternating current
Alternating current (ac) direction of the current continuously changes
AC source any device that supplies a sinusoidally varying voltage or current
! V = V
max
cost
! I = I
max
cost
; where V and I = instantaneous voltage and current, respectively
V
max
and I
max
= voltage and current amplitudes, respectively
= angular frequency
t = time
Example: In the Philippines, f = 60 Hz (i.e. = 377 rad/s).
Phasors
o rotating vectors that can be used to represent sinusoidally carrying voltages and currents
o they are only geometric tools for easier analysis of ac circuits
o characteristics:
! a phasor rotates counterclockwise with a constant angular speed ()
! length of a phasor is equal to the amplitude value (V
max
or I
max
)
! projection of a phasor onto the horizontal axis is the instantaneous value (V or I)
! angular displacement of the phasor is t after an elapsed time t
o key idea: When using phasor diagram for ac circuit analysis, it is just like performing
vector addition but taking the x-component of the final answer.
Average values:
1. Root-mean-square value (rms value)
!
max
rms
V
V
2
=
!
max
rms
I
I
2
=
; where V
rms
and I
rms
= rms values of voltage and current, respectively
V
max
and I
max
= voltage and current amplitudes, respectively
Example: In the Philippines, V
rms
= 110 V or 220 V (i.e. V
max
= 156 V or 311 V).
2. Rectified average value (rav)
!
rav max
2
V V =


!
rav max
2
I I =


; where V
rav
and I
rav
= rav of voltage and current, respectively
V
max
and I
max
= voltage and current amplitudes, respectively
NOTES: 1. rms value is more commonly used instead of rav.
2. Some quick guides:
a. ave. value of (A sint) or (A cost) over a period is zero.
b. ave. value of (A sint) or (A cost) over a quarter-period is 2A/.
c. ave. value of (A
2
sin
2
t) or (A
2
cos
2
t) over a period is A
2
.
d. ave. value of (A cost sint) over a period is zero.
Physics 72 Arciaga
B. Resistance and reactance
General forms:
! I = I
max
cos(t)
! V = V
max
cos(t + )
! V
max
= I
max
X
! V
rms
= I
rms
X
; where = phase angle
X = resistance or reactance (SI unit is ohm)
NOTE: The phase angle is the angle of the voltage phasor with respect to the current phasor.
Resistor:
! I = I
max
cos(t)
! V = IR = I
max
R

cos(t)
! V
max
= I
max
R
NOTES: 1. = 0
o
" voltage is in phase with the current
2. X
R
= R " resistance
3. does not affect R
Inductor:
! I = I
max
cos(t)
!
o
max
dI
V L I Lcos( t 90 )
dt
= = +
! V
max
= I
max
L
NOTES: 1. = 90
o
" voltage is out of phase with the current
" voltage leads the current by 90
o

2. X
L
= L " inductive reactance
3. ! X
L
! I
max
" inductor hates high and loves low
Capacitor:
! I = I
max
cos(t)
!
o max
I Q
V cos( t 90 )
C C
= =


!
max
max
I
V
C
=


NOTES: 1. = 90
o
" voltage is out of phase with the current
" voltage lags the current by 90
o

2.
C
1
X
C
=

" capacitive reactance


3. ! X
C
! I
max
" capacitor loves high and hates low

Physics 72 Arciaga
C. The L-R-C series circuit
Recall the properties of a series connection:
a. I
L
= I
R
= I
C
= I
source
! instantaneous currents are equal (not amplitude)
b. V
L
+ V
R
+ V
C
= V
source
! instantaneous voltages are added (not amplitude)
Apply the phasor diagram analysis.
Some important relations:
" V
max
= I
max
Z
"
2 2
L C
Z R (X X ) = +
" X
L
= L
"
C
1
X
C
=


"
1 L C
X X
tan
R

! "
=
# $
% &

; where Z = impedance of the ac circuit (SI unit is ohm)
= phase angle
NOTES: 1. R, X
L
, X
C
, and Z are analogous. They are all measures of resistance to current flow.
2. If X
L
> X
C
, then > 0 (i.e. the voltage leads the current)
3. If X
L
< X
C
, then < 0 (i.e. the voltage lags the current)
4. If X
L
= X
C
, then = 0 (i.e. the voltage is in phase with the current)
and resonance occurs ( see Section E).

D. Power in ac circuits
Instantaneous power
" P = IV ; where P, I, and V = instantaneous power, current, and voltage, respectively
Average power
" P
ave
= I
max
V
max
cos = I
rms
V
rms
cos
P
ave
= average power
V
max
and I
max
= voltage and current amplitudes, respectively
V
rms
and I
rms
= rms values of voltage and current, respectively
= phase angle
NOTES: 1. cos is called the power factor of the ac circuit.
2. For a pure resistor R connected to an ac source:
cos = 1

2
2 rms
ave max max rms rms rms
V 1
P I V I V = I R
2 R
= = =
3. For a pure inductor L or a pure capacitor C connected to an ac source:
cos = 0
P
ave
= 0
4. For a series L-R-C circuit connected to an ac source:
cos = R/Z

2 2
ave max max rms rms rms rms
2
1 R R R
P I V I V = I R V
2 Z Z Z
= = =




Physics 72 Arciaga
E. Resonance in a series L-R-C circuit
Key ideas:
1. If a series L-R-C circuit is connected to an ac source, then there will be an electrical driven
oscillation. (Analogous to the mechanical driven oscillation in Physics 71.)
2. If a series L-R-C circuit is connected to an ac source, electrical resonance can occur if the
frequency of the source is the same as the natural frequency of the series L-R-C circuit.
(Analogous to the mechanical resonance in Physics 71.)
Conditions for resonance in a series L-R-C circuit
1. X
L
= X
C

2.
source natural
1
LC
= =
What happens at resonance
1. Z is minimum (i.e. Z = R).
2. I
max
is largest (i.e. I
max
= V
max
/R).

F. Transformers
Transformer device that employs the idea of electromagnetic induction to step-up or step-down
the voltage amplitudes from a primary coil to a secondary coil.
Important parts of a transformer:
1. Primary coil or winding connects to an ac source
2. Secondary coil or winding connects to a circuit or device
3. Core (usually iron) ensures that almost all magnetic field lines from primary coil pass
through the secondary coil
Important relations:
!
max,2
2
max,1 1
V
N
V N
=
! V
max,2
I
max,2
= V
max,1
I
max,1

; where V
max,1
and V
max,2
= voltage amplitudes in the primary and secondary coils,
respectively
I
max,1
and I
max,2
= current amplitudes in the primary and secondary coils,
respectively
N
1
and N
2
= number of turns in the primary and secondary coils,
respectively
NOTES: 1. The first relation comes from Faradays law.
! For constant flux change, turns ! induced emf
2. The second relation comes from conservation of energy.
! For constant power, voltage ! current
3. Step-up transformer:
! V
max,2
> V
max,1
N
2
> N
1
and I
max,2
< I
max,1

4. Step-down transformer:
! V
max,2
< V
max,1
N
2
< N
1
and I
max,2
> I
max,1

Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 32. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Review the key concepts about mechanical waves (Physics 71)
Important: Review the Maxwells equations and its implications (Chap. 29)

A. Electromagnetic waves
Wave
o transports disturbance, energy, and momentum from one region to another
o speed of the wave: v = f ; where v = speed of a wave
= wavelength of the wave
f = frequency of the wave
Electromagnetic wave (EM wave)
o also called electromagnetic radiation
o a wave that can propagate even when there is no matter (i.e. vacuum) or no medium
o predicted by the four Maxwells equations
o consists of time-varying electric and magnetic fields (i.e. waving electric and magnetic
fields)
o produced by accelerating charges (e.g. transmitter antenna)
General characteristics of electromagnetic wave (as predicted by Maxwells equations)
o speed in vacuum
!
o o
1
c =

= 3.0010
8
m/s ; where c = speed of EM wave in vacuum

o
= permittivity of free space or vacuum

o
= permeability of free space or vacuum
o speed in matter (i.e. not vacuum) or medium
!
1 c
v
n
= =

; where v = speed of EM wave in a medium


c = speed of EM wave in vacuum
= permittivity of the medium
= permeability of the medium
n = index of refraction of the medium
! Remarks:
v ! c " nothing is faster than c
n " 1 " index of refraction is a property of matter
EM waves slow down when moving in a medium
commonly, for EM waves in a medium, replace
o
,
o
, and c
by , , and v, respectively
o transverse wave
! the electric field, magnetic field, and direction of propagation of the EM wave are
all perpendicular to each other
! E B
! !
points the direction of propagation of the EM wave
o definite ratio of amplitude
! E = cB ; where E = magnitude of the electric field
B = magnitude of the magnetic field
c = speed of EM wave in vacuum
! Remark:
E >> B " magnitude of the magnetic field is usually small
Physics 72 Arciaga
B. Energy and momentum in electromagnetic waves
Energy
o Poynting vector in vacuum
!
o
1
S E B =

! ! !
; where S
!
= Poynting vector of the EM wave in vacuum
E and B
! !
= electric and magnetic fields, respectively
! Remarks:
Poynting vector points toward the direction of propagation of the EM wave
S = EB/
o
since the E and B
! !
are perpendicular in an EM wave
significance of Poynting vector:
o energy flowing per unit time per unit area
o power transfer per unit area
o
1 dU
S
A dt
=
o Intensity of sinusoidal EM wave in vacuum
!
ave max max max
o
1 1
I S S E B
2 2
= = =


; where I = intensity of the sinusoidal EM wave in vacuum
S
ave
= average Poynting vector
S
max
= maximum Poynting vector
E
max
= electric field amplitude
B
max
= magnetic field amplitude
! Remark:
significance of intensity:
o average energy flowing per unit time per unit area
o average power transfer per unit area
o
ave
1 dU
I
A dt
! "
=
# $
% &

Momentum
o Radiation pressure of EM wave if totally absorbed
!
ave
rad
S I
p
c c
= = ; where p
rad
= radiation pressure by an absorbed EM wave
o Radiation pressure of EM wave if totally reflected
!
ave
rad
2S 2I
p
c c
= = ; where p
rad
= radiation pressure by a reflected EM wave
! Remarks:
significance of radiation pressure:
o average rate of momentum transfer per unit area
o average force per unit area
o
rad ave
ave
1 dp 1
p F
A dt A
! "
= =
# $
% &

larger force is imparted by the EM wave to a surface it hits when it is
reflected than when it is absorbed by the surface



Physics 72 Arciaga
C. Electromagnetic spectrum

Categories Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (m) Applications
Radiowave !310
8
"1 radio (AM, FM), TV (UHF, VHF)
Microwave ~310
8
-10
12
~10
-4
-1 cellphone, oven, radar, wi-fi
Infrared ~310
11
-10
15
~10
-7
-10
-3
camera focusing, stove, heat sensor
Visible light
Red ~405-48010
12
~625-74010
-9

Orange ~480-51010
12
~590-62510
-9

Yellow ~510-53010
12
~565-59010
-9

Green ~530-60010
12
~500-56510
-9

Blue ~600-70010
12
~430-50010
-9

Violet ~700-79010
12
~380-43010
-9

Ultraviolet ~310
15
-10
17
~10
-9
-10
-7
high-precision apps, eye surgery
X ray ~310
16
-10
21
~10
-13
-10
-8
x-ray imaging, crystal structure analysis
Gamma ray "310
18
!10
-10
cancer treatment, sterilization

Remarks:
o for any EM wave, v = f always
o in general, EM waves with higher frequency have shorter wavelengths
o v = c = 310
8
m/s if EM wave moves in vacuum
o some categories overlap in the spectrum
o in general, EM waves with higher frequency have higher energy ! Physics 73
o the range of values in the table above are just approximate values

Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 33. THE NATURE AND PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

Optics branch of physics that deals with the behavior of light and other EM waves
Geometric optics focuses on ray analysis of light
Physical optics focuses on wave behavior of light

A. The nature of light
Light
o usually refers to the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
o has a wave-particle duality (i.e. possesses both wave-like and particle-like properties)
o particle-like appropriate when discussing the emission and absorption of light
! Plato, Socrates, Euclid, Newton, Einstein
o wave-like appropriate when discussing the propagation of light
! Huygens, Maxwell, Hertz, Young, Fresnel, Fraunhofer
Some keywords to describe wave propagation
a. wave front locus of all adjacent points at which the phase of the wave is the same
distance between two adjacent wave fronts is equal to the wavelength
b. spherical wave produced by a point source
represented by spherical wave fronts centered at the point source
c. plane wave produced by a very far point source
represented by plane wave fronts
d. ray an imaginary line that indicates the direction of propagation of the wave
perpendicular to the wave fronts
Huygens principle
o Geometrical method to determine the succeeding wave front from the preceding wave front
o Every point of a wave front may be considered the source of secondary wavelets that
spread out in all directions with a speed equal to the speed of propagation of the wave.

B. Reflection and refraction
Key idea: light can be partially reflected and partially transmitted (refracted) at an interface
between two media (i.e. materials) with different indexes of refraction
Some keywords:
a. incident ray ray that describes the wave coming to the interface
b. reflected ray ray that describes the wave reflected from the interface
c. refracted ray ray that describes the (bent) wave transmitted through the interface
Types of reflection
1. specular reflection well-directed reflection from a smooth surface
2. diffused reflection scattered reflection from a rough surface
Index of refraction (or refractive index)
o recall: n = c/v " see Chap. 32
o dimensionless number that describes the medium
o for vacuum, n =1
o for air, n = 1.0003 (i.e. n 1)
o in general, n ! 1
o affects the speed, direction, and wavelength of the wave (but not the frequency)
! high n, low speed [v = c/n]
! high n, short wavelength [ =
vacuum
/n]


Physics 72 Arciaga
Law of reflection
o
i
=
r
; where
i
and
r
= angle of incidence and angle of reflection, respectively
o Remarks
! angles are measured between the ray and the normal (i.e. perpendicular to surface)
! reflected ray is at the same angle as the incident ray
! also, the incident ray, reflected ray, and normal all lie in the same plane
Law of refraction
o n
i
sin
i
= n
t
sin
t

; where
i
and
t
= angle of incidence and angle of refraction, respectively
n
i
= index of refraction of primary medium (incident side)
n
t
= index of refraction of secondary medium (refracted side)
o Remarks
! angles are measured between the ray and the normal (i.e. perpendicular to surface)
! refracted ray is bent with respect to the incident ray
a. bends toward the normal if light moves from low n to high n
b. bends away from the normal if light moves from high n to low n
! also, the incident ray, refracted ray, and normal all lie in the same plane

C. Total internal reflection (TIR)
Key idea: light can be totally reflected at an interface between two materials even if the second
medium is transparent
Critical angle
o
t
crit
i
n
sin
n
= ; where
crit
= critical angle for TIR
o Remarks
! Two necessary conditions for TIR to happen
a. n of primary medium is greater than n of second medium [n
i
> n
t
]
b. angle of incidence is greater than or equal to the critical angle [
i
!
crit
]
! If TIR happens, then there is no refracted (transmitted) ray

D. Dispersion
Dispersion dependence of the index of refraction on the wavelength (in vacuum) of the wave
Dispersion curve plot showing the dependence of n on
vacuum
[n vs.
vacuum
curve]
Key idea: ordinary white light, which is composed of EM waves with different wavelengths, can
be separated into its different colors by dispersion (e.g. prism dispersion)
Remarks
o
vacuum
determines n, and n determines v
o If n decreases as
vacuum
increases, then
! long are faster than short [recall: =
vacuum
/n]
! long have smaller deviation than short
o If n increases as
vacuum
increases, then
! long are slower than short [recall: =
vacuum
/n]
! long have larger deviation than short
Physics 72 Arciaga
Rainbow formation
o dispersion + refraction + reflection
o primary rainbow
! single reflection inside the water droplet
! bright, but thin
! red has larger radius than violet
o secondary rainbow
! double reflection inside the water droplet
! thick, but faint
! violet has larger radius than red (i.e. reverse order of primary rainbow)

E. Polarization
Tip: When thinking about polarization, it helps a lot if you will imagine about components of an
oscillating or rotating vector (in this case, the vector is the electric field)
Polarization characteristic of all transverse waves
for EM waves, it describes the direction of oscillation of the electric field
this is different from the polarization you learned in Chap. 21
Unpolarized light (or natural light) light with no polarization (i.e. random direction)
Types of polarization
1. linearly polarized
! electric field oscillates along a line
! can be composed of two perpendicular wave components with phase difference
equal to 0 or
2. circularly polarized
! tip of electric field traces a circle [looks like a rotating helix]
a. right circularly polarized clockwise rotation (as viewed opposite to
direction of propagation)
b. left circularly polarized counterclockwise rotation (as viewed opposite to
direction of propagation)
! can be composed of two perpendicular wave components with same amplitude and
phase difference equal to /2 [i.e. quarter-cycle or quarter-wave difference]
3. elliptically polarized
! tip of electric field traces an ellipse [looks like a rotating distorted helix]
! can be composed of two perpendicular wave components with same amplitude and
phase difference NOT equal to 0, , or /2
! can be composed of two perpendicular wave components with different amplitudes
and phase difference NOT equal to 0 or
Methods of polarization
1. radiowave: a straight antenna creates a linearly polarized radiowave
2. radiowave: two perpendicular straight antennas with a phase-shifting network can create
circularly or elliptically polarized radiowave
3. microwave: a grill-like array of conducting wires can transform any microwave into
linearly polarized microwave
4. light: a quarter-wave plate birefringent material can transform a linearly polarized light to
a circularly polarized light, and vice-versa
! birefringent a material with different indexes of refraction for different directions
of polarization (e.g. calcite)
! birefringence behavior of birefringent materials
Physics 72 Arciaga
5. light: a polarizing filter (or polarizer) composed of a dichroic material can transform any
light into linearly polarized light
! dichroic a material which absorbs a particular direction of polarization (e.g.
Polaroids in sunglasses and cameras)
! dichroism behavior of dichroic materials
! polarizing axis the orientation of the transmitted linearly polarized light
6. light: reflection can cause partial or total polarization of light
! key idea: the component of the electric field parallel to the interface is reflected
MORE than the non-parallel component
! Brewsters law for the polarizing angle

t
pol
i
n
tan
n
=
; where
pol
= polarizing angle
n
i
= index of refraction of primary medium (incident side)
n
t
= index of refraction of secondary medium (refracted side)
If incident angle is equal to the polarizing angle, then
a. reflected ray is completely linearly polarized parallel to the interface
b. refracted ray is partially linearly polarized non-parallel to the interface
c. reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other
Intensity after polarization
o When an unpolarized light passes through a single polarizer, the intensity of the
transmitted linearly polarized light is halved
! I
line
= I
unpol

o When a circularly polarized light passes through a single polarizer, the intensity of the
transmitted linearly polarized light is halved
! I
line
= I
circ

o When a linearly polarized light passes through another polarizer, the intensity of the
transmitted linearly polarized light depends on the orientation of the polarizing axis
! I
out
= I
in
cos
2
; where = angle between the directions of the incident
linearly polarized light and the polarizing axis
I
in
= intensity of the incident light
I
out
= intensity of the transmitted light
! Remarks
The above equation is called Maluss law.
It can be used successively for a series of 2 or more polarizers.
A series of 2 polarizers is usually called a polarizer-analyzer setup.
If the 2 polarizing axes are aligned, then I
out
= I
in
.
If the 2 polarizing axes are perpendicular, then I
out
= 0.

F. Scattering of light
Scattering when light is absorbed and then re-radiated to different directions
Key idea: long wavelength is less scattered
o
scattered
4
1
I


o The above relation is called Rayleighs scattering law
Explains why the sky is blue, sunsets are red, and clouds are white

Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 34. GEOMETRIC OPTICS

Geometric optics focuses on the ray analysis of light
Review ray model of light, law of reflection, and law of refraction (Chap.33)

A. Keywords
Object
o Point object
o Extended object can be thought of as composed of numerous point objects

o Real object when the light actually passes through the object
o Virtual object does not actually pass
Image
o Point image
o Extended image can be thought of as formed by numerous point images

o Real image when the light actually passes through the image ! can be seen on a screen
o Virtual image does not actually pass ! cannot be seen on a screen
Location
o Object distance distance of the object from the mirror, surface, or lens
o Image distance image
Magnification (lateral)
o Magnified / Enlarged when the image is larger than the lateral size of the object
o Reduced / Diminished / Minified smaller
Orientation
o Erect / Upright when the image is in the same lateral direction as the object
o Inverted opposite lateral direction
o Reversed opposite axial direction
Plane surface
Spherical surface
o Center of curvature
o Radius of curvature
o Vertex
o Optic axis axis connecting the vertex and the center of curvature
o Focal point location where light seems to converge/diverge due to the mirror or lens
o Focal length distance between the focal point and the mirror or lens
Spherical mirror
o Converging mirror / Concave mirror
o Diverging mirror / Convex mirror
Thin lens
o Converging lens / Positive lens
" Double-convex
" Plano-convex
" Meniscus
o Diverging lens / Negative lens
" Double-concave
" Plano-concave
" Meniscus

Physics 72 Arciaga
B. Principal-ray diagram
Principal rays
1. center ray no deviation through center
2. vertex ray at vertex, equal angle with optic axis
3. parallel ray parallel then to/away from focal point
4. focal ray focal point then parallel
NOTES:
o Key idea: Find the intersection of the principal rays to locate the image of the object.
o Warning: Find the intersection of the outgoing parts of the rays !!! [not with the incoming]
o Generally, two rays are enough.
o Valid approximation only for cases involving paraxial rays (i.e. close and nearly parallel to
the optic axis) ! usually called paraxial approximation
C. Sign rules
Object distance
o Positive if object is on the same side as the incoming light (i.e. real object)
o Negative opposite side (i.e. virtual object)
Image distance
o Positive if image is on the same side as the outgoing light (i.e. real image)
o Negative opposite side (i.e. virtual image)
Radius of curvature
o Positive if center of curvature is on the same side as the outgoing light
o Negative opposite side
Focal length
o Positive if the mirror or lens is converging
o Negative diverging
Magnification
o Positive if the image is erect
o Negative inverted

D. Reflection at a plane or spherical surface (including mirror)
Basic equations
o Object-image relation
"
1 1 2 1
s s ' R f
+ = =
o Magnification
"
y' s '
m
y s
= =
; where s, s = object and image distance, respectively
R = radius of curvature
f = focal length
m = magnification
y, y = (lateral) height of the object and image, respectively
o NOTES:
" Follow the sign rules properly !!! [see Section C]
" The above equations are valid only for paraxial approximation
" For spherical surfaces, f = R
" If the surface is plane, just make R = ! (and f = 0)
" Can be verified using the principal-ray diagram [see Section B]
Physics 72 Arciaga
Plane mirror
o s = s [image and object are equidistant from the plane mirror]
o m = 1 [image and object have the same size]
o virtual, same-sized, erect (but reversed) image
Spherical mirror
o Convex mirror / Diverging mirror
! virtual, reduced, erect image
o Concave mirror / Converging mirror
! if s > R : real, reduced, inverted image
! if s = R : real, same-sized, inverted image
! if R > s > f : real, magnified, inverted image
! if s = f : image is at infinity
! if s < f : virtual, enlarged, erect image

E. Refraction at a plane or spherical surface
Basic equations
o Object-image relation
!
a b b a
n n n n
s s ' R

+ =
o Magnification
!
a
b
n s ' y'
m
y n s
= =
; where s, s = object and image distance, respectively
R = radius of curvature
m = magnification
y, y = (lateral) height of the object and image, respectively
n
a
= index of refraction of the medium at incident-side
n
b
= index of refraction of the medium at refracted-side
o NOTES:
! Follow the sign rules properly !!! [see Section C]
! The above equations are valid only for paraxial approximation
! If the surface is plane, just make R = ! (and f = 0)
! Cannot be verified using the principal-ray diagram in Section B
! Use ray-tracing and Snells law of refraction for verification [see Chap. 33]
Plane surface
o
b a
s ' s
n n
=
o m = 1 [image and object have the same size]
o virtual, same-sized, erect image
o If n
a
> n
b
, the apparent depth is shallower than the true depth (e.g. water-to-air)
Spherical surface
o Convex surface
o Concave surface



Physics 72 Arciaga
F. Thin lenses
Thin lens can be thought of as composed of two refracting surfaces in close proximity
Basic equations
o Object-image relation
!
1 1 1
s s ' f
+ =
o Magnification
!
y' s '
m
y s
= =
o Lensmakers equation
!
lens
sur 1 2
n 1 1 1
1
f n R R
! "! "
=
# $# $
% & % &

; where s, s = object and image distance, respectively
f = focal length of the thin lens
m = magnification
y, y = (lateral) height of the object and image, respectively
n
lens
= index of refraction of the lens
n
sur
= index of refraction of the medium surrounding the lens
R
1
= radius of curvature of the entry side of the lens
R
2
= radius of curvature of the exit side of the lens
o NOTES:
! Follow the sign rules properly !!! [see Section C]
! The above equations are valid only for the following conditions:
paraxial approximation
thin lens approximation
! If one of the two surfaces is plane, just make R = ! for that surface.
! Can be verified using the principal-ray diagram [see Section B] but:
you cannot use the vertex ray
interpret the center ray as a ray passing through the center of the lens
(not center of curvature) and goes on undeviated
! Usually, the surrounding medium is air (n
sur
= 1).
! The lensmakers equation relates the focal length of a lens with the index of
refraction and radii of curvature of the two surfaces of the lens.
o Important tip !!!
! For a given series or combination of lenses (or mirrors), treat the image formed by
a particular lens (or mirror) as the object of the next lens (or mirror) in the series.
Converging lens / Positive lens
o Positive focal length
o Thicker at the center than the edges (e.g. double convex, plano-convex, meniscus)
Diverging lens / Negative lens
o Negative focal length
o Thinner at the center than the edges (e.g. double concave, plano-concave, meniscus)
Optional reading assignment:
o Camera converging lens, film, detector, telephoto lens, wide-angle lens, zoom lens
o Eye cornea, crystalline lens, retina, myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism
o Magnifier converging lens
o Microscope objective lens, eyepiece (ocular)
o Telescope objective lens (or concave mirror), eyepiece
Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 35. INTERFERENCE

Physical optics focuses on the wave behavior of light

A. Interference
Interference:
o happens when two or more waves pass through the same region at the same time
o overlapping of two or more waves
o apply principle of superposition of waves
The principle of superposition of waves:
o When two or more waves interfere, the actual displacement of any point in the medium at
any time is equal to the sum of the displacements of the separate waves.
Monochromatic light
o light of single color, single frequency, or single wavelength (e.g. laser)
Coherent sources
o two monochromatic sources that have the same frequency and a constant phase difference
(although not necessarily in phase with each other)
o able to produce coherent waves or coherent light (e.g. laser)
o only coherent sources interfere !!! ! coherence is needed for interference
Special types of interference:
1. constructive interference
" happens when two (or more) waves interfere in-phase
" happens when the path difference between the two waves is an integral multiple of the
wavelength
o r
2
r
1
= m (m = 0, 1, 2, )
" happens when the phase difference between the two waves is an integral multiple of 2
o
2

1
= m2 (m = 0, 1, 2, )
" results to reinforcement of wave amplitudes
2. destructive interference
" happens when two (or more) waves interfere 180
o
out-of-phase
" happens when the path difference between the two waves is a half integral multiple of
the wavelength
o r
2
r
1
= (m + ) (m = 0, 1, 2, )
" happens when the phase difference between the two waves is a half integral multiple of
2
o
2

1
= (m + )2 (m = 0, 1, 2, )
" results to cancellation of wave amplitudes
Physics 72 Arciaga
B. Double-slit interference of light (Youngs experiment)
Some simplifying approximations:
o rays are almost parallel to each other ! when the screen is very far from the slits
o rays are near the central axis ! when the considered angles are very small
Bright fringes (constructive interference)
o r
2
r
1
= d sin = m
o
2 1 2 1
r r
2

=


o
mR
y
d

=
; where r
2
r
1
= path difference

2

1
= phase difference (in radians)
y = position of the bright fringe measured from the central axis
m = any integer (m = 0, 1, 2, )
d = separation distance of the adjacent slits
= angle of the ray with respect to the central axis
= wavelength of the light
R = distance of the screen from the slits
Dark fringes (destructive interference)
o r
2
r
1
= d sin = (m + )
o
2 1 2 1
r r
2

=


o
(m )R
y
d
+
=
; where r
2
r
1
= path difference

2

1
= phase difference (in radians)
y = position of the dark fringe measured from the central axis
Intensity
o
2 2 2 1
max max
d
I I cos I cos y
2 R
! " ! "
= =
# $ # $

% & % &

; where I = intensity
I
max
= maximum intensity
y = position along the screen measured from the central axis
Remarks:
o Separation of adjacent bright (or dark) fringes:
R
y
d

=
" pattern is more spread if is high
" if d is low
" if R is high
o Maximum intensity: I
max
= 4I
slit

o For small angles, you can use:
y
sin tan
R
=

Physics 72 Arciaga
C. Interference in thin films
Caused by interference of reflected waves
Phase reversal (or 180
o
phase-shifting)
o phenomenon in which the reflected wave shifts by half a cycle (i.e. 180
o
phase shift)
o happens when the wave comes from a fast speed medium to a slow speed medium
(e.g. when light travels from low n to high n, such as reflection at air-to-water interface)
Case I: If no phase reversal or if phase reversal occurs for both waves:
o Constructive interference (at normal incidence)
! 2t = m (m = 0, 1, 2, )
o Destructive interference (at normal incidence)
! 2t = (m + ) (m
Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 36. DIFFRACTION

A. Diffraction
Diffraction:
o interference of many waves from many sources or from a continuous source
o happens when a wave encounters apertures, barriers, or edges
o apply Huygens principle and principle of superposition of waves ! see Chap. 33 and 35
Remark: There is really no fundamental distinction between interference and diffraction

B. Multiple slits (ideal case)
Ideal case: Neglect width of the slits
Remarks:
o Principal maxima
" separation does not depend on N (number of slits) :
R
y
d

=
" intensity is proportional to N
2
: I
max
= N
2
I
slit

" become narrower (sharper) as N increases
; where y = separation of the adjacent principal maxima
N = number of slits (N ! 2)
d = separation distance of the adjacent slits
= wavelength of the light
R = distance of the screen from the slits
I
max
= maximum intensity in the pattern
I
slit
= intensity passing through each slit
o Secondary maxima
" there will be (N 2) secondary maxima in between adjacent principal maxima
" there will ne (N 1) minima in between adjacent principal maxima
" no secondary maxima for a 2-slit setup

C. Single-slit diffraction
Do not neglect width of the slits
Remarks:
o Central bright maximum (i.e. bright band at the center)
" width of CBM :
2R
w
a

=
" half-width of CBM :
half
R
w
a

=
; where w = width of the CBM
w
half
= half-width of the CBM
a = width of each slit
o Dark fringes
" positions :
mR
y
a

= ; (m = 1, 2, ) ! Note: m = 0 is not included !!!


Physics 72 Arciaga
o Intensity
!
max
a
sin y
R
I I
a
y
R
2
! " # $
% &
' (

) *
' ( =

' (
' (

+ ,

; where I = intensity
I
max
= maximum intensity
a = width of each slit
! The function sin(x)/x is called sinc(x)

C. Multiple slits (real case)
Real case: Do not neglect width of the slits
Key idea: The resulting intensity pattern is just a modulated version of the ideal case. Modulation
is done by enveloping with the single-slit intensity pattern corresponding to the width of the slit
[i.e. the sinc
2
(x) function shown above].
Remarks:
o separation of the bright fringes does not change by the modulation, except for some
possible vanishing maxima
o number of bright fringes within the CBM is related to the ratio of the slit separation to the
slit width

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