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INDEX

Unit I .............................................................. 3
Lesson 1: Water Supply .................................. 4
Lesson 2: Drainage ....................................... 21
Unit II .......................................................... 42
Lesson 3: Thermal Insulation ...................... 43
Lesson 4: Acoustics and Sound Insulation ... 61
Unit III .......................................................... 77
Lesson 5: Air-conditioning ............................ 78
Unit - IV ........................................................ 129
Lesson 6: Fire Protection ........................... 130
Unit - V .......................................................... 154
Lesson 7: Lifts and Elevators ...................... 155
Lesson 8: Escalators .................................. 168
Suggested Reading........................................ 177


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Unit I
Water Supply and Drainage
Lesson-1: Water Supply
Lesson-2: Drainage






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Lesson 1: Water Supply

Objective:
To look into the importance of building services
and why it is imperative for a designer to have a
very good understanding of the various services
provided in a building.
To study in detail the principles of sanitation and
plumbing in building construction.

Structure:
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Technical Terms
1.3 Water Distribution System
1.4 Types of Pipes
1.5 Taps, Valves and Cocks
1.6 Service Connection
Storage Tanks in Buildings

1.1 Introduction
The origin of all sources of water is rainfall. As it
rains water can be collected from roof before it falls
on ground or as it flows on surface it gets collected
in the form of ponds, lakes, streams, river or sea.
Water that percolates or seeps into the ground gets
stored as ground water which can be tapped in the
form of springs, shallow wells, deep wells, artesian
wells, etc. Adequate supply of potable water is
essential for the occupants of buildings.
The municipal corporations or the municipalities are
responsible for providing public water supply system
which includes collection of water from the source of
supply, giving necessary treatment to the water to
make it hygienically safe and potable and finally
distribution of water through a network of piping


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work (trunk mains, street mains etc). Water from
the street main is supplied to the individual
buildings through a service connection. Within the
building, water" is distributed to different fixtures
through pipes which may run on the surface or be
concealed in walls or below flooring. Water thus
supplied may be used for bathing, cooking, flushing
of W.C., washing clothes/utensils/floors etc. In this
manner the potable water gets converted into
wastewater which is drained out into a sewer or
other suitable disposal system like septic tank etc.
Plumbing is a general term which broadly includes
the system, materials, fittings and fixtures used in a
building in connection with supply of water, removal
of used water with other liquid and water borne
wastes including connected ventilation system as
well as drainage of storm water. The various types
of fittings and fixtures used In plumbing are termed
as plumbing fixtures.
1.2 Technical Terms
Some of the technical terms used in connection with
drainage system are as under
Soil Pipe: A pipe which carries discharge from
W.C., urinal, or any other soil appliances
Waste Appliance: This includes washbasins, sinks,
bath tubs washing trough, drinking water fountain
etc.


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Waste Pipe: A pipe which carries waste water from
kitchen, bathroom, floor traps, nahani trap or by
other waste appliance.
Rain Water Pipe: This is a pipe provided to carry
rainwater.
Ventilation Pipe: Also known as vent pipe is a pipe
which ventilates drainage system. This pipe is open
at the top and it is connected to a soil pipe or waste
pipe at its bottom. This pipe is extended above the
roof of the building to permit exit of foul gases into
the atmosphere. This pipe only ventilates the
system and does not carry any discharge from soil,
waste or rainwater pipe.


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WASTE PIPE AND VENT PIPEs
Stack: It is a term used for any vertical pipeline of
a drainage system.
Drain: Also known as house drain, is a system of
underground horizontal pipes used for drainage of
discharge from soil pipes waste pipes etc. , of a
single property. Since the drain is laid within the


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private boundary, the responsibility of Its
maintenance rests with the owner of the property

Sewage: It is a combination of discharge from soil
pipe, waste pipes, vent pipes, sewers, septic tanks
etc (iii) ire system of storm water including


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collection and carrying of rain water (from roofs,
paved areas and ground surface) to a public storm
water drain or to a pond or river etc
1.3 Water Distribution System
There are two distinct systems of supply of water to
a building from the mains. Direct system and
Indirect system.
Direct system. In direct system also known as
upward distribution system, the supply of water is
given to various floors in a building directly from the
mains which has sufficient pressure to feed all the
floors and water fittings at the highest part of the
building. Indirect system, In indirect system also
known as down take supply or downfall distribution
system, the water supply from the mains may be


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drawn either by Feeding water directly into the
overhead storage tank provided at the roof of the
building from where the water is supplied to
different floors by gravity or Feeding the water into
an underground water storage tank. The water from
the underground tank is pumped to an overhead
storage from where the water is supplied by gravity.
1.4 Types of Pipes
Following types of pipes are commonly used in
water supply system.
(1) Cast Iron Pipes: Cast iron (C.I) pipes are
extensively used in water distribution mains
because they are comparatively cheaper in
cost, highly resistant to corrosion and have
very long life.
CAST IRON PIPES CAST IRON FITTINGS
Steel Pipes: Steel pipes are recommended for use in
water mains in situations where the pipe is


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subjected to very high pressure (i.e. above 7
kg/cm2) and the diameter of pipe required in large
in cement mortar or cement concrete are called
Hume Steel Pipes
Galvanised Iron Pipes: Galvanised Iron (G.I.)
pipes are wrought steel pipes provided with zinc
coating. G.I pipes are most commonly used for
water supply work inside the buildings. They are
also invariably used in service connections. Mostly
screw and socket joints are used for G.I. pipe
connections.
Copper Pipes: Copper pipes are used in hot water
supply installations. They have high tensile strength
and can therefore have thin walls and they can be
bent easily. To enhance their appearance copper
pipes are sometimes chromium plated to match with
the chromium plated water supply fittings.
STEEL PIPES, GALVANISED IRON PIPES AND
COPPER PIPES


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Polythene Pipes: Polythene and P.V.C. pipes are
being used increasingly these days for supply of cold
water in external and internal plumbing work. They
are light in weight, non-corrosive, lower in cost and
do not require any threading for connections.
Asbestos cement (A.C.) pipes, Reinforced Concrete
(R.C.C) Pipes. Prestressed reinforced concrete
(P.S.C.) pipes are among the other commonly used
pipes for supply work. The choice of the type of pipe
to be used for any work is made keeping in view the
requirement of design, availability of material, cost
and other similar factors
1.5 Taps, Valves and Cocks
The term taps, valves and cocks are used to name
different types of fittings required to control the flow
of water either along or at the end of a pipeline.
Valves: Valve is a fitting commonly used to control
the flow of water along a pipeline. With the
introduction of valve it is possible to isolate any
section of pipeline for the purposes of inspection,
repair of a leak, of addition/alteration to the already
functioning water supply system. Following types of
valves are commonly used in domestic water supply
system.


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Globe Valve: This is the most commonly used
type of valve for manually controlling or
completely closing the flow of water in domestic
water installation. This type of valve is normally
made of brass. Globe valve as such, or in some
modified form is used to control flow of water to
wash basins, shower, kitchen sink etc. In its
simplest form it consists of a disc which is forced
down by a screw against a circular seat. The disc
and screw form a single moving part which is
operated by a wheel head. This type of valve is
normally used for high pressure system where it
may be necessary to shut off the water supply
completely.


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Gate Valve: This type of valve is used to control
flow of water or for completely stopping the flow
of water in pipe line. This type is normally used
in low-pressure system and it offers much less
resistance to flow of water as compared with
Globe valve. Gate valve is used for controlling
the discharge to the outlet from a storage tank.

Float Valve Or A Ball Valve: Float valve is used
to supply water to storage tank or flushing
cistern and to automatically shut off supply when
the pre-determined level is reached. The valve is
operated by a float which allows the valve to be
fully open when it is in lower position. As the
water level rises, the float also rises which
gradually closes the valve and shuts off the
supply of water as soon as the water reaches the
full supply level mark.


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GATE VALVE AND BALL VALVE


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Taps and Stop Cock. Taps are used at the end
of a pipeline for draw off purposes. Taps are also
called Bibcock or Bib tap. A stopcock is a valve
used in pipeline for controlling or completely
stopping the flow of water to o fixture. Taps and
stop cocks are two most extensively used type of
fittings in domestic water supply system. They
are normally of screw down type and open in
anti-clockwise direction.

STOPCOCK AND BIBCOCK



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1.6 Service Connection
Service connection is a water connection given by
the local body (municipal corporation or municipality
etc.) from city water distribution mains to a
consumer. The consumer may be the owner of a
single house, a multi-storeyed apartment, a planned
block development or a water district buying water
wholesale. A domestic service connection comprise
of the following components:
1. Brass or Bronze Ferrule: Ferrule is a special
type of appliance made UP of brass or bronze. It
has a vertical inlet for screwing on to the water
main and a horizontal outlet to be connected to
service pipe The water main which is usually
under pressure is drilled and tapped and the
ferrule is screwed in without shutting own the
mains, The normal size of the ferrule to be used
is usually half the size of the service pipe.
2. Goose Neck: This is a 40 to 50 cm long flexible
curved pipe made up of brass, copper or lead
inserted between the ferrule and the service
pipe. The goose-neck is provided to
accommodate the possible movement I
displacement or settlement that may take place
between the water main and the service pipe due
to water pressure and prevent damage to the
connection.
3. Stop Cock: This is provided before the water
meter in a chamber with a cover to cut off the
supply of water from the street main to the
building for repairs to the plumbing system
within the building.
4. Water Meter: Water meter is installed in a
chamber provided with a cover for the purpose
of measuring the quantity of water used by the
consumer. The local body raises water bill to the


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consumer based on consumption recorded by the
water meter.

1.7 Storage Tanks in Buildings
Water supply to a building from city mains could be
either continuous on intermittent. Normally due to
continuously increasing demand and shortage of
water the local authority plan distribution of water in


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different city zones in two or three shifts (i.e.,
morning, evening and sometimes in afternoon) Even
in areas where continuous supply of water is
available the pressure of water in the mains may
not be adequate to raise the water to upper floors.
Thus provision of storage tank is made in a building
to ensure availability of water during non-supply
hours or when the municipal supply is stopped. In
case of multi-storeyed buildings, besides meeting
demand of water for domestic consumption, it is
mandatory to make provision of adequate overhead
storage of water for fire fighting requirements. As
explained earlier in case the pressure in the mains is
not sufficient to feed all floors directly, it becomes
necessary to feed from mains to an underground
storage tank. There after the water from the
underground tank is pumped to overhead tank for
distribution to various floors by gravity. The storage
tanks can be made from brick or stone masonry, G.I
sheets, pressed M.S. plates, P.V.C. or R.C.C.
Normally underground tanks are made from
masonry or R.C.C. Overhead flushing tanks or tanks
of small capacities ore made of G sheets, pressed
steel plates or P.V.C. Overheads tanks of large
capacities are always made of R.C.C. The various
accessories connected with water storage tanks are
given below. The figure below shows arrangement
of various accessories in an overhead water storage
tank
Ball valve with float -This is provided at the
inlet to the tank to control the flow of water in
the tank and to automatically shut off the supply
when correct level has been reached
Inlet pipe -The pipe supplying water to the tank
is termed as inlet pipe
Outlet pipe -This pipe is installed at 3 to 5 cm
above the floor of the tank. The pipe is always


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provided with a stop valve to stop supply of
water to down take pipes
Over flow pipe -This pipe is provided a little
above the inlet pipe to allow the incoming water
to overflow in case the ball valve assembly does
not function properly and it is not able to shut of
the incoming supply of water. This pipe is
provided with mosquito proof netting to prevent
entry of mosquitoes, flies etc. into the tank,
Scour pipe -Also known as drain pipe, it is
provided at the floor of the tank for cleaning the
tank.
Cover -The manhole cover on the roof of the
tank should be of tight fitting type to prevent
entry of dust mosquitoes etc. in the tank.
Assignment:
Students to study the importance of services in a
building like water supply and drainage, electrical
supply, HCAV (heating, cooling and ventilation)
security and communication systems etc.


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Lesson 2: Drainage

Objective:
To study in detail the drainage system of a
building and its various components.
To understand the use of traps.
To look into the various types of sanitary fittings
used in a building and their function.

Structure:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Drainage below the ground
2.3 Drainage above the ground
2.4 Traps
2.4.1 Essentials of a good trap
2.4.2 Causes of loss or breaking of water seal
2.5 Type of Traps
2.6 Sanitary Fittings
2.6.1 Wash Basin
2.6.2 Sink
2.6.3 Bath Tub
2.6.4 Urinals
2.6.5 Water Closets
Flushing Cistern





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2.1 Introduction
As explained earlier, potable water supplied to a
building is distributed to various areas like kitchen,
both, W.C. etc. through a network of pipes provided
with plumbing or sanitary fittings at their terminal
ends. Adequate arrangements are required to be
made for quick collection, conveyance and disposal
of used water from the fittings without any risk to
the health of the occupants. It is also essential that
the rain or storm water from the roof paved areas of
building and the ground surface is suitably collected
and discharged without flooding the area. The term
drainage or sewerage includes the system of
removal of sullage or waste water (from floor traps,
kitchen, bath, and wash basin), soil water (from
W.C. and urinals) and storm water from buildings
and conveying the same upto its ultimate point of
treatment and disposal. The system of drainage can
be broadly divided in two parts.
2.2 Drainage below the ground:
This comprises of a system of under ground house
drain, inspection chamber, main drain or sewer,
manholes, ventilation shafts etc. provided for
conveying the sanitary sewage (soil water and
waste water) and storm water for final treatment or
disposal. Underground drainage can be divided into
the following three systems:
I. Combined system.
II. Separate system.
III. Partially combined system.
1. Combined system: In this system the storm
water is completely mixed with the sanitary sewage
and conveyed through a single drain or sewer.
2. Separate system: In this system the storm
water is not allowed to get mixed with sanitary
sewage. Two separate drains are provided. One


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for sanitary sewage and other for drainage of
storm water.
3. Partially combined system: In this system a
part of storm water (usually run off from roofs,
paved yards and streets etc is mixed with
sanitary sewage and conveyed through sewer
and the remaining storm water is conveyed
through separate surface drains.
2.3 Drainage above the ground:
This consists of a system of vertical stacks,
horizontal branches, floor traps etc provided for
conveying sanitary sewage (soil water and waste
water) storm water (rain water) etc. to the
underground drainage system for final disposal. This
system is also known as house or building drainage
system.
2.4 Traps
A trap is providing a fitting in a drainage system to
prevent entry of foul air or gases from the sewer or
drain into the building. The barrier to the passage of


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foul air is provided by the seal in the trap. In its
simplest form a trap is merely a double bend or loop
in the sanitary fitting, the depth of water seal being
the distance between the top 01 the first bend and
the bottom of the second. The deeper the seal the
more efficient is the trap. Depending upon the
design of the trap, the depth of the water seal vary
from 40mm to 75mm. The trap should always be
fitted close to the waste or soil fitting unless the
trap form an integrated part of the fitting as in case
of the European W.C. (siphon type).
2.4.1 Essentials of a good trap:
A good trap should have the following
characteristics:
1. It should maintain an efficient water seal under
all conditions of flow; both during the water flow
as well as in absence of water flow.
2. It should be self-cleansing.
3. It should not have any internal projections,
angles or contractions so as to permit
unobstructed flow through it.
4. It should have a smooth inner surface so that
each part is automatically scoured by flow of
water and there is the possibility of dust, dirt etc.
getting struck to it.


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5. It should be provided with suitable means of
access for cleaning purposes.
2.4.2 Causes of loss or breaking of water
seal:
The primary object of providing a trap is lost, in
case it is not possible to retain water seal. The
water seal in a trap may break due to the following
causes:
1. Evaporation of water in the trap caused on
account of not using the appliance for a long
time.
2. Use of defective trap, defective installation of
trap or development of crack in trap after
installation.
3. Creation of partial vacuum caused due to
discharge of another fitting connected to the
same stack leading to emptying of the water of
the seal by induced siphonage.
4. Pressure on seal of trap due to sudden discharge
of water in large quantity into the fitting (bucket
full of water into a W.C.) forcing the seal to beak
due to self siphonage.
5. Build up of backpressure of sewer gas in the
drain forcing up the water of the trap seal.
6. Due to capillary action caused by piece of some
porous material getting struck at the outlet of
the trap in such a manner that one end of the
piece remains in water of the seal and the other
end of the piece remain hanging over the outlet
2.5 Type of Traps:
Traps can be made in different shapes and they are
normally named after the shape of the letter they
resemble. Out of the different shapes, the trap
resembling the letter, P (or P-Trap), Q (Q-Trap) and


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S (S-Trap) are more common. The traps are
normally made of cast iron glazed stoneware.
Depending upon the use and location, the various
types of traps can be broadly summarised as under:
1. Floor Trap Or Nahani Trap: Trap provided in
floors to collect used water from floors of
bathroom, kitchen or washing floor etc, are
known as floor or Nahani traps, This type is
made of iron and it is provided with a removable
grating on top. The grating intercepts dust or
other solid matter and prevents blockage of trap.
The depth of water seal of floor trap should not
be less than 40mm.
2. Gully Trap: Gully trap is a deep seal trap which
is provided on the external face of wall for
disconnecting the waste water flowing from
kitchen, bath, wash basin & floors from the main
drainage system. The deep water seal forms a
barrier for preventing the passage of foul air
from house drain to the inside of the building, It
is made of cast iron or glazed stoneware. The
Stoneware Gully trap has a top square in plan
where as the top of cast iron trap is normally
circular, it is fitted in a small masonry enclosure
to meet the requirements of invent levels of
waste pipes discharging into the gully trap.
Grating is provided on top of the trap to intercept
and retain all solid matter and prevent it from
flowing into the drain. The bars of the grating


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should not be more than 10 mm apart.
FLOOR TRAP, GULLY TRAP AND INTERCEPTING
TRAP
3. Intercepting Trap: This trap is provided at the
junction of house drain (inspection chamber) and
street sewer to prevent entry of foul gases from
sewer into the house drain. The intercepting trap
is thus provided to disconnect the house drain
from the street sewer. The trap is made of
glazed stoneware and has a opening at top
(known as clearing eye), The opening is kept
closed with a tight fitting plug which Is taken out
only during cleaning of the trap. It has a deeper
seal than normal traps (not less than 100 mm).
4. Grease Trap: Grease traps are provided in large
hotels, restaurants or other industries producing
large quantity of greasy waste with the primary
aim of removing the grease content of waste
water before discharging the same into drain If
the greasy or oily matter is not removed, being
sticky in nature, it will induce deposition of solids
in the drain which can cause obstruction to the
flow of water in the drain and may finally result
in blockage of drain. Grease trap is a small
masonry or cast chamber with a T or bent pipe
to serve as the outlet. The velocity of wastewater
flow gets reduced on entering the grease trap


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(because of sudden increase in area of holding of
waste water) and this results in separation of oily
or greasy matter from the waste water. The
greasy matter appears as floating (in the trap),
which is removed periodically with the help of a
mild steel tray.
5. Silt Trap: Silt traps are provided only in
situations where the wastewater carries large
amount of silt, sand, coarse particles etc. It is a
masonry chamber which functions like grit
chamber where the silt, sand etc. settle down
before the waste water Is discharged into the
drainage system.

SILT TRAP
2.6 Sanitary Fittings
The fittings or appliance used for collection and
discharge of soil or waste matter is termed as
sanitary fittings. Different types of sanitary fittings
are required in building to perform different type of
functions. Sanitary fittings are glazed chinaware.
The fittings are so designed and shaped that they
have non-absorbent surface which can be cleaned
easily. The different type of sanitary fittings
normally used in buildings are as under:



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2.6.1 Wash Basin:
A washbasin is used for washing hands, face etc
made of porcelain vitreous enamelled steel, or
plastic and it is available in various patterns and
sizes. The type of wash basin normally used in a
house has an oval shaped bowl with an overflow slot
at top. The wash basin has a flat back and has
provision for making holes for installing one, two or
even three taps. Normally two pillar taps are
provided one for cold water and the other for hot
water. It has a circular waste hole for draining out
wastewater from the basin. A metallic strainer is
provided in the waste hole which is connected to a
waste pipe either directly or through a bottle trap
for discharge of waste water into the floor trap. The
basin is normally mounted on 2 angle irons fixed in
the wall. The top of the washbasin should be kept at
a height of about 75 to 80 cm from the floor.



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2.6.2 Sink.
Sink is commonly used in kitchen, hospitals and
laboratories Sink is made of glazed fire clay,


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stainless steel, plastic, marble and R.C.C (finished
with terrazzo finishing). Sink may be made with or
without overflow arrangement. In hospitals and
laboratories only vitreous sinks are preferred. It has
a circular waste hole for fixing the metallic strainer
to which the waste pipe is attached for conveying
the discharge from sink to the floor trap. The
kitchen sink is invariably provided with a drain hole


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2.6.3 Bath Tub:
A shower is considered to be a more efficient and
hygienic means of taking bath and as such is widely
used in bathrooms by most of the people. However,
some people prefer to use bathtub as they find it to
be more comfortable and relaxing. Use of bathtub is
restricted to certain class of hotels and private
residences. Bath tubs are made of enamelled steel
gel coated fibre glass, reinforced enamelled
porcelain, reinforced concrete finished with
terracotta or marble finishes etc. Bathtubs are
provided with holes for fixing hot and cold-water
connections and have provision for over flow and
waste water pipes. The length of bath tubs varies
from 75 m to 85 m width varies between 0.7 m to
0.75 m and its depth near the waste pipe varies
between 0.43 to 0.45 m
2.6.4 Urinals:
Urinals fall under the category of soil appliance and
as such the discharge from urinals is connected to
soil pipe either directly or through a trap provided
with gun-metal or bass domed shaped removable


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grating. From hygienic consideration it is desirable
to provide glazed tiles on walls of urinal preferable
upto door height. Following types of urinals are
commonly used
1. Bowl Type. This is a one piece construction with
integral flushing box rim having 12 hole suitably
distributed for proper flushing. The urinal has an
outlet horn at bottom for connecting. to the trap
and an outlet pipe. In another pattern of bowl
type urinal, the appliance has a porcelain trap
inbuilt with the pan as a single piece. In case
number of urinals is required to be installed in a
row, it is necessary to provide vertical partition
between two urinals from consideration of
privacy.
2. Slab Or Stall Type: The type of urinal is
manufactured either as single unit or as a range
of two or more units. In case of single unit the
width of stall should not be less than 75 cm. The
flushing of urine is normally carried out through
automatic flushing cistern which operates at
regular intervals of 10 to 15 minutes. The
discharge from the series of stalls in a row is
usually carried through a glazed semi circular
drain which has a sharp fall towards the trap
from where it is discharged into the soil pipe




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2.6.5 Water Closets (W.C.):
Water closet is a sanitary appliance provided for
collection and discharge of human excreta into the
soil pipe through a trap. The W.C. is connected to a
flushing cistern to flush the excreta from the pan.
W.C. is made of glazed earthen ware, fire clay or
white vitreous china ware. The types of W.Cs
commonly used are as under:
1. Indian Or Squatting Type W.C: This type of
W.C. Is used in squatting position The W.C
consists of two pieces, i.e. Porcelain pan and a P
or S trap. The W.C, pan along with the trap is


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fixed flush with the floor. Two footrests are
provided on either side of the pan. The pan has
an inbuilt flushing rim having a number of holes
through which the flushing water from the
cistern is discharged. The flushing cistern is
normally kept 1.8 to 2 m above the floor level.
The contents of the pan are removed by the
gravity flush of water. When the pan and
footrests are made as integral single piece, the
appliance is termed as Orissa Pattern. In this
type while using the W.C. the excreta does not
fall directly into the trap and in case the flushing
is not proper, the matter remains struck to the
pan which is considered unhygienic. Special care
is to be taken to maintain cleanliness of the pan.
2. European Type W.C: This type of W.C. is used
in sitting position over a plastic seat hinged to
the appliance. This is a pedestal type of
appliance with the pan and trap in a single piece.
The pan is shaped in the form of a short inverted
cone with an almost vertical back and providing
minimum fouling area. The main advantage of
this type of W.C. is that by virtue of the
design/shape of pan, the excreta falls almost
directly in the water in the trap and chances of
the same getting struck to the sides of the pan
are less. The flushing rim of the pan is attached
to the cistern which may be of high level type
(installed at a height of 1 .8 to 2 m from floor) or
low level type (30 cm above the top of W.C. seat
or resting just at the level of W.C. seat) for
getting flushing water. Following two types of
European type W.C. are used:
Wash-down type of European W.C: This is the most
commonly used pattern in which the content of the
pan are removed by the gravity flush of water
discharged into the pan through the flushing rim of
the pan. For ground floor, normally the W.C. having
S-trap (with outlet pointing vertically down) is used


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whereas for installation on upper floors W.C. ending
up with a P-trap is preferred
a) Siphonic type: In this type, the contents of the
pan are removed by siphonic action when the
cistern is flushed and water passes through the
pan. The special type of trap inbuilt with the pan
is so shaped as to set up siphonic action when
the flushed water passes over the pan. Due to
siphonic action the entire water along with the
content get emptied from the pan into the soil
pipe. The W.C. has small after-flush chamber
inbuilt in the appliance, water from which re-
seals the trap. Siphonic type W.C. may have a
single trap (single-trap type siphonic W.C) or two
trap (Double trap type siphonic W.C.) The two
trap type W.C. has larger area of water seal and
is more efficient and silent as compared with.
single trap siphonic or wash down type of
European W.C.
1. Anglo-Indian type: This type of W.C can be
used both in squatting position as well as in sitting
position and hence it is named as Anglo-Indian Type
W.C. It is a pedestal type appliance with inbuilt trap.
The top of the W.C. pan is flared out to provide for
footrest to permit it to be used in squatting position.
When it is desired to use the appliance as European
type W.C the plastic seat hinged to the closet is
turned on the top of the pan to use it in sitting
position. In this the design is such that the fouling
area of pan is less and the excreta falls in the water
of trap and it is flushed out in manner similar to
European type W.C.


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2.6.6 Flushing Cistern:
A flushing cistern is used for storage and discharge
of water for flushing of contents from a W.C. or
urinal. Cistern is made of cast iron vitreous china or
pressed steel plates or plastic the capacity of
flushing cistern varies from 10 to 15 litres. When
the cistern is fixed at a height of 1.8 to 2 m from
floor level it is termed as high-level cistern made of
cost iron. The European type W.C is normally
provided with low level cistern made up of porcelain.
The low level operates at a height not more than 30
cm between top of pan and under side of cistern.
Flushing cisterns are of three types:
I. Valveless siphonic type or Bell type
II. Valve fitted type or piston type
III. Automatic flushing type
The valveless type of bell type of flushing cistern is
used only as high level cistern whereas the piston
type can be used both as high level as well as low
level cistern. The components of a bell type cistern
which is most widely used for Indian type W.C. are
as under:
I. A cast iron box having a storage capacity
of 10 to 5 litres.
II. A central outlet stand pipe covered by a
bell or dome shaped cast iron vessel.
III. A lever arrangement attached with a long
chain.
IV. A float valve with a float.
V. Inlet, outlet and overflow pipes.
In this case the bell shaped vessel is connected to a
chain through a level arrangement. The float valve
provided with a ball float closes the water supply to
the cistern as soon as the pre-fixed level is reached.


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For flushing the cistern, when the chain is pulled
due to lever arrangement the heavy bell 15 thrown
over the top of the inner tube (Central outlet stand
pipe) resulting In setting up the siphonic action
which causes the entire stored water to get
discharge into the flush pipe attached below.
Working of Flushing cistern



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Assignment:
Students to know the function of drainage and its
various systems.
Discuss the various types of traps used in a
drainage system.


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Summary:
It is very important for a designer to have a very
good understanding of the various services provided
in a building and to study in detail the principles of
sanitation and plumbing in building construction.
Entire system of water supply and distribution pipes
and entire system of drainage are important
aspects to be considered in plumbing. Also , the
entire system of storm water its collection and
disposal to a public storm water or drain is also a
part of plumbing.
Revision Points:
Water Distribution System
Types of Pipes
Taps, Valves and Cocks
Traps
Sanitary fittings
Key Words:
Plumbing
Stack
Vent pipe
Valve
Traps
In Text Questions:
1. Explain the two systems of water distribution.
2. What is drainage? Explain in detail the various
systems of drainage.
Terminal Exercises:
1. What are valves? Explain in detail the various
types of valves used.
2. Explain with the help of sketches the various
components of a domestic service connection.


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3. What is the need of a water storage tank in a
building? Explain with the help of a sketch the
various parts of a water tank.
4. What are the essentials of a good trap? Explain
in detail the causes of breakage in water seals.
5. Explain with the help of sketches the various
types of traps.
6. What are sanitary fittings? Explain in detail any
five types of sanitary fittings used in a house.
Suggested Reading:
1. Building Construction by S.K Sharma
2. Building Construction by Sushil Kumar
3. Time Savers Standards For Buildings Types











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Unit II
Lesson-3: Thermal Insulation
Lesson-4: Acoustic and Sound
Insulation




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Lesson 3: Thermal
Insulation

Objective:
To understand various ways in which heat
transfer takes place.
To know about various types and requirements
of good heat insulating materials.
To understand general methods of thermal
insulation.
To study means by which thermal insulation of
roofs, walls, exposed doors and windows can be
done.
Structure:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Heat Transfer: Basic Definitions
3.3 Heat insulating Materials
3.4 Requirements of Heat Insulating Materials
3.5 Classification and description of Heat
Insulating Materials
3.5.1 Cork
3.5.2 Glass Wool
3.5.3 Rock Wool
3.5.4 Slag Wool
3.5.5 Asbestos
3.5.6 Thermocole
3.5.7 Reflecting Paper
3.5.8 Reflecting Paper
3.5.9 Aluminium foils
3.10 General Methods of Thermal Insulation
3.10.1Thermal Insulation of Roofs
3.10.2Thermal Insulation of Exposed Walls
Thermal Insulation of Exposed Doors and
Windows




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3.1 Introduction
When there is difference in temperature of inside of
a building and outside atmosphere, heat transfer
takes place from areas of higher temperature to
those of lower temperature. In colder regions, when
the buildings are internally heated where outside
atmosphere is very cool, it is necessary to check
this heat loss from the building. Similarly, in very
hot regions, when the buildings are internally cooled
and the outside atmosphere is unbearably warm, it
is essential to check the entry of heat from outside
into the building. The term thermal insulation is
used to indicate the construction or provisions by
way of which transmission of heat from or in the
room is retarded. The aim of thermal insulation is to
minimise the transfer of heat between outside and
inside of the building. Advantages or thermal
insulation
The following advantages derived from thermal
insulation:
1. Comfort: Thermal insulation keeps the room
cool in summer and hot in winter. This results in
comfortable living.
2. Fuel saving: Since heat transfer is minimised
due to thermal insulation, less fuel is required to
maintain the desired temperature in the room.
3. Prevention of condensation: Use of thermal
insulating materials inside a room results in
prevention of condensation (or moisture
deposition) on interior walls and ceilings etc.
4. Use of thermal insulating materials prevents the
freezing of water taps in extreme winter, and
heat loss in case of hot water system.




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3.2 Heat Transfer: Basic Definitions
Heat transfer can take place by the following ways:
1. Conduction: Conduction is the direct
transmission of heat through a material. The
amount of heat transfer by conduction depends
upon
i. Temperature difference,
ii. Thickness of solid medium,
iii. Area of exposed surface,
iv. Time for which heat flow takes place,
v. Conductivity of the medium, and
vi. Density of the medium.
2. Convection: Heat is transmitted by convection
in fluids and gases, as a result of circulation. Air
movement causes the heat insulator; it is
preferable to ensure that excessive air change is
avoided.
3. Radiation: Heat is transferred by radiation
through space in the form of radiant energy.
When the radiation strikes an object, some of the
energy is absorbed and transformed into heat.
One of the ways of reducing heat absorption
from radiation is to introduce a suitable reflecting
surface.


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3.3 Heat insulating Materials
General Aspects
The function of a thermal or heat insulator is to
resist the flow of heat through its body.
The heat insulating materials are required to
grant protection against heat and cold. It may
also be employed to prevent either the flow of
heat from a heat furnace to the surrounding
atmosphere, or the ingress of heat from the
environment to the plant operating at lower
temperature.
These materials are generally porous and their
properties are governed not only by their
porosity but also by nature of pores, their
distribution, size and whether they are open or
closed. The materials with a great number of
fine, closed and air-filled pores are the best heat
insulating materials.
The bulk density of heat insulating materials is
usually below 7000 N/m and their coefficient of


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thermal conductivity does not exceed 0.75 kJ per
in hr0C.
The heat insulating materials should be protected
against moisture (since the coefficient of thermal
conductivity of water is about 25 times higher
than that of air)
3.4 Requirements of Heat Insulating
Materials
The main requirements of good heat insulating
materials are:
1. Thermal stability
2. Chemical Stability
3. Physical stability
4. Low thermal conductivity
5. Resistance to moisture
6. Low specific heat
7. Low specific gravity
8. Odourless
9. Resistance to vibration and shock
10.Non in flammability
11.Porous and fibrous texture
12.Economical in its initial cost


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3.5 Classification and description of Heat
Insulating Materials
The heat insulating materials may be classified as
follows:
Organic Insulators are enumerated below:
a) Wool
b) Cattle Hair
c) Eelgrass
d) Cotton Wool
e) Corkboard
f) Silk
g) Wood pulp
h) Sugarcane fibre
i) Saw dust
j) Cardboard (corrugated)
k) Paper etc.
Inorganic insulators include
1. Air (steel)
2. Slag wool
3. Mineral Wool
4. Glass wool
5. Aluminium Foil
6. Diatomaceous earth (powder)
7. Charcoal
8. Wood ashes
9. Gypsum (powder)
10.Slag
11.Asbestos etc.


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Some important heat insulating materials are
described below:
3.5.1 Cork:
It is derived from the bark of oak trees. It is ground,
sized and baked in moulds. When ground and
baked, the natural resin in the cork binds the
materials into homogeneous mass which can be
pressed into flexible sheets or boards etc. It is
available in the form of granulated cork, slab cork,
and regranulated baked cork.
The structure of cork consists of an aggregation of
minute air vessel, provided with thin, strong wall, so
that if material is compressed it behaves more like a
gas than an elastic solid; unlike the behaviour of
spring, which exerts a pressure proportionate to the
linear amount of compression. Cork, when
compressed, exerts a pressure which increases in a
more rapid manner and varies, approximately,
inversely as the volume.
Properties: Following are the properties of cork:
a) Light in colour
b) Porous in structure
c) Specific gravity is about 0.24
d) Not affected by moisture
e) Thermal conductivity is low
f) Can be easily compressed


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g) Resilient and reasonably elastic when dry
Uses: Following are the uses of cork:
a) Cork sheets and boards are used for insulating
walls and ceilings, both against heat and cold
and also as a sound insulator.
b) Used as a non-conducting covering for pipes
carrying steam or hot water.
c) Used as non-conducting material for scientific
apparatuses.
d) Used in refrigeration and cold storage insulation
e) Also used for bottle stoppers, vibration pads and
floats for rafts and fishnets.
3.5.2 Glass Wool
Glass wool is produced by blowing high-pressure
jets of steam or air on molten streams of glass at a
high temperature. Molten glass is violently scattered
in all directions, to give this product.
Glass wool is a form of fibrous glass with short and
fine fibres, scattered in various directions. It is
available in the form of loose fibres, mats, rigid
quilts, or semi-rigid slabs or blocks etc.
Properties:


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a) Fibrous in structure
b) Light in weight
c) Has good tensile and dielectric strength
d) Low thermal conductivity
e) Quite durable
f) Acts as an excellent insulating material because
of the presence of large pockets of air in it.
g) Not affected by low temperatures and has been
used successfully at temperatures as low as
212C
Characteristics: Glass fibres have the following
characteristics:
a) Does not catch fire
b) Not easily affected by heat
c) Not spoiled by insects and moisture
Uses:
a) Mostly used for insulation of pipes, bends, valves
etc.
b) Used for panel insulation for all types of
industrial equipment
c) Can be used for thermal and sound insulation of
aircrafts.
d) Glass wool blocks can be used the construction
of partition walls for thermal insulation purposes.
e) Used in boilers, ovens, cylinder or pipe insulation
3.5.3 Rock Wool:
It is produced form flint rock containing some
calcareous matter. In the absence of such a natural
rock, flint and lime are mixed in the requisite
proportions and melted in a furnace at temperature
of about 1700C. This molten material is then formed
into small globules by means of steam jet. These
globules are then drawn into very fine fibres by
hurling them in a large container. These fibres of
wool are then formed into boards or blankets (to be
used as insulators). It can also be pressed, rolled
and secured between fabric of wire-netting of brass
or copper.


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It is available in the form of loose fibres,
mattresses, mats, boards or felts, rigid or semi-rigid
slabs, quilts.
Properties
a) Soft and flexible
b) Resilient and woody consistency
c) Heat and sound proof (due to the presence of
millions of minute dead air cells)
d) Specific gravity is about 0.48
Uses:
a) Employed for heat and sound insulation
purposes.
b) Also used as an electric insulator
3.5.4 Slag Wool:
a) It is an aggregate of fine filaments of slag
produced by blowing air through a stream of
blast furnace slag.
b) It is available in the form of loose fibres.
Uses: It is used for heat insulation in high
temperature furnaces.



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3.5.5 Asbestos:
Asbestos is a mineral fibre composed of hydrous
silicate of magnesia with a small amount of iron
oxide and alumina.
Asbestos sheets or boards consist of natural
asbestos fibres mixed with a binding agent (usually
cement) and then rolled in the form of sheets or
boards. There are available in the market under the
trade name Salamander.
Properties:
a) White, grey or brown in colour
b) Flexible and can resist high temperature
c) Fire-proof
d) Unaffected by acids and fumes
e) Resistant to corrosion and vermin effect
f) Excellently resists heat and electricity
Uses: Employed for heat and sound insulation of
buildings. Also used for insulation of furnaces.
3.5.6 Thermocole:
Thermocole is one of the trade names of polystrene.
This product was developed (in USA) during Second
World War. It was made by direct extrusion of the
foam form raw materials.
Properties:
a) It has a very attractive, natural, snow white
colour
b) Very light in weight (density: 150 to 3000 N/m)
the form is very light because it contains over
9% (by volume) air, trapped in 3 to 6 millions
closed cells per litre.
c) Compressive strength = 0.07 to 0.1 MN/m cross
breaking strength = 0.14 to 0.18 MN.
d) Very low value of thermal conductivity
e) Highly resistant to moisture


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f) Odourless, chemically stable and assistant to
fungus attack.

ASBESTOS SHEETS AND THERMOCOLE ICE
BOXES
a) Fully resistant to water, salt, soaps, bleaching
agents and HCI (35%), HNO
3
(upto 50%), H
2
SO
4

(upto 95%) caustic soda, caustic potash, strong
ammonia, alcohols and silicon oil.
b) Not resistant to organic solvents like benzene,
paint thinners and saturated aliphatic
hydrocarbons like petroleum and gasoline.
c) Very good shock-protecting properties.
d) Ability of being moulded into well fitting
contoured cases.
Uses:
a) Thermocole (with operational range of 200C to
80C) is an excellent material for cold insulation
in refrigerators, cold storages, air conditioning,
chilled pipelines and chemical processes.
b) It is used for industrial insulation and insulation
for buildings, against extremes of Climate.


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c) In the form of specially made flexible sheets,
thermocole can be used on intermediate concrete
floors in multi-storey buildings, to reduce impact
sound transmission.
d) It is used for packing electronic goods like
transistor, radios, tape recorders and calculating
machines, clock, medicine bottles, cameras etc.
e) It is also used for airdropped packaging,
decorative and gifts packaging and edge
protecting packaging.
3.5.7 Reflecting Paper
Reflecting paper (also known as building paper) is a
strong tough paper which is lined with aluminium or
copper foil on the exposed side, which reflects back
heat waves coming from a source and this keeps the
walls and the enclosed rooms cool.
Something, reflecting coatings of varnishes,
paraffins, gums or synthetic resins and applied to
various grades of paper of fibrous materials.
Properties:
a) Strong and tough in nature


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b) Heat resistant
c) Possesses adequate dielectric strength.
d) Uses: Used for heat insulation purposes.
3.5.8 Gypsum:
It is hydrated sulphate of calcium (CaSO4 2H2HO)
occurring in monoclisnic crystals. It seldom occurs in
nature in pure state; contains impurities such as
alumina, calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate
and silica upto 6 percent.
When it is burnt in kilns, Plaster of Paris is
obtained. After mixing with asphalt and casting into
slabs, it burnt in a kiln to form very strong sheets
which possess very good insulating properties.
Properties:
a) Crystalline and fibrous in structure
b) Controls the setting time of cement
c) Gypsum boards are good insulators of heat.
Uses: Employed for heat insulation purposes.
Ceiling panels made of gypsum are used for
suspended ceilings.
3.5.9 Aluminium foils:
These are very thin foils or sheets of aluminium and
are also known as Alfoils. These are available in the
form of paper backed foils, separated layers of foils
and some rigid materials faced with foils.
Properties
a) Light in weight
b) Low thermal conductivity
c) Posses smooth and shining surface
d) Low emissivity (which decreases the radiation
losses)


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e) Resistant to ordinary atmospheric gases.
Uses: Used as heat insulator in refrigerators.
3.10 General Methods of Thermal
Insulation
Apart from providing thermal insulating materials on
walls, roofs, doors etc., thermal insulation can also
be achieved by the following methods:
1. Heat Insulation by Orientation: the
orientation of a building with respect to the sun
has a very important bearing on its thermal
behaviour. For optimum orientation, there are
usually conflicting requirements. Minimum
transfer of solar heat is desired during the day in
summer, while maximum heating of rooms by
solar heat is required during winter.
2. Heat insulation by shading: While shading of
roof brings down the surface temperature, it is
very difficult to achieve this effect in practice,
especially when the altitude angle of the sun is
quite high during the period of peak heat gain in
afternoons, between 1100 h and 1500 h. Raising
the parapet walls can help only when the altitude
angle of the sun is low, but the cost may not be
commensurate with the effect obtained.
3. Heat insulation by proper height or ceiling:
While the surface temperature of the ceiling does
not vary with its height, the intensity of long
wave radiation, emitted by the ceiling decreases
as it travels downwards. The effect of vertical
gradient of radiation intensity is not significant
beyond 1 to 1.3 m. Hence it should be adequate
to provide ceiling at a height of about 1 to 1.3 m
above the occupant.
3.10.1Thermal Insulation of Roofs


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Adopting the following methods may reduce heat
gain through roofs:
1. Application of heat insulating materials. Heat
insulating materials may be applied externally or
internally to the roofs. In case of external
application, heat-insulating material may be laid
over the roof but below a waterproof course. In
case of internal application, heat-insulating
material may be fixed by adhesive or otherwise
on the underside of roofs from within the rooms.
False ceiling of insulating material may be
provided below the roof wit air gaps in between
2. For flat roofs, external insulation may also be
done b~ arranging asbestos cement sheets or
corrugated galvanised iron sheets on bricks.
3. Shining and reflecting materials may be fixed on
the top of the roof.
4. Roofs may be flooded with water in the form of
sprays or otherwise. Loss due to evaporation
may be compensated by make up arrangements.
5. Roofs may be whitewashed before on-set of each
summer.
6. Top exposed surface of roof may be covered by
2.5 cm thick layer of coconut pitch cement
concrete. Such a concrete is prepared by mixing
coconut pitch with cement and water. After
laying, it is covered with an impermeable layer
and then allowed to dry for 20 to 30 days.
3.10.2 hermal Insulation of Exposed Walls
Heat insulation of exposed walls may be achieved
by the following ways:
1. The thickness of wall may be increased.


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2. Cavity wall construction may be adopted for
external walls.
3. The wall may be constructed out of suitable hear
insulating material provided structural
requirements are met.
4. Heat insulating materials may be fixed on the
inside or outside of the exposed wall, in such a
way that the value of overall thermal
transmittance is brought within a desired limits.
In the case of external application, overall
waterproofing is essential.
5. Light-coloured white-wash or distemper may be
applied on the exposed side of the wall.
3.10.3Thermal Insulation of Exposed
Doors and Windows
In dealing with heat insulation of exposed windows
and doors, suitable methods should be adopted to
reduce:
a) Reduction of incidence of solar heat. This may be
achieved by anyone of the following means:


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i. External shading, such as louvered shutters,
sun breakers chhajjas, and
ii. Internal shading, such a curtains and
venetian blinds.
b) Reduction of heat transmission. Where glazed
windows and doors are provided, reduction of
heat transmission may be achieved by providing
insulating glass or double glass with air space or
by any other suitable means.
Assignment:
Students to be familiar with the different heat
insulating materials available in the market and
their respective cost.


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Lesson 4: Acoustics and
Sound Insulation

Objective:
To understand the meaning of acoustics.
To study characteristics of audible sound.
To know the behaviour of sound in enclosed
spaces.
To understand various types of sound
absorbents.
To study common sound defects found in
buildings.

Structure:
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Characteristics of Audible Sound
4.3 Behaviour of Sound in Enclosures
4.4 Reflection of Sound
4.5 Defects due to reflected sound
4.5.1 Echoes
4.5.2 Reverberation
4.6 Absorption
4.7 Absorbents
4.8 Common Acoustical Defects

4.1 Introduction
'Acoustics' is the science of sound, which deals with
origin, propagation and auditory sensation of sound,
and also with design and construction of different
building units to set optimum conditions for


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producing and listening speech, music, etc. The
knowledge of this science is necessary for the
proper functional design of theatres, cinema halls,
auditoriums, conference balls, hospitals, etc. so that
unwanted sound is excluded or insulated.
Sound is generated in the air when a surface is
vibrated. The vibrating surface sets up waves of
compression and rarefaction in the air and these set
the ear drum vibrating. The movements of the
eardrum are translated by the brain into sound
sensation. When the sound waves are periodic,
regular and long continued, they produce a pleasing
effect; such a sound is known as musical sound. On
the contrary, when the sound wave is non-periodic,
irregular and of very short duration, it produces
displeasing effect; such sound is known as noise. A
noise is an abrupt sound of complex character with
an irregular period and amplitude originating from a
source of non-periodic motion.


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4.2 Characteristics of Audible Sound
Sound is transmitted in the form of waves which are
a series of compressions and rarifications created in
the medium through which it travels. The sound
waves are longitudinal waves and hence each
particle of the medium through which sound wave is
proceeding, moves backwards and forwards along a
line in the direction in which sound is travelling. The
velocity of sound depends upon the nature and
temperature of the medium through which it travels.
It travels much faster in solids and liquids than in
air. The velocity of sound in air depends upon
moisture in air and temperature of air. The velocity
of sound in atmospheric air at 200C is 343 m/sec.
The velocity of sound in pure water is 1450 m/sec
while that in bricks and concrete is 4300 and 4000
m/sec respectively. Sound cannot travel in vacuum.
For the sound to be audible, the sound source and
ear must be connected by an uninterrupted series of
portions of elastic matter.
There are three characteristics of sound:
1. Intensity and loudness of sound
Intensity of sound is defined as the amount or flow
of wave energy crossing per unit time through a unit
area taken perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Mathematically, the energy of a wave
and hence the intensity at a point is proportional to
the square of the amplitude of vibration of the point.
But the distinction between the physical quantity
called intensity and the meaning to be understood
by the term loudness must be clearly noted.
Loudness of a sound corresponds to the degree of
sensation depending on the intensity of sound and
the sensitivity of ear drums, and does not increase
proportionally with intensity but more nearly to its
logarithm. It is know as Weber and Fechner's law
which states that the magnitude of any sensation is


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proportional to the logarithm of the physical
stimulus that produces it. Thus, intensity of sound is
purely a physical quantity which can be accurately
measured, and which is independent of ear of
listener. Loudness, on the other hand, is the degree
of sensation which is nm wholly physical but partly
subjective and does depend upon the ear and the
listener. It may also happen that the same listener
might give different judgements about the loudness
of sounds of the same intensity but of different
frequencies as the response of the ear is found to
vary with the frequency of vibration.
2. Frequency and pitch of sound
Frequency or Pitch is defined as the number of
cycles which a sounding body makes in each unit of
time. It is a measure of the quality of a sound. It is
that characteristic by which a shrill sound can be
distinguished from a grave one, even though the
two sounds may be of the same intensity. The
sensation of pitch depends upon the frequency with
which the vibrations succeed one another at the ear,
the greater the frequency the higher the pitch and
the lesser the frequency the lower the pitch. The
frequency scale covers a wide range varying from
20 cycles per second to 1500 cycles per second.
3. Quality or Timbre
The quality of a sound is that characteristic which
enables us to distinguish between two notes of the
same pitch and loudness played on two different
instruments or produced by two different voices. A
study of vibration curves of various musical
instruments has shown that the notes emitted by
them are seldom pure. They contain some
fundamental tones of frequency n and additional
tones of (of frequencies 2n, n, 4n, etc.) called
overtones. The quality of a note is determined by its
complex structure and depends upon the presence


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or absence of a certain number of overtones, on
their relative strengths and pitches. It is to be noted
that it is the memory of this tonal quality which
enables us to recognise a large number of different
sounds. Among these are the voices of friends and
acquaintances, the various sounds employed in
speech and familiar musical instruments and the
cries of animals.
4.3 Behaviour of Sound in Enclosures
When sound is generated in a room, the distance
between the source and the walls is so small that
there is little or no reduction due to distance. When
the sound waves strike the surfaces of a room,
three things happen:
i. Some of the sound is reflected back in the
room.
ii. Some of the sound energy is absorbed by the
surfaces and listeners.
iii. Some of the sound waves set on the walls,
floors and ceiling vibrating and are thus
transmitted outside the room.
The amount of sound reflected or absorbed depends
upon the surfaces, while the sound transmitted
outside the room depends upon sound insulation
properties of the surfaces.
4.4 Reflection of Sound
Sound waves get reflected from a large uniform
plane surface in the same manner as that of light
waves, the angle of incidence being equal to angle
of reflection, as shown in Fig. 28.1. The reflection of
sound has certain virtues in acoustics such as the
enhancement of loudness and enrichment of total
quality of sound. The following characteristics of
reflection of sound waves are noteworthy:


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1. Reflection of sound waves follow practically the
same laws as reflection of light. However, this
may not be true in some exceptional cases,
hence great caution should be exercised while
applying these laws.
2. The reflected wave fronts from a flat surface are
also spherical and their centre of curvature is the
image of source of sound Fig. 28.2 (a).
3. Sound waves reflected at a convex surface are
magnified and are considerably bigger Fig. 28.2
(b). They are attenuated and are therefore
weaker. Convex surfaces may be used with
advantage to spread the sound waves
throughout the room.


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4. The sound waves reflected at a concave surface
are considerably smaller Fig. 28.2 (c). The waves
are most condensed and therefore amplified. The
concave surfaces may be provided for the
concentration of reflected waves at certain
points.

4.5 Defects due to reflected sound
The behaviour of reflected sound plays very
important role in the acoustical design of an
enclosed space. The following are two main defects
that may be caused due to reflection of sound
waves:
(a) Echoes
(b) Reverberation







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4.5.1 Echoes
An echo is produced when the reflected sound wave
reaches the ear just when the original sound from
the same source has been already heard. Thus,
there is repetition of the sound. The sensation of
sound persists for 1/10
th
of a second after the
source has ceased. Hence in order that an echo may
be distinguished as separate, it must reach the ear
1/10
th
of a second after the direct sound. Taking the
velocity of sound as 340 m/sec, it means that sound
must come after traversing a distance of 34 m, i.e.,
the minimum distance of the obstacle from the
source must be half of this, i.e., 17 m. If, however,
the distance of the reflecting surface is less than
this, the sound will appear to be draw out. Near
echoes, sufficient to cause blurring, occur when the
distance of the reflecting surface is between 8 and
17 m. Multiple echoes may be heard when a sound
is reflected from a number of reflecting surfaces
suitably placed, such as two parallel cliffs. The
rumbling and rolling of a thunder is due to
successive reflections of a peel of thunder from a
number of reflecting surfaces such as clouds,
mountains, rocks and surfaces of separation
between atmospheric currents and various strata of
air.



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4.5.2 Reverberation
It has been generally noticed that in public halls and
auditoriums, the sound persists even after the
source of sound has ceased. This persistence of
sound is called reverberation. It is due to multiple
reflections in an enclosed spare. Reverberation is a
familiar phenomenon in Cathedrals and new
halls/rooms without furniture, where, even after
sound source stops the reverberation is heard even
upto 10 seconds. A certain amount of reverberation
is desirable, specially for giving richness to music,
but too much reverberation is undesirable.
The time during which the sound persists is called
the reverberation time of sound in the hall. It is the
lime taken by the reverberant sound to decay to its
one-millionth of the sound intensity level existing al
the time the source of sound slopped. In other
words, it is the period of time in seconds, which is
required for sound energy to decay or diminish by
60 dB after the sound source has stopped.


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4.6 Absorption
When a sound wave strikes a surface, a part of its
energy is absorbed by friction. The sound generated
in an auditorium or hall is absorbed in four ways:
a) In the air
b) By the audience
c) In the furniture and furnishings
d) At the boundary surfaces such as floors,
ceilings, walls etc.
Absorption in Air
The absorption of sound in the air is mainly due to
the friction between the oscillating molecules when
sound wave travels through it. However, this
absorption is extremely small.
Absorption by the audience
Sound energy absorbed by the clothing of the
audience. Room acoustics change perceptibly by the
number of audience present. Also, absorption is
more in winter, than in summer, because of heavy
clothing.
Absorption in furniture and furnishings
Furniture, curtains, carpets, etc. also absorb sound
energy to a fair extent.
Absorption by boundary surface
When sound waves strike the boundary surfaces
such as walls, floors, ceilings (treated or otherwise),
absorption takes place due to the following factors:
(a) Penetration of sound into porous materials,
causing resonance within air pockets in the pores
until energy is dissipated; (b) Resonant vibration of
panel materials; (c) Molecular damping in soft
absorbing materials; and (d) Transmission through
structures.


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4.7 Absorbents
Special materials used on boundary surfaces to
increase absorption are known as absorbents.
Ceiling is generally more exposed to direct sound
waves than are other surfaces, and is usually the
largest single area available for treatment.
Absorbents can be broadly classified as following:
a) Porous materials
Absorption in porous materials is mainly due to the
frictional losses which occur when the sound waves
cause to and fro movement of the air contained in
the material. However, these materials absorb
sound mainly in the higher frequencies. Their
efficiency depends upon porosity, the resistance to
air flow through the materials and the thickness.
Examples of absorbents under this category are rock
wool, glass silk, wood wool, curtains and other soft
furnishings, drilled fibre boards and acoustic
plasters.
b) Resonant panels
These panels absorb the sound by damping the.
sympathetic vibrations in the panels, caused by
sound pressure waves bf appropriate: frequency, by
means of air space behind the panel. These panels
absorb sound only at lower frequencies, over a
comparatively narrow frequency band ranging from
50 to 200 cycles. The frequencies at which panels
vibrate depend upon their weight and depth of air
spaces behind them.
c) Cavity resonators
A cavity resonator is virtually a container with a
small opening, and it functions by the resonance of
air in it. They can be designed to absorb sound of
any frequency.



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d) Composite absorbers
These are a comparatively recent development,
combining the functions of all the above three
absorbents. It consists of a perforated panel fixed
over an air space containing porous absorbent. The
perforations in the panel should form at least 10 per
cent of the total area to allow the porous materials
to absorb sound at higher frequencies.
4.8 Common Acoustical Defects
Perfect acoustical conditions in a big room, hall or
auditorium etc. are achieved when there is clarity of
sound in every part of the occupied space. For this,
the sound should rise to suitable intensity
everywhere with no echoes or near echoes or
distortion of the original sound; with correct
reverberation time. Following are the common
defects which are encountered and which require
special attention of the designer for proper
treatment:
1. Reverberation.
We have already seen that reverberation is the
persistence of sound in the enclosed space, after the
source of sound has stopped. Reverberant sound is
the reflected sound, as a result of improper
absorption. Excessive reverberation is one of the
most common defects, with the result that sound
once created prolongs for a longer duration resulting
in confusion with the sound created next. However,
some reverberation is essential for improving quality
of sound. Thus, optimum clarity depends upon
correct reverberation time which can be controlled
by suitably installing the absorbent materials.


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2. Formation of echoes
Echoes are also formed due to reflection of sound
when the reflecting surfaces are situated at a
distance greater than about 17 m and when the
shape of the hall /auditorium/room is curved with
smooth character. This defect can be removed by
selecting proper shape of the hall and by providing
rough and porous interior surfaces to disperse
energy of echoes.
3. Sound foci
As indicated in Fig. 28.2 (c), reflecting concave
surfaces cause concentration of reflected sound
waves at certain spots, creating a sound of large
intensity. These spots are called sound foci.
Geometrical designed shapes of the interior faces,
including ceilings, and providing highly absorbent
materials on focussing areas, can remove this
defect.
4. Dead spots
This defect is an outcome of the formation of sound
foci. Because of high concentration of reflected
sound at sound foci, there is deficiency of reflected
sound at some other points. These points are known
as dead spots where sound intensity is so low that it
is insufficient for hearing. This defect can be


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removed by installation of suitable diffuser so that
there is even distribution of sound in the hall.
5. Insufficient loudness.
This defect is caused due to lack of sound reflecting
flat surface near the sound source and excessive
sound absorption treatment in the hall. The defect
can be removed by providing hard reflecting surface
near the source, and by adjusting the absorption of
the hall so as to get optimum time of reverberation.
When the length of the hall is more, it may be
desirable to install loud speakers at proper places.
6. External noise.
External noise from vehicles, traffic engines,
factories, cooling plants etc. may enter the hall
either through the openings (such as doors,
windows, ventilators etc.) or through even walls and
other structural elements having improper sound
insulation. This defect can be removed by proper
planning of the hall with respect to its surroundings
and by proper sound insulation of exterior walls.
Assignment:
Students to visit an auditorium or a theatre and
study its acoustical design.


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Summary:
Due to difference in temperature inside and outside
the built environment , it becomes necessary .a
comfortable living inside. By using thermal
insulating materials, we can resist the flow of heat
outside and maintain comfortable living conditions
inside.
Noise causes annoyance, interference with speech
and results in efficiency of work performance. Good
planning and constructional measures have to be
adopted for noise control, sound insulation and to
eliminate common defects due to sound reflection
such as echo and reverberation.
Revision points:
1. Methods of Heat transfer
2. Classification of heat insulating materials
3. Characteristics of audible sound.
4. Behaviour of sound in enclosed spaces.
5. Common acoustical defects.
Key words:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
4. Acoustics
5. Echo
6. Reverberation
In text questions:
1. What is thermal insulation? What are the
advantages derived from thermal insulation?
2. What is acoustics? Explain in detail the
characteristics of audible sound.


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3. What are the requirements of a good heat
insulating material?
Terminal exercises:
1. Explain in detail the various ways in which heat
transfer takes place.
2. Explain in detail any seven types of heat
insulating materials.
3. Explain in detail the general methods of thermal
insulation.
4. How will you provide thermal insulation for the
following structural components:
Roofs
Walls
Doors and windows
1. How does sound behave in enclosed spaces?
Explain in detail.
2. Explain in detail the various types of sound
absorbents.
3. Discuss in detail the common sound defects
found in buildings.

Suggested reading:
1. Building Construction by Sushil Kumar
2. Building Construction by Dr. B.C. Punmia






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Unit III
Lesson-5: Air - Conditioning
















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Lesson 5: Air-conditioning

Objective:
To understand the basic concept of air
conditioning.
To understand parts of an air conditioner.
To study various types of air conditioning.
To study the air distribution system.
Structure:
5.1 Introduction
5.2 How Is Cooling Made Possible?
5.3 Equipment Used To Produce Cooling
5.3.1 The Compressor
5.3.2 The Condenser
5.3.3 The Evaporator
5.4 Airconditioning Capacity -The 'Ton'
5.5 Heat Load Estimation
5.6 Types of Airconditioning Systems
5.7 Non-Ducted Products
5.7.1 Room Airconditioners
5.7.2 Split Airconditioners
5.7.3 Types of Split Airconditions
5.8 Drainage of Condensate Water
5.9 Packaged Airconditioning Systems
5.9.1 Air-Cooled Ductable Splits
5.9.2 Floor Standing Packaged Units
5.10 Types of Compressors Used In Window
Split and Packaged Airconditioners
5.10.1Sealed Reciprocating Compressors
5.10.2Sealed Scroll Compressors
5.10.3Sealed Rotary Compressors
5.11 Mounting of Outdoor Units
5.12 Mounting, Safety and Serviceability
5.13 Coastal Installations


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5.14 Installation Practices for Air-Cooled Units
5.15 Length of Interconnecting Piping
5.16 Refrigerant Pipe Insulation
5.17 Direct Expansion and Chilled Water
Systems
5.18 Compressors Used In Vapour Compression
Central Plants
5.19 Packaged Chillers
5.20 Packaged Chillers Installation Tips
5.21 Air Cooled Chillers
5.22 Water Cooled Chillers
5.23 Introducing the Condenser
5.23.1How the Condenser Is Cooled
5.23.2How the Air Cooled Condenser Is Cooled
5.23.3How the Water Cooled Condenser Is
Cooled
5.24 Cooling Towers
5.25 Air Handling Units
5.26 Fan Coil Units
5.27 Ducts, Grilles & Diffusers
5.28 Co-Ordination between Designer and
Airconditioning Engineer
5.29 Modern Trends in Design and Fabrication
of Ducts
5.30 Fresh Air
5.31 Sick Building Syndrome
5.32 Changes in Fresh Air Requirement over
the Years
5.33 Filtration and Filters
5.34 Pleated Panel Type Filter
5.35 Noise & Noise Control in Airconditioning
5.36 Saving Energy on Airconditioning
5.37 Building Design
5.38 Energy Efficient Airconditioning Equipment
5.39 Effective Maintenance and Utility
Management



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5.1 Introduction
Airconditioning is defined as a process, which cools
(or heats), cleans, circulates, freshens air and
controls its moisture content simultaneously. Most
often airconditioning is about removing heat. Now
that we have defined airconditioning let us get to
know the nature of 'Heat'. There are two types of
'Heat': "Sensible Heat" and "Latent Heat" 'Sensible
heat' is any heat that raises the temperature but not
the moisture content of the substance. This is our
regular and familiar every day heat. Because it
raises the temperature it can be detected by the
senses and this in fact is why it is called Sensible
Heat.
'Latent Heat' is the tricky one. When we talk of
Latent Heat we mean 'Latent Heat of Vaporisation.
It is that heat required to transform a liquid to
vapour. Take water for example. Water can be
heated to its boiling point of 100C. If more heat is
added at this point the temperature of the water
does not increase. The water continues to boil and
becomes steam. So where does all the heat go?
Well, the heat goes into changing the water into
steam. The latent heat of vaporisation in this
instance is the heat required to change water from
liquid at 100C to vapour at the same temperature.


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Latent heat plays an important part in Refrigeration
and Airconditioning. It explains the principle of
refrigeration and also is a component of Heat Load.
Human beings generate Latent Heat by way of
moisture (perspiration) on their skin. This
perspiration requires to be dried; therefore, a
change of its state from liquid to vapour is required.
Fresh air which is added into the air system, very
often brings in plenty of moisture with it. Removal
of this additional moisture also involves latent heat
removal. A portion of the airconditioning heat load is
therefore in the form of latent heat, for example in
an office 10% of the airconditioning heat load could
be in the form of Latent Heat. This goes up to
around 25% in a restaurant and around 33% in a
movie theatre.
5.2 How Is Cooling Made Possible?
Now that we have discussed 'Heat let us talk about
the principle at work in airconditioning, the core
concept to understand is Evaporation. Remember
how cold your skin felt when dabbed by liquid spirit
at a doctor's clinic before an injection? It felt cold
A refrigerant is a gas with special
characteristic that make it suitable for
Refrigeration. It is possible to liquefy it
even ambient temperatures when the
pressure is raised R-22 is the most
commonly used refrigerant in air-
conditioning. Recent studies indicate
that Refrigerants when leaked into the
atmosphere cause damage to the ozone
layer. By international consensus
todays refrigerants may be replaced by
new ozone friendly refrigerants over the
next three or four decades.


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because the spirit evaporated (changed from liquid
state to the vapour state) very rapidly. And when it
evaporated it needed heat to change its state.
Where did this heat come from? It came from the
liquid itself and your skin with which it was in
contact.
In the refrigeration cycle this principle is put to work
by causing a liquid Refrigerant to evaporate in a
cooling coil (evaporator), This refrigerant is a
specially chosen substance which has the property
of evaporation at very low temperatures. (For
example, the commonly used refrigerant, R-22,
would start evaporating at -40C even under normal
atmospheric pressure). The cooling coil, in which the
refrigerant evaporates, is in contact with the air (or
water in chilled water systems) surrounding it,
thereby cooling that as well. Once cooled, this air
(or water) is then directed to the spaces which
require cooling.
5.3 Equipment Used To Produce Cooling:
Now that we have seen the process by which cooling
takes place, and examined the nature of heat and
humidity, let us briefly look at the main equipment
used to produce the effect we require.
5.3.1The Compressor:
Under atmospheric temperature and pressure the
refrigerant is in gaseous form. We learnt that the
cooling takes place when liquids evaporate to
become gas. Therefore we must first transform the
refrigerant gas into the liquid form. Most gasses can
be made into the liquid form by raising its pressure
(and cooling it, which is handled by the condenser).
The equipment that increases the pressure of the
gas by compressing it, is called the Compressor.


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5.3.2 The Condenser:
During compression however the refrigerant
becomes hot. This is because of two reasons:
a) Because of the work done on it (remember how
warm the hand pump became when pumping air
into your bicycle tires?) and
b) Because the refrigerant is converted from gas to
liquid releasing its latent heat.
This heat has to be removed to enable the gas to
condense into a liquid easily. The equipment that
removes the heat is called the Condenser.


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5.3.3 The Evaporator ('Cooling Coil'):
From the condenser we now have the liquid
refrigerant ready to go to work. This refrigerant can
remove heat when it starts evaporating. The liquid
refrigerant from the condenser is injected through a
metering device called the capillary or expansion


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valve into the cooling coil which is a bundle of
tubes.
Inside the cooling coil the pressure is low, because
of the metering/ throttling device on one side and
the compressor suction on the other side. In the low
pressure, the liquid refrigerant starts evaporating
rapidly. While evaporating it needs sensible heat to
transform itself from the liquid to the gas state. So
it soaks up heat from the surrounding tubes, and
from the air, with which the tubes are in contact.
This is what causes the cooling.
End of Cycle and Beginning of the Next One:
Having done this the refrigerant is back into the
gaseous form. It is sucked into the compressor
where it will be compressed again for the next
refrigeration cycle.
5.4 Airconditioning Capacity -The 'Ton'
Most of us have heard about the Ton' In connection
with heat Load or capacity of airconditioning
equipment. The Ton (TR)- in Refrigeration &
Airconditioning is a unit indicating a certain Quantity
of heat. This "Quantity of Heat" is different from
temperatures which only says how hot the
substance is but not how much heat it contains.
The two most common units for stating the heat
quantity are the British thermal unit (Btu) and the
Calorie (cal). The Btu is the quantity of heat needed
to raise the temperature of 1 Ib of water by 1
Fahrenheit. The Calorie is the metric unit of heat
quantity. It is the heat needed to raise the
temperature of a gram of water by 1 Celsius. Since
a calorie is a very small measurement, It is practical
to use thousand calories as the unit for
airconditioning and it is expressed as Kilo Calorie (K
Cal), 1 Ton Refrigeration = 12000 Btu or 3000 K Cal



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5.5 Heat Load Estimation
In warm countries the primary aim of
airconditioning is to bring the temperature down
within the conditioned space.
We know temperatures can be brought down by
removing heat airconditioning systems are
employed to pump out this heat from within the
space.
It is important to select the right airconditioning
equipment to do the job. A system that is too large
for the requirement would not only cost more, but
also be a waste of capacity. On the other hand, a
system with low capacity would not be able to
satisfy the comfort needs of the occupants. Further,
being of low capacity, the system would have to run
for a longer time thereby being prone to abnormal
wear and tear
It stands to reason therefore, that in order to select
the equipment of the right capacity, one must know
the quantity of heat that is to be removed from the
conditioned space. This 'quantity of heat' is
calculated using certain formulas and this process is
referred to as Heat Load Estimation
The heat within the space comes from various
sources both external and Internal. The sun brings
in external heat into the space through the walls,
roof and glazing. Fresh air brought into the
conditioned space from outside, contribute
substantially to the heat load. The Internal heat
comes from electrical equipment, machinery lighting
and from the occupants themselves Humans
dissipate heat into the space and their perspiration
adds to the humidity and therefore to the Latent
heat. The quantum of heat added by the occupants
depends on their level of activity. People at rest will
contribute less heat load than those doing more
physical activity.


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Calculating heat loads has evolved over the years to
become very precise. An airconditioning engineer
relies on certain checklist-like form or special
computer software to estimate the heat load
5.6 Types of Airconditioning Systems
Over the years, Airconditioning Systems have
evolved to suit different needs. The emergence of
new technologies, environment conditions and the
availability of space have all played a part in
shaping the airconditioning system of today. Though
many types of airconditioning systems are available
it is convenient to first classify them broadly as
follows:
Basic Branches of Airconditioning
The basic branches of airconditioning are Non-
Ducted products and Ductable System. Ductable
System can then be divided into Packaged
Airconditioners and Central Plants. Further
subdivisions appear in subsequent pages.
Non-Ducted Products and Ductable Systems
By Non-Ducted Products we mean those
airconditioners that do not use any air ducting to
cool the conditioned space. Window mounted 'Room
Airconditioners' and the 'Non-Ducted Split
Airconditioners' fall into this category. These
products are suitable where air throw is limited to
around 4 metres (13 feet) and small spaces are
involved. Where large spaces are involved, multiple
units are used to distribute the air. Alternatively in
order to distribute the air uniformly using fewer
units, ductable systems are preferred.
Ductable systems can be further subdivided into
Packaged airconditioners and Central plants. The
term 'Ductable' implies any airconditioning system
suitable for ducting. The design engineer may prefer


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not to use ducting by employing Fan coil Units
instead.
5.7 Non-Ducted Products
The basic branches of airconditioning can be divided
into Non-Ducted Products and Ducted Systems. Let
us first explore the branches under Non-Ducted
products:

5.7.1 Room Airconditioners
Room Airconditioners are familiar to most of us.
These ubiquitous machines can be seen mounted in
windows and therefore, also referred to as 'Window
Airconditioners'. In Window Airconditioners the
compressor, condenser-fan, condenser and
evaporator are all enclosed in a single cabinet. The
unit is to be installed in a wooden frame either in a
window or in a hole in the wall. The air being blown
through the condenser must pass freely through
without restriction. We must therefore, make sure


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that the condenser is not obstructed (for example
by a neighbouring wall).
These air conditioners come in cooling capacities of
0.5,0.75, 1, 1.5 and 2 tons, adequate for a room
between 5 and 20 square metres in size. Larger
spaces may be handled by using multiple units of
this type. While Window Airconditioners are
economical and most convenient to install they
could be noisy for some applications.


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5.7.2 Split Airconditioners
As the name implies, the Split Airconditioner is split
into two basic components, the Indoor unit and the
Outdoor unit. These two units are connected by
refrigeration tubing and electrical wires that can
pass through a hole in the wall barely 10cms in
diameter. Because the relatively g noisy
components, such as the compressor and condenser
fan, are in the outdoor unit, the conditioned space
tends to be quite. There are situations where it is
not possible to mount a window airconditioner
because of obstructions from neighbouring walls or
non availability "of a suitable window. In such cases
the Spilt Airconditioner is used because the outdoor
unit can be mounted on the roof or on a ledge some
distance away from the room to be airconditioned.
Though Split Airconditioners are more expensive
than the Window Mounted type they are preferred
for their low noise levels.



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The outdoor unit houses the compressor, condenser
and the condenser fan. The indoor unit consists of
the evaporator Cooling coil: and the evaporator
blower. Since the noisier components are outside
the building the conditioned space is much quieter.
5.7.3 Types of Split Airconditions
Indoor Units:
While the outdoor units of split airconditioners are
all similar the indoor units are available in different
types to suit the needs of the airconditioned space.
The types of indoor units are:
Floor Mounted: The indoor unit of this
Airconditioner is typically kept on the floor against
the wall of the space to be air-conditioned. This type
is ideal for living rooms or office rooms where
adequate floor space is available. Since the air
throw is from the top, the space above the indoor
unit must be free from obstructions.
High Wall Mounted: This unit is fixed to the wall at
height of about 2.5 metres usually below the false
ceiling. The controls are generally operated either
by a corded or cordless remote control unit, because


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it is mounted on the wall it is preferred for rooms
having less floor space. This model is widely used
for domestic and commercial applications.
Ceiling Mounted: Split airconditioners are
equipment designed to be suspended from the main
ceiling. They are available in three models:
a) Ceiling Mounted (Exposed): These units are
fixed directly to the ceiling and are visible. The
unit is similar to the Floor mounted (exposed)
type. They are easy to mount and are preferred
in commercial areas or offices that do not have a
false ceiling.
b) Ceiling Mounted (Hide-Way): These units are
also mounted at the ceiling but are designed for
being hidden. They are generally concealed by a
panelled box or false ceiling. These units are
suitable for commercial areas where the interior
design requires the airconditioning equipment to
be concealed so as not to interfere with the
aesthetics. You will find such units working in
restaurants and offices.

CEILING MOUNTED AND HIGH WALL MOUNTED
c) Cassette Type: Cassette type indoor units are
mounted above the false ceiling in such a way


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that the outlet grill of the units is flush with the
bottom of the false ceiling. While the other types
of indoor units provide for condensate draining
by gravity the same is not possible for the
cassette type. To overcome this problem a small-
motorised pump is employed to drain out the
condensate.

5.8 Drainage of Condensate Water
When the air around the evaporator is cooled, the
moisture in the air accumulates as water under the
evaporator. This happens because the cold air
cannot hold as much water vapour as it held when it
was warmer. You experience the same phenomenon
when a small puddle of water accumulates under a
chilled glass of water.
This water referred to as 'condensate' is collected in
a pan under the evaporator and must be removed
from the conditioned space. Therefore, wherever
indoor units are mounted, there must be a gently
sloping drain tube to carry this condensate water
away from the room. If the water is not drained out
properly it may collect in the drain pan until it
overflows and drips into the room.
5.9 Packaged Airconditioning Systems
Packaged Airconditioning systems can be broadly
classified as:



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Air-cooled Ductable Splits and
Floor standing packaged Airconditioners
5.9.1 Air-Cooled Ductable Splits:
The indoor portion of these units are located above
the false ceiling and connected to the ducting.
Consequently they do not occupy floor space.
Currently in India they are available in 3.5 and 7.5
ton capacities. Since the indoor units is located
above the false ceiling the space available limits the
capacity to 7.5 tons per unit.
However, great care must be taken to select the
location of the indoor units. Ideally, they must be
located in corridors, above lofts, etc. where
accessibility is not a problem. If the units are
located in the conditioned area, attending to the
machines can cause disturbance to the working
area. False ceilings in the decorated interior areas
may also get shabby due to maintenance handling
by mechanics
5.9.2 Floor Standing Packaged Units
These are shaped like cupboards and are typically
placed in a small enclosure adjacent to the
conditioned area. Inside this 'cupboard' like
enclosure is housed the Compressor, Evaporator
and the Evaporator blower. Though these units are
typically used with ducting they can also be placed
directly in the room to be conditioned whereby the
cooled air is thrown directly into the rooms without
ducting. Currently in India these units come in
capacities of 5, 7.5, 10 and 15 tons machines.
Higher capacities (20 tons and above) can be
expected in the coming years.
These floor standing packaged airconditioners come
in both the Air- cooled and the Water-cooled models


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Water-Cooled Units require water. This water is
used to cool the refrigerant in the condenser. Water
is pumped through the shell and tube condenser,
which is a part of the packaged unit. This water is
then sent into a cooling tower' outside the air-
conditioned room where the heat is dissipated to the
atmosphere. Water cooled units give higher capacity
and are more power efficient due to lower operating
pressure.
Air-Cooled Models are especially suitable for places
where water is space or of 'hard' quality, or where
there is no space for installing a cooling tower. The
heat is removed by way of an air-cooled condenser
with a fan blowing through it. This condensing Unit
is mounted outside the building on a sunshade or a
terrace Air-cooled.
Though they require a small plant room, floor
mounted packaged units offer some clear
advantages.
They are service friendly because of easy
accessibility.


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They can handle longer ducts by virtue of having
more powerful fans.
Large tonnages can be handled with fewer units
by using 10 TR OR 15 TR units.
Interiors are clean and undisturbed since the
machines are located in a separate plant room
5.10 Types of Compressors Used In
Window



Split and Packaged Airconditioners
As mentioned earlier the outdoor unit encloses the
compressor and the condenser. The compressors


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used in Window, Split and Packaged Air-conditioning
are typically Hermetically Sealed compressors. A
Hermetically sealed compressor is a gas tight steel
shell within which is housed an electrical motor and
the compressor unit. These compressors may be of
the Reciprocating type, the Scroll type or the Rotary
type. Let us take a brief look at these compressors
and how they work.
5.10.1Sealed Reciprocating Compressors
These compressors typically have one or two pistons
mounted on the crankshaft extension of the motor.
As the motor turns the crankshaft, the piston moves
up and down in the cylinder. On the top of the
cylinder is mounted a valve plate assembly with a
suction and discharge valve. Each time the piston
moves down, the suction valve opens and the gas is
sucked into the cylinder. When the piston moves up
the gas is pushed against the discharge valve which
opens to let the compressed gas out. These
compressors are available from very small fractional
ton capacities up to 10-ton units.


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5.10.2 Sealed Scroll Compressors:
Scroll compressors are a recent innovation in use
since the mid eighties. These compressors are very
efficient and are gaining acceptance among several
leading manufacturers as an option to the
reciprocating compressors. Scroll compressors use
two interlocked spiral-shaped members which
enclose the refrigerant gas in pockets between
them. One of the spiral-shaped members is fixed
and the other rotates causing the refrigerant to be
squeezed into ever decreasing pockets until it
reaches the centre from where it is discharged.
These compressors are currently available in small
capacities of upto 10 tons. The advantages include
high reliability, low maintenance, low noise &
vibration and high efficiency.
5.10.3 Sealed Rotary Compressors:
This type of compressor has a turning rotor
eccentric to the cylinder housing, and blades which
slide to form a continuous seal for the refrigerant
gas. At the beginning of the stroke a volume of
refrigerant gas enters the chamber. As the stroke
progresses the nature of eccentricity squeezes the
gas thereby compressing it. Rotary compressors are
considered unsuitable for areas with high ambient
temperatures and limited to use in window


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airconditioners and small split airconditioners. These
compressors are not repairable and are generally
replaced when they become defective
5.11 Mounting Of Outdoor Units
All types of split units are connected to a box like
cabinet placed outside the conditioned space. This
'box' is the 'Outdoor Unit' (ODU) through which the
heat from the conditioned space is dissipated into
the atmosphere. If we look inside the outdoor unit,
we will find a Compressor, a Finned- Coil Condenser
and a Fan Motor with a fan blade used for blowing
or sucking air through the finned coil. We would also
find some electrical components and cables. The
outdoor unit is typically mounted on an external
wall, the roof, and sunshade or skirting around the
building. The airconditioning engineer is careful
about how and where the outdoor unit is mounted.
Let us take a brief look at some of the key points.
5.12 Mounting, Safety and Serviceability
When the unit is wall mounted, we must ensure
that the wall to which the ODU support
framework is grouted, is structurally sound and
is capable of supporting the load of the ODU.
This applies to any other structure on which the
ODU is mounted.
We should also make sure that the ODU support
framework is properly designed, with a catwalk
to permit servicing and
A Safety Railing Must Be Provided Around The
Structure.


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5.13 Coastal Installations
Special care must be taken while installing ODUs on
the seacoast. We must ensure that
The condenser fan outlet is not facing the sea
wind. This is done to reduce the risk of the fan
not running at all or losing speed while working
against the wind
The ODUs are not located near ground level,
close to the beach since sand can clog the
condenser coils
Care is taken to give the supporting framework a
good quality anti corrosive paint treatment
(epoxy or chlorinated rubber paint) and
The isolator switch and electrical components are
properly protected from moisture.
5.14 Installation Practices for Air-Cooled
Units
Copper Standards for Piping
We know that the Indoor Unit (IDU) of any Split
airconditioner is connected with the Outdoor unit
through refrigerant piping. Most often imported
copper pipe is used for this purpose.


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Soft Drawn Copper Tubing is used for single
phase Non Ducted split airconditioners
Hard Drawn, L-Grade Copper Tubing is used for
3 Phase Ducted Splits/Packaged units
5.15 Length of Interconnecting Piping
We must always ensure that the right distance is
maintained between the IDU and ODU. There are
limits to the distance between them imposed by the
equipment design. As the distance between the
units increases the following happens:
The refrigerant pressure drops, resulting in
decreased cooling capacity.
The lubricating oil does not return to compressor
damage (it is a good idea to the compressor


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provide an oil trap every 3 meters or so on the
suction line. This helps to return the lubricant to
the compressor along with the return gas easily,
leading to and
The extra refrigerant required by long tubing can
lead to un-evaporated liquid refrigerant flowing
into the compressor thereby damaging it.
5.16 Refrigerant Pipe Insulation
Refrigerant Piping carrying gas from evaporator
(cooling coil) to the compressor is known as Suction
line, and the piping carrying liquid refrigerant from
the condenser to the evaporator is known as Liquid
line. The insulation requirement will depend on
where the metering device, usually a capillary or a
expansion valve, is located.
If the metering device is located in the ODU the
Suction and liquid lines must be separately insulated
and gap maintained between the two lines.
If however the device is located in the IDU, the
Suction and discharge lines must be insulated
together.
CENTRAL PLANTS


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5.17 Direct Expansion and Chilled Water
Systems
Central Plants are usually large airconditioning
plants assembled at the site. These plants are used
for big buildings such as hotels, theatres, hospitals,
large office complexes and factories. They are
designed for accurate control of all the parameters
of comfort. As the name implies the Central Plant is
housed in a central location usually in a plant room.


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This plant room could be in a basement or adjacent
to the building to be airconditioned
Though the Central Plant can look quite complex
with large compressors pumps, gauges, miles of
piping, ducts and cables, the basic components are
the same as smaller plants. Central plants comprise
of Compressors, condensers, Air-Handling Units,
Water Chillers and cooling Towers.
As we see in the tree diagram for Central Plants, the
main divisions are those that use Direct Expansion
(DX) and those that use Chilled Water.
Direct Expansion (DX) System: In this system air
is cooled and conditioned in the plant room. This
treated air is then pumped to various parts of the
building. The air returning from the airconditioned
area is sucked through a coil-fin arrangement by a
fan. Refrigerant inside the coil picks up heat from
this air and evaporates. The cold air is then pumped
back to the airconditioned space. In DX plants the
place where this heat exchange takes place is called
an Air Handling Unit (AHU). This type of system
typically uses ducting passing through the structure
to various parts of the building to be conditioned.


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Chilled Water System: Where Refrigerant and
water interaction takes place the system is called a -
Chilled Water System. The refrigerant in the shell
(or tube, depending on the design) of a shell & tube
heat exchanger evaporates by picking up the heat
from the water which is in the other portion of the
heat exchanger. This chilled water, is then circulated
to various water-air heat exchangers called Fan Coil
Units/ Air Handling Units. The system is also
preferred where multiple zones are to be cooled like
a hotel or hospital.
5.18 Compressors Used In Vapour
Compression Central Plants:
As we saw in the tree diagram for Central Plants,
the main division were those that use the Direct
Expansion (DX) system and those that use Chilled
Water. Referring again to the diagram you will see
that the next level is divided into system using
vapour compression units and those vapour
absorption system.
While the Vapour Absorption system uses a
chemical reaction to produce low temperature/ the
Vapour Compression System uses a Compressor to
compress the refrigerant gas. These compressors
are driven by an external motor. While smaller
central plants use one or two compressors, large
plants depend on a bank of such machines.
Generally two compressors are provided in tandem
so that even when one is being serviced the other
one keeps working. Compressors are truly
remarkable machine built for extreme reliability and
efficiency.
The type of compressors most widely used in
Central Plants are the Reciprocating type the Screw
Type and the Centrifugal type.
The Reciprocating Compressor: The reciprocating
compressor is similar to the two-stroke motorbike


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engine. It employs a crankshaft to drive
reciprocating pistons which compress the
refrigerant. These compressors are the most
common type of compressors used in India today
are as well suited for application ranging from less
than a ton to 120 tons of airconditioning.
The Screw Type Compressor: The objective of
any compressor is to reduce the volume of the
gaseous refrigerant. The screw type compressors
does it by using a pair of helical l shaped screws
which mesh while rotating and compress the volume
of refrigerant gas as it travels from the inlet to the
discharge port. Screw compressors are popular in
capacities over 100 TR.
The Centrifugal Compressors: Centrifugal force is
that force which pushes you to the right of your car
when you are taking a sharp left turn. Or vice versa.
The centrifugal compressor employs one or more
rapidly spinning disks to force the refrigerant gas
from it's centre to its extremity thereby increasing
pressure. These compressors are typically used for
application requiring tonnage ranging from 150 TR
to several thousand tons.






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5.19 Packaged Chillers
Many large airconditioning applications require
Chilled Water and depend on "Packaged Chillers" to
provide the chilled water. These chillers are typically
mounted on a frame and comprises a compressor
with it's drive motor, a condenser (air or water
cooled) and a shell & tube heat exchanger.
Depending on the type of compressor used these
chillers can be classified as a Reciprocating Chiller, a
Screw Chiller or a Centrifugal Chiller. Where the
absorption system is used the chillers are called
Absorption Chillers.



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5.20 Packaged Chillers Installation Tips
A few precautions are to be taken when installing
Chillers

5.21 Air Cooled Chillers
Do not have obstruction on top of chillers (for
top discharge units)
Have at least 1-meter clearance on all sides
adjacent to the chillers.
Support chiller weights on reinforced building
structure and not on slabs


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Ensure all electrical switch gear are in weather
proof enclosures.
Provide adequate vibration isolation between
chiller and building by using vibration absorbing
pads or springs.
5.22 Water Cooled Chillers
Have at least 1 to 1.5 meters clearance between
units
Leave space equal to condenser length for tube
cleaning
Air & Water Cooled Systems
5.23 Introducing the Condenser
Now that we have been introduced to the
compressor let us discuss the Condenser. If we
pause to think about it, we will notice that the
airconditioning process is a series of heat transfers.
The heat from the conditioned space is transferred
via the refrigerant, the condenser and the cooling
tower to the outside air.
In the air cooled system the heat from the
conditioned area is transferred to the cold


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refrigerant warming it up. This warm refrigerant
then sheds the heat to the air outside in the Air
Cooled Condenser.
In the water-cooled system the heat from the
conditioned area is transferred to the cold
refrigerant warming it up. This warm refrigerant
transfers the heat to water in the Water Cooled
Condenser thereby warming the water. This warm
water in turn transfers the heat to the atmosphere
through the cooling tower cooling tower.
5.23.1How the Condenser Is Cooled
There are two ways in which the condenser is
cooled:
By blowing or sucking Air through it in an Air
cooled condenser and
By pumping water through in a Water Cooled
Condenser
5.23.2 How The Air Cooled Condenser Is
Cooled:
An air cooled condenser consists of a set of finned
copper tubes and a fan to blow or blow the air
through this finned coil arrangement. The hot gas
flows through the condenser inside the tubes while
air is blown or sucked through the condenser inside
the tubes arrangement by a fan. The air which is
normally at a temperature 10C to 12C lower than
the gas, picks up the heat from the gas making it
condense inside the tube. Air cooled condensers are


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very common for windows, split and packaged
airconditioners and are now becoming popular for
central plants also.
However, because of their superior efficiency,
water-cooled plants are preferred, where adequate
water is available
5.23.3 How The Water Cooled Condenser
Is Cooled:
In water cooled condenser water is pumped through
the tubes of a shell & tube condenser using a water
pump and the refrigerant is passed through the
shell. This condenser is also called 'Heat Exchanger'
because this is where the refrigerant and water
exchange heat with each other. On giving away
some of it's heat to the water, the refrigerant
condenses in the shell. The water, which gains some
heat in the heat exchanger travels to the cooling
tower where part of the water evaporates on
contact with air, cooling the remaining water, which
is once again circulated through the heat exchanger.


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5.24 Cooling Towers
We learnt that in the water cooled air-conditioning
system the heat from the room is transferred to the
condenser, and from the condenser to the cooling
water, which finally transfers the heat into the
atmosphere
In the Cooling Tower the water is sprayed through
nozzles into the air. The water becomes small
droplets and evaporates thereby losing heat and
becoming cool. This cool water falls into a sump
tank at the bottom of the cooling tower from where
it is pumped into the shell & tube condenser and the
cycle repeats again. The typical types of Cooling
Towers are:
Atmospheric or Natural Draft Towers. In these
towers the water is sprayed into the tower and the
droplets of water cools in the natural air currents
passing through the cooling tower.


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Forced Draft Towers. These towers use a motor
and fan to pull or push a constant volume of air
through the tower, water is sprayed through nozzles
evaporating rapidly and cooling the rest of the
water. The quality of water is very important for the
performance of the airconditioning system, hard
water causes scaling, thereby decreasing the
efficiency of heat transfer in the condenser. Some
water is required to make up for the water which
evaporates and also the portion of the water that is
blown away by the wind. This is referred to as
'Make-up water. Water cooled condensers and
cooling towers are normally used where water is
available in plenty.
5.25 Air Handling Units
The Air Handling Unit (AHU) is a centrifugal type fan
that pumps air. The fan is usually located in the Air
Handler/Water Coil Cabinet. Its purpose is to create
a pressure differential so that the air from the
conditioned space is drawn to the unit. The air is
passed through a filter first to remove dust particles
and then over the cooling coils or chilled water


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tubes where the heat is rejected. This cooled and
dehumidified air is then drawn into the suction side
of the fan and discharged back into the conditioned
space. A damper arrangement in the suction side of
the AHU is kept a little open to draw in fresh air.
The typical AHU is a steel sheet cabinet which
houses the Cooling Coil and the blower fan. The
motor is mounted on the outside of the cabinet and
drives the blower by pulley-belt arrangements.
Depending on their application, AHUs vary in size
from small/medium sized packaged units to large
walk-in models.
There are two types of AHUs, the 'single skinned'
and the 'double skinned' type.
The 'single skinned' AHUs are widely used. They
have a single layer cabinet and are usually placed
inside an AHU room. It is advisable to insulate the


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room so that the air in the AHU does not pick up
heat from the outside warm air. Keeping the AHU in
an insulated room also reduces the sound levels in
the conditioned space.
The 'double skinned' type has an inner cabinet and
the outer cabinet. A layer of thermal insulation is
sandwiched between the two cabinets. Though
these AHUs are more expensive than the single
skinned type, they have the following advantages:
Because of the Insulation, the cool air inside
does not gain heat from the surrounding air
thereby improving the efficiency of the plant.
They are more silent because the thermal
Insulation also acts like an acoustic insulation.
They do no sweat' on the outside and can be
kept in the non- airconditioned space thereby
saving on the cost of a separate plant / AHU
room.



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5.26 Fan Coil Units
The Fan Coil Unit (FCU) is a sheet metal cabinet that
houses a Chilled Water Coil constructed out of
copper tubes and aluminium fins, a Blower with
motor and an Air Filter, Fan Coil Units are generally
used where multiple areas (example, hotel rooms)
are to be cooled independently using a central
airconditioning plant.
The water is chilled centrally and pumped to various
parts of the building through insulated pipes. The
chilled water enters the FCU where exchange takes
place between the room air and the chilled water in
the coil. Air is passed over the coils using a three-
speed blower motor, mounted in the FCU. The air
speed can be controlled by choosing the blower
motor speed, from a selector switch, in the
conditioned space.
A thermostat is also mounted in the airconditioned
space. The thermostat controls a solenoid valve that
closes when the desired temperature is reached,
thereby shutting off the flow of chilled water into the
FCU water coil. Once the temperature in the room
rises the thermostat activates the solenoid valve
which opens allowing the chilled water to flow into
the coil again
5.27 Ducts, Grilles & Diffusers
Ducts are usually Galvanised Sheet Steel or
aluminium sheets shaped into rectangular boxes or


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round tubes. They are used to distribute the cool air
from the Air Handling Unit (AHU), uniformly
thorough out the building to be airconditioned. They
start at the AHU, or the packaged airconditioner,
and travel to the spaces to be conditioned carrying
the cool air.
Diffusers And Grilles: The conditioned supply air
arrives through the ducts at the supply air diffusers
and enters the conditioned space. Most diffusers are
attached to the false ceiling and a variety of
diffusers are available for different air spreading
needs. For well distributed cooling, an airflow
pattern needs to be created in the conditioned
space. The design engineer takes care to separate
the supply air diffusers and the return air grilles to
prevent short circuiting of the air. Return air usually
flows into the plenum or return air box through
grilles placed in the false ceiling.
Return Air: Since a substantial amount of energy
goes into cooling the air in the first place, it is a
practice to recycle the air. The air is therefore
brought back to the AHU, or the packaged
airconditioned, using return air ducts. It is common
to route the return air through the gap between the
false ceiling and the main ceiling, a space referred
to as a 'plenum'. It is desirable wherever possible to


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pass the supply air duct through the return air
plenum, because this works like a heat exchanger,
thereby improving the efficiency of the plant.
Sometimes a separate system of return air
ducts/boxing is employed to carry the return air
instead of using the plenum. Where the supply air
ducts do not pass through the plenum they are
usually insulated so that cool air does not pick up
heat from the warmer surroundings.
Fresh Air Intake: A certain volume of fresh,
outside air is sucked into the building near the AHU
This air is usually drawn in through a, damper'
which is adjusted to allow the specified volume of
air into the building, This keeps the air pressure
within the building a little higher than the outside air
pressure. This prevents dusty, moist or any


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undesirable external air from infiltrating into the
building.
5.28 Co-Ordination between Designer and
Airconditioning Engineer
The vertical and horizontal distribution of air supply
system is a major design issue requiring co-
ordination between the architect and the engineer.
It would be advisable to select the basic system
during the early phase of building design. This is
because ducting requires taking the optimum route
in the space between the false ceiling and the main
ceiling avoiding obstructions such as beams,
columns and partition walls
5.29 Modern Trends in Design and
Fabrication of Ducts
Most contractors fabricate the ducting on site
according to drawings provided by design engineers.
In recent times however I computer aided design of
ducting is being used to determine the optimum
duct dimensions.
Modern facilities are being set up to manufacture
machine made ducts These ducts are pre-fabricated
and shipped to the site for quick and convenient
assembly, Though these pre-fabricated ducts cost
more than the hand made ones, they have the
following advantages:
Least disturbance at site because ducts come
ready made
Less space required for storage of pre-fabricated
sections
Minimum leakage and vibration noise
Better designed reinforcement
Consistent quality because of standardised
material at factory


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5.30 Fresh Air
Freshening The Air: One of the most important
factors in delivering comfort is the freshness of the
conditioned air. If the same air was circulated over
and over again it would become 'stale' and make
the occupants very uncomfortable. Ideally an
airconditioning system would induce plenty of fresh
air into the air system. However this outside air
brings with it moisture and heat from outside. This
causes the heat load on the airconditioning system
to go up thereby requiring a larger and
consequently more expensive plant.
Substantial research has been done to determine
the optimum requirement of fresh air for different
application and the airconditioning engineer designs
the plant accordingly. Usually the fresh air
requirements are stipulated as cubic feet per minute
(cfm) per person or minimum air changes per hour.
A guide on recommended Fresh Air requirements is
given below:
5.31 Sick Building Syndrome
Airconditioning systems must do more than provide
immediate comfort conditions. They must also be
designed to prevent hidden negative affects on the
occupants over a period of time. Indoor Air Quality
(AIQ) is becoming an important concern and one
hears the term 'Sick Building Syndrome' (SBS)
frequently these days. The effects of IAQ are usually
non-specific symptoms rather than clearly defined
illness. Symptoms attributed to IAQ problems
include headache, nausea, shortness of breath,
sinus congestion, cough and eye-nose & throat
irritation. The solution often lies in improvement of
the air quality by introducing plenty of fresh clean
air into the building and reducing the noise of air-
flow and machinery.


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5.32 Changes in Fresh Air Requirement
Over The Years
It is interesting to see how the specified fresh air
requirements changed over the years. In 1824 the
recommendation was 4 cubic feet per minute (cfm)
per person. In 1893 The American Society of
Heating Refrigeration and Airconditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) changed the specification to 30 cfm. In
1936 it went down to 10 cfm which was considered
the threshold level for detecting human body
odours. In the early seventies with the energy crisis
forcing the world into fuel economy the figure went
way down to 5 cfm. Then in the Eighties the growing
concern about indoor air quality prompted the
society to raise the quantity of fresh air to 15 cfm

5.33 Filtration and Filters
In order to clean the air it is passed through filters
that remove the airborne dust particles and ensure
delivery of clean air to the conditioned spaces. We
have seen how important the quality of air is in the


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airconditioning system and filters play an important
part in delivering good air quality. The filters keep
the cooling coils from clogging thereby maintaining
the efficiency of heat transfer. Without a good air
filtration system the diffusers in the rooms 'streak'
and fluorescent lamps gather a film of dust that cuts
illumination. Dust choked filters interfere with the
performance of the air system. It is therefore very
important to clean or replace the filters periodically.



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5.34 Pleated Panel Type Filter
The typical filter in use is the Pleated Panel type also
known as the Synthetic Media Etended Surface type
filter. The pleated panel type filter consists of a
porous fabric like material folded like an accordion
(to Increase the surface area) and fitted into a
frame
5.35 Noise & Noise Control in
Airconditioning
Sound is a result of vibration of air. When sound is
unpleasant it is referred to as' Noise In an
airconditioning system sound emanates from the
machinery such as fans, fan motors, compressors,
pumps, air flow through ducts and diffusers, pipes &
tubes and cooling tower fans The solutions are a) to
reduce the original source of the sound by using
well designed equipment; b) enclose the source in
acoustically insulated space; and c) to absorb the
sound using sound tower fans.
It is a practice to mount vibration-producing
machinery on anti- vibration mounts such as
cork, rubber, springs and 'cushioned feet. Plant
rooms are acoustically insulated to prevent
machinery sound from permeating into the
airconditioned space.


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Ducts are fitted with sound attenuators which
work somewhat like the mufflers in the exhaust
pipe of a car. In addition, acoustic insulation is
used on some portions of the duct, near the AHU
discharge, where it is most prone to making
noise.
Pipes are insulated from the wall it passes
through so that the vibrations are not passed
into the structure.
Cooling towers using Axial Fans are a little more
noisy than those using Centrifugal fans. In the
induced draft cooling tower the sound is higher
at the fan discharge side of the tower desirable
to arrange the fan discharge side in such a way
that windows do not overlook it.
Inside the conditioned space, some noise can
make an entry through the diffusers. Carpets
and curtains inside the space help to dampen
sound.
Locating the plant room properly will help reduce
noise levels within the conditioned space.
5.36 Saving Energy on Airconditioning
In any commercial airconditioned building the
airconditioning system generally consumes the
maximum power. Taking a little care to minimise
energy consumption will result in substantial savings
in the long run Energy savings can be made by
Adopting an energy-efficient building design
Using energy-efficient airconditioning systems
and
Regular maintenance and effective utility
management.



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5.37 Building Design:
rientation of the building plays a key role In the
structure's airconditioning requirement. Excessive
use of glass especially on the western side adds
high airconditioning heat loads. Using materials such
as foam concrete, double wall glazing, hollow
concrete blocks, or foam insulated roofing will help
improve the insulation of the building and save
energy.
5.38 Energy Efficient Airconditioning
Equipment:
It is advisable to go In for equipment with the best
Energy Efficieny Ratio (EER). Though initial capital
may be higher, the user will save energy
continuously thereby saving expenses in the long
run. Packaged airconditioners/Ducted Splits are
available with Reciprocating Compressors as well as
Scroll Compressors. Scroll Compressors are capable
of higher EER and hence save on energy. For higher
tonnages Screw and Centrifugal equipment are most
preferred because of low operating costs. Where
heat source such as steam or hot water is available
as a by product or economically, Absorption type
units are a good energy saving choice.
5.39 Effective Maintenance and Utility
Management:
Regular maintenance will ensure efficient
performance. Cleaning of filters, de-scaling of the
heat exchanger, lubricating friction points, such as
fans, motors and shafts, should be done regularly.
Prudent utility management will save substantial
energy on the airconditioning. Simple measures like
isolating areas of the building not in use, setting
indoor temperatures in the highest point acceptable
to the largest segment of occupants, and shutting
off the system when not in use will save energy.


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Assignment:
Discussion and case studies with respect to types of
air conditioning split , central.
Students to prepare schematic plans for various air-
conditioning systems used in different working
environments such as a small office, drawing room
of a residence etc.


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Summary:
Air-conditioning deals with various types of heats
and the process is a series of heat transfers. The
heat from the conditioned space is transferred via
the refrigerant, the condenser and the cooling tower
to the outside air.
Over the years, different Air conditioning Systems
have evolved to suit different needs. The emergence
of new technologies, environment conditions and
the availability of space have all played a part in
shaping the air conditioning system of today. Many
types of air conditioning systems are available the
ductable and the non ductable systems.
Further, the air distribution systems , namely the
ducts , grills , diffusers etc. are used to distribute
cool air throughout the building. Regular
maintenance of the above is a must to ensure
efficient performance.
Revision points:
1. What is air-conditioning
2. Various types of heats
3. The cooling cycle of air-conditioning.
4. Various typess of air-conditioning systems
5. The air distribution systems
Key words:
1. Air-conditioning
2. Sensible heat and latent heat
3. Ton
4. A.H.U.
In text questions:
1. What is air conditioning? Explain in detail the
various types of heats.
2. What is heat load estimation?
3. What are air-handling units?
4. Define the following:
5. Cooling tower
6. A.H.U.
7. Grills and diffusers.
8. Split A.C.


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Terminal exercises:
1. Explain with the help of a sketch the cooling
cycle of an air conditioner.
2. Explain in detail the various types of split air
conditioners.
3. What are ductable airconditioning systems?
Explain in detail.
4. Explain in detail the various types of
compressors in a window AC.
5. What points would you keep in mind while
installing a split air conditioner?
6. What are central plants? Explain in detail the
various types of central types.
7. How is the condenser cooled in an airconditioning
system?
8. Write a detailed note on the types of grills and
diffusers available in the market today.
9. What kind of airconditioning systems would you
recommend for the following areas. Give reasons
for your choice.
10.Drawing room of a residence
11.A hotel suite
12.Restaurant
13.A small office
14.How do you control noise in an air-conditioned
environment?
Suggested reading:
1. Time Savers Standards For Buildings Types
2. Time Savers Standards For Interior design and
Space Planning.
3. Building Construction by S.K Sharma



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Unit - IV

Lesson-6: Fire Protection




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Lesson 6: Fire Protection

Objective:
To study major causes of fire in a building.
To understand the aspects of fire safety and
important characteristics of fire resistant
materials.
To be familiar with fire extinguishing
equipments.
Structure:
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Causes of fire
6.3 Characteristics of Fire Resisting Materials
6.4 Fire-Resisting Properties of Common Building
Materials
6.5 General Fire Safety Requirements for
Buildings
6.6 Fire Resistant Construction
6.6.1 Walls and columns
6.6.2 Floors and roofs
6.6.3 Wall Openings
6.6.4 Escape Elements
6.6.5 Strong room construction
6.7 Fire Alarms
6.8 Fire Extinguishing Equipments




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6.1 Introduction
No building material is perfectly fire proof. Every
building contains some materials (such as furniture,
clothing, eatables etc.) which can either easily catch
fire or which are vulnerable to fire. However, the
endeavour of the architects and engineers should be
to plan, design and construct the building in such a
way that safety of occupants may be ensured to the
maximum possible extent in the event of outbreak
of fire in the building due to any reason whatsoever.
The technical interpretation of fire safety of building
is to convey the fire resistance of buildings in tern
IS of hours when subjected to fire of known
intensity. It should have structural time interval so
that adequate protection to the occupants is
afforded. A wider interpretation of fire safety may
be deemed to cover the following aspects:
a) Fire prevention and reduction of number of
outbreaks of fire,
b) Spread of fire, both internally and externally,
c) Safe exit of any and all occupants in the event of
an out-break of fire, and
d) Fire extinguishing apparatus.
6.2 Causes of fire
Most fires are caused by carelessness. Common
instances of carelessness are:
a) Careless discarding of lighted ends of cigarettes,
cigars, matches and tobacco,
b) Smoking in unauthorised places.
c) Indifferent maintenance of machinery including
overloading and under or over lubricating of
bearings,
d) General indifference to cleanliness,
e) Incorrect storage of materials,


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f) Faulty workmanship and inattention to electrical
installations (this is particularly evident by the
fires which occur during the monsoon),
g) Un-approved equipment and layout,
h) Inattention of persons concerned with inspection
and patrol of the premises under their
jurisdiction, and
i) Inattention of fire safety regulations, etc.
In case of an outbreak of fire, the danger is from
fire, smoke and panic. The provision of suitable
means of escape should be in relation to these
dangers and the number of persons affected. The
chances of damage due to panic can be reduced;
the escapes should be located in such a way that
they remain unobstructed by smoke or fumes. The
means of escapes from fire should be easily
accessible, unobstructed and clearly defined.



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6.3 Characteristics of Fire Resisting
Materials
An ideal fire resisting material should possess the
following characteristics:
1. The material should not disintegrate under the
effect of great heat.
2. The expansion of the material due to heat should
not be such that it leads to instability of the
structure of which it forms a part.
3. The contraction of the material due to sudden
cooling with water (during fire extinguishing
process) after it has been heated to a high
temperature should not be rapid.
In relation to fire, building materials can be divided
into two types:
a) Non-combustible materials: Non-combustible
materials are those which if decomposed by heat
will do so with absorption of heat (i.e.
endothermically) or if they do oxidise, do so with
negligible evolution of heat. These materials do
not contribute to the growth or spread of fire,
but are damaged and decomposed when high
temperatures are reached. Examples of non-
combustible materials are: stones and bricks,
concrete, clay products, metal, glass etc.
b) Combustible materials: Combustible materials
are those which, during fire, combine
exothermically with oxygen, resulting in
evolution of lot of heat and giving rise to flame
or glow. Such materials burn and also contribute
to the growth of fire. Examples of these
materials are: wood and wood products,
fibreboard, straw board etc.



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6.4 Fire-Resisting Properties of Common
Building Materials
1. Stone: Stone is a non-combustible building
material and also a bad conductor of heat and
does not contribute to the spread of fire.
However, it is a bad fire-resisting material since
it is liable to disintegrate into small pieces when
heated and suddenly cooled, giving rise to failure
of structure. Granite, on exposure to severe
heat, explodes and disintegrates. Limestone is
the worst, since it is easily crumbled even under
ordinary fire. Sand stone of compact composition
(fine grained) can, however, stand the exposure
to moderate fire without serious cracks. In
general, the use of stone in a fire-resisting
construction should be restricted to a minimum.
2. Bricks: Brick is a poor conductor of heat. First
class bricks moulded from good clay can stand
exposure to fire for a considerable length of
time, upto temperatures of about 1200C. Brick
masonry construction, with good mortar and
better workmanship, is the most suitable for
safeguarding the structure against fire hazards.


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3. Concrete: The behaviour of concrete during
exposure to heat varies with the nature of coarse
aggregate and its density, and the quality of
cement. It also depends upon the position of
steel in concrete. Aggregates expand on heating
while ordinary cement shrinks on heating. These
two opposite actions may lead to spalling of the
concrete surface. Aggregates obtained from
igneous rocks containing higher calcareous
content, tend to crack more while the aggregates
like foamed slag, cinder and bricks are better.
The cracks formed in concrete generally extend
to a depth of about 25 mm. Hence reinforced
concrete fire-resistant construction should have
greater cover. In general, concrete offers a much
higher resistance to fire than any other building
material. Reinforced concrete structures can
withstand fire lasting for several hours with a
temperature of 1000C without serious damage.
4. Steel: Though steel is non-combustible, it has
very low fire resistance, since it is a good
conductor of heat. During fire, it gets heated
very soon, its modulus of elasticity reduces and
it looses its tensile strength rapidly. Unprotected
steel beam sags and unprotected columns or
struts buckle, resulting in the collapse of
structures. If the surface paint on these steel
components is not fire resistant structure, it is
essential to protect structural steel members
with some coverings of insulating materials like
brick, terra-cotta, concrete etc. Fixing of steel in
plate or sheet form to the structural steel
framework is also effective in resisting the
passage of flame. Such construction is widely
used in making fire-resisting doors and windows.
5. Glass: Glass is poor conductor of heat, and its
thermal expansion is also less. When it is heated
and then suddenly cooled, cracks are formed.


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These cracks can be minimised if glass is
reinforced with steel wire netting. Thus,
reinforced glass is more fire resistant, and can
resist variations in temperature without serious
cracks. Rein- forced glass has higher melting
point. Even if cracks are formed, the embedded
wires hold the cracked portion in position.
Reinforced glass is therefore commonly used for
fire-resisting doors, windows, done skylights,
etc.
6. Timber: Timber is a combustible material. It
ignites and gets rapidly destroyed during fire, if
the section is small. However, if timber is used in
thick sections, it possesses the properties of self-
insulation and slow burning. During exposure to
fire, timber surface gets charred; this charred
portion acts as protective coating to the inner
portion. However, if the temperatures are higher
than 500C, timber gets dehydrated under
continued exposure, giving rise to combustible
volatile gases which readily catch fire. In order to
make timber fire-resistant, the following
measures are adopted:
i. Use of thicker sections at wider spacing than
thinner sections at closer spacing, especially
in case of floor joints.
ii. Reducing number of comers and area of
exposed surfaces to a minimum.
iii. Coating timber surface with chemicals like
ammonium phosphate and sulphate, borax
and boric acid, zinc chloride,
iv. Painting timber surfaces with asbestos or
ferrous oxide paints, if painting is necessary.
Painting these with oil paints or varnish
should not be done since these paints catch
fire.


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7. Cast-iron and wrought iron: Cast iron
behaves very badly in the event of fire. On
sudden cooling, it gets contracted and breaks
down into pieces or fragments, giving rise to
sudden failure. Hence it is rarely used in fire-
resistant building unless suitably covered by
bricks, concrete etc. Wrought iron behaves
practically in the same way as mild steel.
8. Asbestos cement: It is formed by combining
fibrous asbestos with Portland cement. It has low
coefficient of expansion and has property of
incombustibility. It has, therefore, great fire-
resistance. Asbestos cement products are largely
used for construction of fire-resistant partition
walls, roofs, etc. It is also used as protective
covering to other structural members.
9. Aluminium: It is very good conductor of heat. It
has very poor fire-resistant properties. Its use
should be restricted to only those structures
which have very fire risks.
10.Plaster or mortar: Plaster is non-combustible.
Hence it should be used to protect walls and
ceilings against fire risk. Cement plaster is better
than lime plaster since the latter is likely to be
calcined during fire. Using it in thick layers or
reinforcing it with metal laths can increase the
fire-resistance of plaster. Gypsum plaster, when
used over structural steel members, makes them
better fire-resistant.
6.5 General Fire Safety Requirements for
Buildings
In order that the fire hazards (i.e. personal hazard,
internal hazard and exposure hazards) are
minimised, it is recommended that the buildings
shall conform to the following general requirements:


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1. All buildings and particularly buildings having
more than one storey shall be provided with
liberally designed and safe fire- proof exits or
escapes.
2. The exits shall be so placed that they are always
immediately accessible and each is capable of
taking all the persons on that floor, as
alternative escape routes may be rendered
unusable and/or unsafe due to fire.
3. Escape routes shall be well ventilated as persons
using the escapes are likely to be overcome by
smoke and/or fumes which may enter from the
fire.
4. Fire-proof doors shall conform rigidly to the fire
safety requirements.
5. Where fire-resisting doors are employed as cut-
offs or fire breaks, they shall be maintained in
good working order so that they may be readily
opened to allow quick escape of persons trapped
in that section of the building, and also, when
necessary, prompt rescue work can be
expeditiously carried out.
6. Electrical and/or mechanical lifts, while reliable
under normal conditions may not always be
relied on for escape purposes in the event of a
fire, as the electrical supply to the building itself
may be cut-off or otherwise interrupted, or those
relying on mechanical drive may not have the
driving powder available.
7. Lift shafts and stairways invariably serve as flues
or tunnels thus increasing the fire by increased
drought and their design shall be such as to
reduce or avoid this possibility and consequent
spread of fire.
8. False ceiling, either for sound effects or air-
conditioning or other similar purpose shall be so


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constructed as to prevent either total or early
collapse in the event of fire so that persons
underneath are not fatally trapped before they
have the time to reach the exits; this shall apply
to cinemas, and other public or private buildings
where many people congregate.
9. To a lesser extent, the provisions of clause (8)
above shall apply to single-storey buildings
which may be used for residence or an
equivalent occupancy. Whatever be the class or
purpose of the building, the design and
construction shall embody the fire retardant
features for ceilings and/or roofs.
10.Floors. Floors are required to withstand .the
effects of fire for the full period stated for the
particular grading. The design and construction
of floors shall be of such a standard that shall
obviate any replacement, partial or otherwise,
because experience shows that certain types of
construction stand up satisfactorily against
collapse and suffer when may first be considered
as negligible damage, but in practice later
involves complete stripping down and either total
or major replacement. This consideration shall
also be applied to other elements of structure
where necessary.
11.Roofs. Roof for the various fire-grades of the
buildings shall be designed and constructed to
withstand the effect of fire for the maximum
period for the particular grading, and this
requires concrete or equivalent construction. It
is, however, important that maximum endurance
is provided for as stated above.
12.Basements. Where basements are necessary for
a building and where such basements are used
for storage, provision shall be made for the
escape of any heat arising due to fire and for


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liberating and smoke which may be caused. It is
essential that fire resistance of the basement
shall conform to the highest order and all
columns for supporting the upper structures shall
have a grading not less than laid down in types 1
to 3.
13.Smoke extraction from basements: The
following requirements shall be provided for
smoke extraction:
a) Unobstructed smoke extracts having direct
communication with the open air shall be
provided in or adjoining the external walls and in
positions easily accessible for firemen in an
emergency.
b) The area of smoke extracts shall be distributed,
as tar as possible, around the perimeter to
encourage flow of smoke and gases where it is
impracticable to provide a few large extracts, for
example, not less than 3 m2 in area, a number
of small extracts having the same gross area
shall be provided.
c) Covers to the smoke extracts shall, where
practicable, be provided in the stall board and/or
pavement lights at pavement level, and be
constructed of light cast iron frame or other
construction which may be readily broken by
fire-men in emergency. The covers shall be
suitably marked.
d) Where they pass through fire resisting
separations, smoke extracts shall in all cases be
completely separated from other compartments
in the building by enclosures of the appropriate
grade of fire resistance. In other cases, steel
metal ducts may be provided.
e) Where these are sub-basements, the position of
the smoke extracts from sub-basements and


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basements shall be suitably indicated and
distinguished on the external faces of the
building.
6.6 Fire Resistant Construction
In a fire resistant construction, the design should be
such that the components can withstand fire as an
integral member of structure, for the desired period.
We shall consider the construction of the following
components:
6.6.1 Walls and columns:
The following points should be observed for making
walls and columns fire-resistant:
i. Masonry walls and columns should be made
of thicker section so that these can resist fire
for a longer time, and can also act as barrier
against spread of fore to the adjoining areas.
ii. In the case of solid load-bearing walls, bricks
should be preferred to stones.
iii. If walls are to be made of stone, granite and
limestone should be avoided.
iv. In the case of building with framed structure,
R.C.C. should be preferred to steel.


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v. If steel is used for the framed structure, the
steel structural components should be
properly enclosed or embedded into concrete,
terracotta, brick, gypsum plaster board or
any other suitable material, as illustrated in
the figure below:
vi. If the framework is of R.C.C., thicker cover
should be used so that the members can
resist fire for a longer time. It is
recommended to use 40 to 50 mm cover for
columns, 35 to 40 mm cover for beams and
long span slabs and 25 mm for short span
slabs.
vii. Partition walls should be of fire-resistant
materials such as R.C.C., reinforced brick
work, hollow concrete blocks, burnt clay tiles,
reinforced glass, asbestos cement boards or
metal laths covered with cement plaster.
viii. Cavity wall construction has better fire
resistance.


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ix. All walls, whether load bearing or non-load
bearing, should be plastered with fire-
resistive mortar.
6.6.2 Floors and roofs:
The following points are note-worthy for fire-
resistant floors and roots:
i. For better fire resistance, slab roof is
preferred to sloping or pitched roofs.
ii. If it is essential to provide sloping roof,
trusses should either be of R.C.C. or of
protected rigid steel with fireproof covering.
iii. For better fire resistance, the floor should be
either of R.C.C. or of hollow tiled ribbed floor
of concrete jack arch floor with steel joists
embedded in concrete.
iv. If floor is made of timber, thicker joists at a
greater spacing should be used, and fire stops
or barriers should be provided at suitable
interval.
v. The flooring materials like concrete tiles,
ceramic tiles, bricks etc. are more suitable for
fire resistance.
vi. If cast iron, wrought iron, cork carpet, rubber
tiles etc. are to be used, these should be
protected by a covering of insulating
materials like ceramic tiles, plaster,
terracotta, bricks etc.
vii. Ceiling, directly suspended from floor joists
should be of fire resistant materials like
asbestos cement boards, fibre boards, metal
lath with plaster etc.



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6.6.3 Wall Openings
i. From the point of view of fire spread,
openings in the walls should be a bare
minimum.
ii. Openings serve means of escape. Hence
these should be properly protected by
suitable arrangements, in case of fire.
iii. Doors and windows should be made of steel.
Fire- resistant doors can be obtained by fixing
steel plates to both the sides of the door.
iv. Wire-glass panels are preferred for windows.
v. Rolling shutter doors should be used for
garages, godowns, shops etc.
vi. In case of timber doors, minimum thickness
of door leaf should be 4 cm. and that of door
frame as 8 to 10 cm.
vii. All escape doors should be such as to provide
free circulation to the persons in passages,
lobbies, corridors, stairs etc., and should be
made of fire proofing material.
6.6.4 Escape Elements
i. All escape elements, such as staircases,
corridors, lobbies, entrance etc. should be
constructed of fire-resistant materials.
ii. These escape elements should be well
separated from the rest of the building.
iii. Doors to these escapes should be fire proof.
iv. Staircases should be located next to the outer
wall and should be accessible from any floor
in the direction of flow towards the exits from
the building.


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v. Fireproof doors to the emergency staircases
should be fixed in such a way as to make
them close from inside only.
vi. The lift shafts connecting various floors
should be surrounded with the enclosure
walls of fire-resisting materials.
vii. Lift shafts should be vented from top to
permit escape of smoke and hot gases.
viii. An emergency ladder should be provided in
the fire- resisting building. This ladder should
be at least 90 cm wide, constructed of fire-
resistant materials.
ix. All escape routes over roofs should be
protected with railings, balustrades or
parapets not 1ess than one metre in height.
6.6.5 Strong room construction:
A strong mom construction is found to be useful in
case of safe deposit vaults in banks, Following are
the important features of construction:
i. The walls, doors and ceilings of a strong room
are made of atleast 30 cm thick cement
concrete. If thin R.C.C. walls are used, they
should have a covering of bricks or terra cotta
and then suitably plastered with fire-resistant
plaster.
ii. Doors and windows are well anchored to
concrete walls by large number of steel
holdfasts longer in length.
iii. Doors and windows should be fireproof. It is
preferable to have double fireproof door.
iv. Windows and ventilators should be covered
by special grills made of 20 mm steel square
bars. These grills should be well fixed to
concrete walls by means of long steel
holdfasts.


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6.7 Fire Alarms
Fire alarms are installed to give an alarm and to call
for assistance in event of fire. The fire alarms give
enou2h time to the occupants to reach to a safe
place. Fire alarms call be either manual or
automatic.
1. Manual alarms: These are of a hand-bell type
or similar other sounding device, which can emit
distinctive sound when struck. These are
sounded by watchmen and the occupants are
thereby warned to have safe exit in shortest
possible time. Manually operated alarms shall be
provided near all main exits and in the natural
path of escape from fire, at readily accessible
points which are not likely to be obstructed.
2. Automatic alarms: These alarms start sounding
automatically in the event of fire. It is used in
large industrial buildings which may remain
unoccupied during nigh1. The automatic fire
alarm sends alarm to the nearest control point.


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MANUAL ALARMS AND AUTOMATIC ALARMS
The system can also perform the function of sending
message to the nearest fire brigade station.
6.8 Fire Extinguishing Equipments
Each building should have suitable fire extinguishing
arrangements, depending upon the importance of
the building and the associated fire hazards.
Following are usual equipments required for fire
extinction.
1. Manual fire extinguishing equipment: These
devices are useful for extinguishing fire as soon
as it starts. They are not so useful when once
the fire ha~ spread. Under this category comes
the portable extinguishers of carbon-dioxide type
or foam generation type etc. The discharge from
a portable fire extinguisher lasts only for a short
duration of 20 to 120 seconds. In some cases,
especially in small buildings buckets of water,
sand and asbestos blanket may be kept ready at


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all times to extinguish fire. These buckets are
installed at convenient locations for taking care
of fire of minor size.

2. Fire hydrants: These fire hydrants are provided
on a ring main of 150 mm dia. in the ground
around the building periphery. The ring main
gets water from underground tank with pressure,
so that available pressure at each hydrants is of
the order of about 3.5 to 4 kg/cm.



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3. Wet riser system: The system consists of
providing 100 to 150 mm dia. vertical G.I. pipes
(risers) at suitable locations in the building. A
fire pump is used to feed water from
underground tank to these pipes, to ensure a
pressure of 3 kg/cm2 at uppermost outlet.


4. Automatic sprinkler system: This
arrangement is adopted for important structures
like textile mills, paper mills etc. The system
consists of a network of pipes 20 mm dia. fixed
to the ceiling of the room. These pipes are
spaced at 3 m centre to centre. Heat actuated
sprinkler heads are fixed to these pipes at
regular interval. The pipes get supply from a
header.


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5. Each sprinkler head is provided with fusible plug.
In the event of fire, the fusible plug in the
sprinkler nearest to the wire melts due to rise of
temperature, and water gushes out of the
sprinkler head. The fire is thus brought under
control in a short period.

Assignment:
Students to do a case study / survey related
to various fire extinguishing and fire fighting
equipment.


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Summary:
Safety of the occupants in the event of outbreak of
fire is a major concern for designers. Thus
maximum use of non combustible materials should
be encouraged and the construction should be fire
resistant. In addition to this, particularly in multi-
storeys, it is obligatory to make provision of fire
detection and fire extinguishing systems.
Revision Points:
Major causes of fire
Fire-Resisting Properties of Common Building
Materials
Fire resistant construction
Fire extinguishing equipment.
Key Words:
Fire alarms
Fire hydrants
Combustible materials
In Text Questions:
1. What are the aspects of fire safety?
2. Write down the fire resisting properties of the
following materials:
i. Bricks
ii. Glass
iii. Stone
iv. Timber
v. Concrete
Terminal Exercises:
1. Explain in detail the major causes of fire in a
building.


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2. What are the characteristics of a fire resistant
material? Explain in detail.
3. What are the general fire safety requirements of
a building? Explain in detail.
4. What is fire resistant construction? Explain in
detail the various ways in which you can make a
building fire resistant.
5. Explain in detail the various types of fire alarms
and fire extinguishing equipment.
Suggested Reading:
1. Building Construction by Sushil Kumar
2. Building Construction by Dr. B.C. Punmia

























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Unit - V

Lesson-7: Lifts
Lesson-8: Escalators






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Lesson 7: Lifts and
Elevators

Objective:
To understand the brief history of vertical
transportation.
To study various types of lift and the design
considerations for a lift

Structure:
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Types of lifts
7.2.1 Observation lift
7.2.2 Double-deck lift
7.2.3 Sky lobby
7.2.4 Freight lifts
7.2.5 Residential lifts
7.3 Design Considerations
7.3.1 Number of Lifts and Capacity
7.3.2 Positioning of Lift
7.3.3 Shape and Size of Lift Car
Positioning of Machine Room


7.1 Introduction
The need for vertical transport is as old as
civilisation. Over the centuries, mankind has
employed ingenious forms of lifting. The earliest lifts


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used man, animal and water power to raise the
load. Lifting devices relied on these basic forms of
power from the early agricultural societies until the
dawn of the Industrial Revolution.
In ancient Greece, Archimedes developed an
improved lifting device operated by ropes and
pulleys, in which the hoisting ropes were coiled
around a winding drum by a capstan and levers.
By A.D. 80, gladiators and wild animals rode crude
lifts up to the arena level of the Roman Coliseum.
Medieval records contain numerous drawings of
hoists lifting men and supplies to isolated locations.
Among the most famous is the hoist at the
monastery of St. Barlaam in Greece. The monastery
stood on a pinnacle approximately 61 metres (200
ft) above the ground. Its hoist, which employed a
basket or cargo net, was the only means up or
down.
At an abbey on the French seacoast, a hoist was
installed in 1203 that used a large tread wheel. A
donkey supplied the lifting power. The load was
raised by a rope wound on a large drum.
By the 18th century, machine power was being
applied to the development of the lift. In 1743, a
counterweighted personal lift was commissioned by
Louis XV in France for his personal chambers in
Versailles. By 1833, a system using reciprocating
rods raised and lowered miners in Germanys Harz
Mountains. A belt-driven lift called the teagle was
installed in an English factory in 1835. The first
hydraulic industrial lift powered by water pressure
appeared in 1846. As machinery and engineering
improved, other powered lifting devices quickly
followed.
Lifts are a mechanism for moving people from floor
to floor in a multi-storied building. Electric lifts
consist of an enclosed cab (lift car), fastened to one
end of steel cables. The cables go up and over a
grooved drive wheel (sheave) and down to a


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counterweight of cast iron blocks that
counterbalance the weight of the car. An electric
motor supplies power to move both car and
counterweight guided between steel guide rails in an
enclosed shaftway. Button controls in the lobby or
floor bring the lift to the rider. Push button controls
inside the car allow the riders to select the desired
floor. Hydraulic lifts use a plunger that moves up
and down to operate the lift car instead of steel
cables, by a motor pumping hydraulic oil in and out
of the plunger cylinder. The car and hall push
buttons on both types of lifts do the same function.
For multi-storeyed buildings the installation of lifts is
a must to avoid fatigue in climbing up the stairs and
for quick vertical circulation between different floors.
The provision of lifts in a building is a highly
specialised job. However certain provisions are
required to be made in the building layout and
structures for accommodating lifts and other
accessories such as operating devices. A vertical
shaft with openings at the floor level is provided.
The shaft is located at a suitable place e.g. by the
side of the stair or within the open well of a stair. It
may have sides built in masonry or concrete or
metallic cage with suitable doors. The shaft extends
below the ground floor or the basement floor, as the
case may be, to accommodate the spring buffers for
slow speed lifts and hydraulic buffers for high-speed
lift. Usually a machine room is located at the top of
the lift shaft for housing equipment and accessories.
However it can also be at the bottom, by the side or
at the base of the shaft. The size or the machine
room is normally 4 m X 3 m X 2.5 to.3 m. Its floor
should be suitably designed to 8upport the weight of
the lift car, equipment, passengers, the balancing
weight and the weight of motor with the winch
arrangement. Floors of machine room should be
designed to carry a load of not less than 500 kg/m
2



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plus the load imposed by the equipment or any
reaction from such equipment.
The shaft for the lift should be able to accommodate
the lift car, balancing weight, and vertical guides for
them. Previously collapsible doors were provided
both for the lift door or cage and for the opening in
the shaft in the floor level. Now a days flush doors
of sliding type are provided. The doors at the floor
level are fitted with electro-mechanical safety
looking devices with special emergency lock release.
7.2 Types of lifts
7.2.1 Observation lift
The observation lift puts the cab on the outside of
the building. Glass-walled lift cars allow passengers
to view the cityscape or the buildings atrium as
they travel. By eliminating the hoistways, the
observation lift also offers owners, architects and
builders valuable space-saving advantages.
7.2.2 Double-deck lift
Double-deck lifts save time and space in high-
occupancy buildings by mounting one car upon
another. One car stops at even floors and the other
stops at the odd floors. Depending on their
destination, passengers can mount one car in the
lobby or take an escalator to a landing for the
alternate car.
OBSERVATION LIFTS


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DOUBLE DECK LIFTS
7.2.3 Sky lobby
In very tall buildings, lift efficiency can be increased
by a system that combines express and local lifts.


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The express lifts stop at designated floors called sky
lobbies. There, passengers can transfer to local lifts
that will take them to their desired floor. By dividing
the building into levels served by the express lifts,
the local lifts can be stacked to occupy the same
shaft space. That way, each zone can be served
simultaneously by its own bank of local lifts.
7.2.4 Freight lifts
These lifts are specially constructed to withstand the
rigors of heavy loads. Standard capacities range
from 1360 kilograms (3000 lb) up to 5440
kilograms (12,000 lb). These lifts are rated
according to load categories, with Class A being
for hand trucks, Class B for carrying automobiles
and Class C1 for lifts with the capacity to carry a
commercial truck.

7.2.5 Residential lifts
Residential lifts use modern hydraulics to produce a
smooth, quiet ride while occupying a minimum
amount of space. These hydraulic systems are
quiet, producing about the same amount of sound
as a typical refrigerator, which makes them well


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suited for residential use. They can be operated at
any hour without causing disturbance. The compact
design allows the lift to be installed in the amount of
space required for an average-sized closet.
7.3 Design Considerations
7.3.1 Number of Lifts and Capacity:
Two basic considerations, namely, the quantity of
service required and the quality of service required,
determine the type of lifts to be provided in a
particular building. Quantity of service gives the
passenger handling capacity of the lifts during the
peak periods and the quality of service is measured
in terms of waiting time of passengers at various
floors. Both these basic factors require proper study
into the character of the building, extent and
duration of peak period, frequency of service
required, type and method of control, type of
landing doors, etc.
The number of lifts, their capacity and speed
required for a building is governed by such
considerations as number of the floors to be served,
number of passengers to be handled, floor area and
floor heights. In large buildings, the provision of a
battery of lifts is advisable wherever feasible.
Consideration should also be given to leaving space
for additional lift installation to cater for future
traffic development.
Quantity 0f Service: The quantity of service is a
measure of the passenger handling capacity of a
vertical transportation system. It is measured in
terms of the total number of passengers handled
during each five-minute peak period of the day. A
five-minute base period is used as this is the most
practical time over which the traffic may be
averaged. The passenger handling capacity (H) for
different occupancies expressed in percent of the
estimated population that has to be handled in the


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building in the five minute peak period should be
approximately as follow:
Class of Occupancy H (percent)
Diversified (mixed) office
occupancy
10-15
Single purpose office
occupancy
15-26
Residential 5
Quality of Service
The quality of service is generally measured by the
passenger waiting time at the various doors. The
following is the guiding factor for determining this
aspect:
Acceptable Interval
Quality of Service or
Rating
20 - 25 seconds Excellent
30 - 35 seconds Good
35 - 40 seconds Fair
40 - 45 seconds Poor
Over 45 seconds Unsatisfactory

The round trip time can be decreased not only by
increasing the speed of the lift but also by improving
the design of the equipment related to opening and
closing of the landing and oar doors, acceleration,
deceleration, levelling and passenger movement.
These factors are given below:
a) The most important factor in shortening the time
consumed between the entry and exit of the
passengers to the lift car is the correct design of
the doors and the proper car width. It has been
proved that the ideal door width is that of 100


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cm and that of the ideal car width is
approximately 200 cm. Under these conditions,
the car can comfortably hold four people,
shoulder to shoulder, in a straight line,
permitting the two central located persons to
make an exit without disturbing the rest of the
passengers.
b) The utilization of centre opening doors has been
a definite factor in improving passengers transfer
time, since when using this type of door the
passengers; as a general rule, obtain to move
before the doors have completely opened. On
the other hand with a side-opening door the
passengers tend to wait until the door has
completely opened before moving. The utilization
of centre opening door also favours the doors
opening and closing time periods. Given the
same door speed, the centre opening door is
much faster than the side opening type. It is
beyond doubt that the centre-opening door
represents an increase in transportational
capacity in the operation of a lift.
7.3.2 Positioning of Lift
A thorough investigation shou1d be made for
assessing the most suitable position for lift(s) while
planning the building. It should take into account
future expansions, if any. Though each building has
to be considered individually for purposes of location
of lifts, factors influencing the locations of passenger
and goods lifts are given below.
The location of lifts may also conform to the travel
distance requirements.
Arrangement of Lifts
The lifts should be easily accessible from all
entrances to the building. For maximum efficiency,
they should be grouped near the centre of the


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building. It is preferable not to have all the lifts out
in straight line and, if possible, not more than three
lifts should be arranged in this manner. It bas to be
kept in mind that the corridor should be wide
enough to allow sufficient space for waiting
passengers as well as for through passengers.
In some cases when there are more than three lifts,
the alcove arrangement, is recommended. With this
arrangement, the lift alcove leads off the main
corridor so that there is no interference by traffic to
other groups or to other parts of the ground floor.
This arrangement permits the narrowest possible
corridors and saves space on the upper floors.
Walking distance to the individual lift is reduced and
passengers standing in the centre of the group can
readily see all the lift doors and landing indicators.
The ideal arrangement of the lifts depends upon the
particular layout of the respective building and
should be determined in every individual case.
Passenger Lifts
Low and Medium Class Flats: Where a lift is
arranged to serve two, three or four flats per floor,
the lift may be placed adjoining a staircase, with the
lift entrances serving direct on to the landings.
Where the lift is to serve a considerable number of
flats having access to balconies or corridors, it
maybe conveniently be placed in a well ventilated
tower adjoining the building.
Office buildings, Hotels and High Class Flats: It
is desirable to have at least a battery of two lifts at
two or more convenient points of a building. If this
is not possible, it is advisable to have lit least two
lifts side by side at the main entrance and one lift
each at different sections of the building for
intercommunication. When two- lifts are installed
side by side, the machine room shall be suitably
planned with sufficient space for housing the


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machine equipment. The positioning of lifts side by
side gives the following advantages:
a) All machines and switch gear may be housed in
one machine room
b) The lifts can be inter-connected more
conveniently from an installation point of view,
and
c) Greater convenience in service owing to the
landing openings on each floor being adjacent.
Shops and Departmental Stores: Lifts in shops
and store& should be situated so as to secure
convenient and easy access at each Floor.
Hospitals: It is convenient to place the passenger
lifts near the staircases.
Goods Lifts: The location of lifts in factories,
warehouses and similar buildings should be planned
to suit the progressive movement of goods
throughout the bui1dings, having regard to the
nature of processes carried out in the building, the
position of the loading platforms, railway sidings,
etc. The placing of a lift in a fume or dust laden
atmosphere or where it may be exposed to extreme
temperatures, should be avoided wherever possible.
Where it is impossible to avoid installing a lift in an
adverse atmosphere, the electrical equipment
should be of suitable design and construction to
meet the conditions involved.
Hospital Bed Lifts
Hospital Bed Lifts should be situated conveniently
near the ward and operating theatre entrances.
There shall be sufficient space near the landing door
for easy movement of stretcher.



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7.3.3 Shape and Size of Lift Car
The shape and size of the passenger lift car bears a
distinct relation to its efficiency as a medium of
traffic handling. The width of the lift well entrance
is, in reality the basic element in the determination
of the best proportion. The width of the car is
determined by the width of the entrance and the
depth of the car is regulated by the loading. Centre
opening doors are the most practicable and the
most efficient entrance units for passenger lifts.
7.3.4 Positioning of Machine Room
The machine room should as far as possible, be
placed immediately above the lift well as this has
several advantages, such as reduced load on the
building, lower capital cost of the lift, a smaller lift
well for a given size lift car and reduced power
consumption compared with a machine room in the
basement, renewal of suspension ropes is less
frequent and the cost of such renewals is less
because shorter ropes are required and time taken
for fitting them is less.


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If a machine room on the lift well is impracticable
for architectural or other reasons, the machine room
may be placed below the lift well or in the
basement, but guidance of a lift engineer should be
followed on each instance, to minimize the
disadvantage of its being so placed.
















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Lesson 8: Escalators

Objective:
To know about escalators and its various parts
To study several standard layout configurations
of escalators.

Structure:
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Capacity of Escalators
8.2.1 Theoretical Capacity
8.2.2 Practical Capacity
8.3 Terminology
8.4 Essential Requirements
Layout Configuration

8.1 Introduction:
Escalators are deemed essential where the
movement of people in large numbers at a


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controlled rate in a controlled space, is involved for
example, airports etc. In exhibitions, big
departmental stores and the like, escalators
encourage people to circulate freely and
conveniently.
As the escalators operate at a constant speed, serve
only two levels and have a known maximum
capacity, the traffic study is rather easy. Provided
the population to be bandied in a given time is
known, it is easy to predict the rate at which the
population can be handled.
For normal peak periods, the recommended
handling capacities for design purposes should be
taken as 3200 to 6400 persons per hour depending
upon the width of the escalator.
8.2 Capacity of Escalators
Escalators are capable of moving a huge number of
people. There are 3 widths of Escalator, which are
available. The handling capacity of an Escalator is
dependant on the number of people that you can
accommodate on a step.
The person loading that is used for capacity
calculations are as follows:
The persons per step assumes the passengers are
standing facing the direction of travel. The most
popular escalator widths are 800mm and 1000mm,
with very little cost difference between the two.
8.2.1 Theoretical Capacity


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All capacity calculations assume a step speed of 0.5
meters per second. The table below details the
theoretical capacity:
These calculations assume full loading on every
step.
8.2.2 Practical Capacity
Passengers will leave small gaps between other
passengers before entering the Escalator. In
addition to this some passengers may hesitate
slightly at entrance and egress from the Escalator.
Hence the assumption of full capacity on every step
is realistically unachievable. Therefore a Load Factor
to calculate the Practical Capacity has been
developed.
Dependent on the environment, the usage is classed
as Light, Medium and Heavy and the suitable factor
applied accordingly.
With this factor applied, the Practical Capacity is as
follows:





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1.3 Terminology
The below annotated picture highlights the
terminology used for the main features of an
Escalator.

8.4 Essential Requirements
1. Angle of inclination shall not be in excess of 300
from the horizontal excepting that with an
escalator having a vertical rise not exceeding 6
m an angle up to 35 may be permitted.


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2. The width between balustrades shall be
measured on the incline up to a point 68.5 cm
vertically above the nose line of the steps and
shall not be less than the width of the step. It
shall not exceed the width of the step by more
than 33 cm with a maximum of 16.5 cm on
either side of the escalator.
3. Escalators shall be provided on each side with
solid balustrades. On the step side the
balustrades shall be smooth and substantially
flush except for protective moulding parallel to
the run of the steps and properly bevelled
vertical mouldings projecting not more than 6.5
mm, that cover joints of panels.
a) There shall be no abrupt changes in the width
between the balustrades on the two sides of the
escalator. Where a change in width is
unavoidable, such change shall not exceed 8
percent of the greatest width. In changing the
direction of the balustrades resulting from a
reduction in width the maximum allowable angle
of change in balustrades shall not exceed 15
degrees from the line of the escalator travel.
b) The clearance on either side of the steps
between the steps and the adjacent skirt guard
shall be not be more than 5 mm and the sum of
the clearances on both sides shall be not more
than 6 mm.
c) A solid guard shall be provided in the intersecting
angle of the outside balustrade (deck board) and
the ceiling or soffit except where the intersection
of the outside balustrade (deck board) and the
ceiling or soffit is more than 60 cm from the
centre line of the handrail. The vertical face of
the guard shall project at least 36 cm
horizontally from the apex of the angle.



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1. Handrails.
a) Each balustrade shall be provided with a handrail
moving in the same direction and at substantially
the same speed as the steps.
b) Each moving handrail shall extend at normal
handrail height not less than 30 cm beyond the
line of points of comb-plate teeth at the upper
and lower landings.
c) Hand or finger guards shall be provided at the
point where the handrail enters the balustrade.
d) The horizontal distance between the centre lines
of two handrails measured on the incline shall
not exceed the width between the balustrades by
more than 15 cm, with a maximum of 7.0 cm on
either side of the escalator.
2. Step Treads
e) The depth of any step tread in the direction or
travel shall not be less than 40 cm and the rise
between treads shall be not be more than 22 cm.
The width of a step tread shall be not less than
40 cm or more than 102 cm.
f) The maximum clearance between step treads on
the horizontal run shall be 4 mm.
g) The tread surface of each step shall be slotted in
a direction parallel to the travel of the steps.


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Each slot shall be not more than 6.5 mm wide
and less than 9.5 mm deep; and the distance
from centre to centre of adjoining slots shall be
not more than 9.5 mm.
3. Landing: Landing shall be made out of anti-slip
material.
4. Comb-plates: There shall be a comb-plate at
the entrance and at the exit of every escalator.
The comb-plate teeth shall be meshed with and
set into the slots in the tread surface so that the
points of the teeth are always below the upper
surface of the treads. Comb-plates shall be
adjustable vertically.
1. Trusses Or Girders: The truss or girder shall be
designed to safely sustain the step and running
gear in operation. In the event of failure of the
track system it shall retain the running gear in
its guides.
2. Step Wheel Tracks: This shall be designed to
prevent displacement of steps and running gear
if a step chain breaks.


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3. Driving Machine, Motor and Brake
a) The driving machine shall be connected to the
main drive shaft by toothed gearing, a
coupling, or a chain.
b) An electric motor shall not drive more than
one escalator.
c) Each escalator shall be provided with an
electrically released, mechanically applied
brake capable of stopping the up or down
travelling escalator with any load up to rated
load. This brake shall be located either on the
driving machine or on the main drive shaft.
d) Where a chain is used to connect the driving
machine to the main drive shaft, a brake shall
be provided on this shaft. It is not required
that this brake be of the electrically released
type if an electrically released brake is
provided on the driving machine.
4. Speed Governor: Speed governor shall be
provided, the operation of which shall cause the
interruption of power to the driving machine
should the speed of the steps exceed a
predetermined value which shall be not more
than 40 percent above the rated speed.
8.5 Layout Configuration
There are several standard layout configurations.
The layout is a key element in the traffic flow
through the building. The layout configurations are:


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Summary:
Both lifts and escalators are mechanical ways of
vertical transportation. The location of lifts, their
installation, design, type and arrangement are all
important areas to be studied.
Escalators are more common where the movement
of people in large numbers at a controlled rate in a
controlled space is involved for example, airports
etc. In exhibitions, big departmental stores and the
like.
Revision points:
1. Types of lifts
2. Design considerations for a lift
3. Parts of an escalator.
Key words:
1. Sky lobby
2. Lift shaft
3. Comb plates
4. Speed governor
5. Driving machine
In text questions:
1. Give a brief history of vertical transportation.
2. What are the various types of lifts?
3. What are escalators?
Terminal exercises:
1. What are the design considerations for a lift?
Explain in detail
2. Explain in detail the various parts of an
escalator.
3. How do you work out the capacity of an
escalator? Explain in detail.


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Suggested Reading

1. Building Construction by S.K Sharma
2. Building Construction by Sushil Kumar
3. Time Savers Standards For Buildings Types