V
ELECTROMAGNETICS
Hung-Yu David Yang
Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering,
University of Illinois at Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois, USA
Electromagnetics is fundamental in electrical and electronic
engineering. Electromagnetic theory based on Maxwell's equa-
tions establishes the basic principle of electrical and electronic
circuits over the entire frequency spectrum from dc to optics.
It is the basis of Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws for low-
frequency circuits and Shell's law of reflection in optics. For
low-frequency applications, the physics of electricity and mag-
netism are uncoupled. Coulomb's law for electric field and
potential and Ampere's law for magnetic field govern the
physical principles. Infrared and optical applications are usu-
ally described in the content of photonics or optics as separate
subjects. This section emphasizes the engineering applications
of electromagnetic field theory that relate directly to the
coupling of space and time-dependent vector electric and
magnetic fields, and, therefore, most of the subjects focus on
microwave and millimeter-wave regimes. The eleven chapters
in this section cover a broad area of applied electromagnetics,
including fundamental electromagnetic field theory, guided
waves, antennas and radiation, microwave components,
numerical methods, and radar and inverse scattering.
Chapter 1 discusses the basic theory of magnetostatics.
Magnetic field and energy due to a direct current is defined
based on Amp~re's law and the Biot-Savart law. Macroscopic
properties of magnetic material are described. In addition,
domains and hysteresis are introduced. Inductance relating
the magnetic flux to the current is defined. The concept of a
magnetic circuit, which finds important applications in power
transformers, is also introduced.
Chapter 2 is devoted to the fundamental theory of electro-
statics. The concept of electric field and potential based on
Coulomb's law and Gauss's law is introduced. Electric energy
and force based on the field and potential are described.
Boundary value problem based on the Poisson's equation and
Laplace's equation for electric potential is formulated and
canonical examples are given.
Waves propagating in a homogeneous isotropic region are
usually in the form of plane-waves. Chapter 3 describes the
basic properties of plane waves for both lossless and lossy
media. These basic properties include the nature of the electric
and magnetic fields, the properties of the wave number vector,
and the power flow of the plane wave. Special attention is given
to the specific case of a homogenous (uniform) plane wave,
i.e., one having real direction angles because this case is most
often met in practice. Properties such as wavelength, phase and
group velocity, penetration depth, and polarization are dis-
cussed for these plane waves.
Chapter 4 describes the theory of transmission lines. Trans-
mission equations for voltage and current are derived based on
lumped-element circuit models. The propagation characteris-
tics of both lossless and lossy lines are discussed with the latter
emphasized on low-loss cases and cases lacking distortion.
Useful parameters of a terminated transmission line, including
impedance, reflection coefficient, voltage, and current, at vari-
ous locations on the line are discussed in detail. The basic
operation of the Smith chart to relate the reflection coefficient
to the input impedance at the transmission line is explained
and examples are given.
Distributing electromagnetic power from one point to
another in a prescribed way usually requires transmission
lines or waveguides. Chapter 5 discusses the properties of a
478
class of guided wave structures. The emphasis is on non-TEM
structures where the guided waves are dispersive. The mode
characteristics of rectangular metallic waveguides, circular me-
tallic waveguides, microstrip lines, slot lines, coplanar wave-
guides, and the circular dielectric waveguides are summarized.
In wireless communication systems, it is necessary to send
signals in the form of electromagnetic waves through air, such
as in radio or television broadcasting, or via point-to-point
microwave links. An antenna is a device for transmission or
reception of electromagnetic signals. Chapter 6 describes the
basic theory of antennas and their arrays. This chapter presents
the fundamental properties of electromagnetic waves emanat-
ing from any antenna as well as the antenna parameters,
including polarization, radiation patterns, beam width, side
lobe level, efficiency, gain, bandwidth, input impedance, direc-
tivity, and receiving cross section. Chapter 6 discusses the
radiation/reception properties of selected antenna structures,
including a dipole, a monopole, a wire-loop, a slot, and a
microstrip. The theory of antenna arrays made of a number
of individual antenna elements at different locations is also
discussed.
Active and passive components are essential building
blocks of microwave circuits and systems that have become
increasingly important due to the booming of next-generation
wireless communications. Chapter 7 describes the basic char-
acteristics of a class of microwave passive components, includ-
ing tuning stubs, lumped elements, impedance transformers
and matching network, couplers, power dividers/combiners,
resonators, and filters. Scattering parameters are usually used to
characterize the frequency-dependent components. Examples
are given mostly for rectangular metallic waveguides and
microstrip circuits. Active microwave components will also
be discussed in this chapter.
The engineering applications of electromagnetic fields
and waves usually require accurate solutions of Maxwell's
equations subject to proper boundary conditions. Due to the
increasing capability of computers, many of the complicated
electromagnetic problems are now becoming solvable. Numer-
ical computation has become an indispensable subject in
electromagnetics. The two most widely applied numerical
Hung-Yu David Yang
methods are discussed in Chapter 8. Chapter 8 also describes
a frequency-domain integral-equation based approach known
as the method of moments. This method is particularly useful
when the Green's function (the kernel) can be found analyti-
cally. This section also discusses the recent progress of using
a fast algorithm to deal with large electromagnetic systems.
Chapter 9 describes a time-domain differential equation-based
approach known as the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD)
method. This method is particularly useful for complicate
noncanonical or nonlinear structures with impulsive sources.
The volume of the structure usually dictates computer time
and memory required. Perfect absorbing boundary facilitates
fast computation with minimum required memory.
An early application of electromagnetics is on radio detec-
tion and ranging known as radar, which is an interdisciplinary
subject involving communications, signal processing, and
propagation. Chapter 10 discusses the principle of both pulsed
and CW radar systems and radar parameters. Specialized
radars for various applications are also addressed, including
MTI radar, Doppler radar, tracking radar, high cross-range
resolution radar, and synthetic aperture radar. An inverse
scattering problem is to reconstruct or recover physical or
geometric properties of an object from measured electromag-
netic fields. The basic principles of inverse scattering are also
discussed in this chapter. The approach based on an integral
equation formulation in conjunction with an iterative scheme
to solve the inverse scattering is also discussed.
Trends in compact communication systems to involve the
integration of antenna (including matching network) and
active circuits (such amplifiers) together as one component.
Chapter 11 discusses the basic principles of active integrated
circuit antennas. The basic operation of microwave transistors
(both BJT and FET) is discussed. Active circuits of amplifiers,
oscillators, and detectors/mixers are described. Active antennas
using microstrip patches or printed slots are also described.
The section 5 editor would like to thank all the authors and
reviewers for their volunteer effort and cooperation to make
this chapter possible. It is our hope that this chapter will be
valuable to electrical and electronic engineers who are inter-
ested in the subject of electromagnetics.
 1
Magnetostatics

Keith W. Whites 1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 479

Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering,
South Dakota School of Mines
and Technology, Rapid City,
South Dakota, USA
1.2 Direct Current ..................................................................................... 479
1.2.1 Current and Current Density • 1 . 2 . 2 0 h m ' s Law • 1.2.3 Resistance • 1.2.4 Power and
Joule's Law • 1.2.5 Conservation of Charge and Kirchhoff's Current Law
1.3 Governing Equations of Magnetostatics ................................................... 482
1.3.1 Postulates of Magnetostatics • 1.3.2 Biot-Savart Law and Vector Magnetic Potential A •
1.3.3 Boundary Conditions for B, H, and ]
1.4 Magnetic Force and Torque ................................................................... 485
1.4.1 Ampbre's Force Law • 1.4.2 Lorentz Force Equation • 1.4.3 Torque and Magnetic
Dipole Moment
1.5 Magnetic Materials ............................................................................... 487
1.5.1 Magnetization Vector and Permeability • 1.5.2 Magnetic Materials • 1.5.3 Domains and
Hysteresis • 1.5.4 Permanent Magnets
1.6 Inductance .......................................................................................... 491
1.6.1 Magnetic Flux and Flux Linkage • 1.6.2 Definition of Inductance
1.7 Stored Energy ..................................................................................... 494
1.7.1 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field • 1.7.2 Energy Stored in an Inductor
1.8 Magnetic Circuits ................................................................................ 495
References .......................................................................................... 497

1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 1.2 Direct Current

Magnetostatics involves the computation of magnetic forces 1.2.1 Current and Current Density
and fields produced by direct (i.e., time-stationary) currents
Current is the flow of charge. By convention, the direction of
and from materials with permanent magnetization (magnets).
this flow is with the movement of positive charge. The amount
Only magnetic forces and fields that do not change with time
of charge ~Q flowing through (i.e., perpendicular) to a surface
are magnetostatic.
in time 8t is defined as ~Q = ISt, where I is the current. In the
There are many applications of magnetostatics and even
limit of infinitesimally small time increments, the current
a few industries that are almost wholly based upon it.
I through the surface can be defined as:
The magnetic recording and electric power industries both
apply principles from magnetostatics. Other applications
include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Inan and Inan,
I =~[A], (1.1)
1999), magnetic brush applicators in electrophotography (laser
printers) (Schein, 1992), and aurora in the earth's atmosphere
(Paul et al., 1998), to name a few. where the units are coulombs per second [C/s] or amperes [A].

Copyright© 2005by AcademicPress. 479

Allrightsof reproductionin any form reserved.
480 K e i t h W. W h i t e s

Magnetostatics is a field theory and, consequently, the quan- l = a E [A/m2], (1.8)

tities of interest are usually distributed throughout space. As
such, the v o l u m e c u r r e n t density, ] ( x , y, z) is often employed.
In terms o f the charge carriers, the current density is given by
] = Nqv[A/m2], (1.2)
where N is the n u m b e r o f charge carriers per unit volume (i.e.,
the n u m b e r density), q is the charge, and v is the average (or
drift) velocity. In addition, a current density through an open
surface S is related to the current as:
through the electrical c o n d u c t i v i t y o" of the material. The
units o f a are siemens per meter IS/m]. The conductivities
for various materials are listed in Table 1.1. It is apparent that
a varies enormously for different materials. The materials near
the top of the table are called conductors, whereas those near
the b o t t o m are called insulators.
The electrical conductivity o" o f metals varies with tempera-
ture. As a simple estimate of this variation, the conductivity
can be assumed to change linearly with temperature (Halliday
et al., 2002):

I = l l . ds[A]. (1.3)
1 1 c~
$ - ( T - To). (1.9)
O" ¢70 ¢70

A surface c u r r e n t d e n s i t y , / , [ A / m ] , is an approximation for 1 In this linear equation, a0 is the conductivity at temperature

in a very thin layer. To, c~ is the temperature coefficient o f the conductor (see Table
1.1), and a is the conductivity at temperature T. For metals
Example 1.1 with a positive c~, the conductivity decreases with increasing T
One end of a copper wire (diameter = 2 mm) is attached to (or resistivity _= 1 / a increases with increasing T).
one end of an a l u m i n u m wire (diameter = 4 mm). A direct
current I = 10 mA is passing through the wires. To determine Example 1.2
the current density in each wire, equation 1.3 is applied From Table 1.1, the conductivity of copper at 20°C is
assuming the current density is uniformly distributed over o"0 = 5.8 X 107. We can use equation 1.9 to determine the
the cross-section: temperature at which the conductivity is half that at 20°C.
Solving for T in equation 1.9 using To = 20°C, a = 0-o/2, and
I 0.01A = 0.00393/°C gives the following:
]cu - - Areac~ -- ~(0.002)2m 2 -- 795"8A/m2" (1.4)
I 0.01A 1
Jal -- Areaa~ -- g(0.004)Zm 2 -- 198"9A/m2' (1.5) T = To + - = 274.5°C. (1.10)

The much smaller current density in A1 is due solely to the

larger diameter and not because of the material type.
TABLE 1.1 Electrical Conductivity a and Temperature Coefficient
The drift speed of the conduction electrons in each wire can
(Near 20°C) for Selected Materials at dc.
be determined using equation 1.2 and by knowing that there
are approximately 8.49 x 1028 conduction charges/m 3 in Cu Material ¢(S/m) (20°C) ~x(per degree Celsius)
and 6.02 x 1028 conduction charges/m 3 in A1 (Halliday et al.,
Silver1 6.29 X 1 0 7 0.0038
2002). Therefore, the following two equations result: Copper (annealed)1 5.8001 × 1 0 7 0.00393
Gold1 4.10 x 107 0.0034
_ Jcu 795.8 A/m 2 Aluminum1 3.541 x 107 0.0039
Vcu Ncu~e-- (8.49 x 1028/m3)(1.6022 x 10 19C) = 5.850 X 10 8m/s Tungsten 1.90 × 1 0 7 0.0045
Iron (99.98% pure) 1 1.0 X 1 0 7 0.005
(1.6) Tin1 8.70 X 1 0 6 0.0042
]AI 198.9A/m2 Constantan I 2.0 × 106 0.00001
VAI = Ncu~e -- (6.02 x 1028/m3)(1.6022 x 10-19C) = 2.062 x 10-8m/s. Nichrome1 1.0 x 106 0.0004
Carbon (graphite) 7.1 × 104 -0.0005
(1.7) Seawater 4 --
Silicon (pure) 4 x 10 4 -0.07
Distilled water ~ 10 -4 --
Glass ~ 10 lO_ 10-14 __
1.2.20hm's Law Polystyrene > 10 14 __
Hard rubber ~ 10 15 __
At each point in an ohmic material, such as in a conductor, the Quartz (fused) ~ 10 -16 --
volume current density I and electric field E are related by
O h m ' s law: 1Weast (1984).
1 Magnetostatics 481

1.2.3 Resistance 274.5°C. At 20°C, using equation 1.12 and a from Table 1.1,
you get:
The ratio of the potential difference along a conductor to the
current through the conductor is called the resistance R with 1
units of ohms (f~). Referring to an arbitrary conductor as in R= = 5.224mfL (1.14)
5.8001 x 107 S/m(~ • 0.0010252 m 2)
Figure 1.1, this ratio of voltage to current can be expressed as:
As mentioned previously, the conductivity of copper decreases
v f .al rE.a1 with increasing temperature. At T = 274.5°C, ¢ = 2.9001x
c c
R - - I -- I J" d~s - I a E . d~s [a]. (1.11) 107 S/m from equation 1.9. Hence, the following results
5 S
1
R= = 10.45mfl. (1.15)
To conform to the convention that R > 0 for passive conduc- 2.9001 x 107 S / m ( g . 0.0010252m 2)
tors, the path of integration c is from the surfaces of higher to
lower potential through the conductor, and ds is in the direc- This resistance is twice that at 20°C as expected, because the
tion of current, as shown in Figure 1.1. If the conductor in this conductivity has decreased by half.
Figure is homogeneous with a cross-sectional area A, then
from equation 1.11: 1.2.4 Power and Joule's Law
Ohm's law in equation 1.8 relates the conduction current ] to
1 V L
R -- aA"1~(L) = aA [ ~ ] " (1.12) the electric field E at every point in conductive material.
Because of collisions between the charge carriers (electrons)
comprising the current with the lattice of atoms forming the
Equation 1.12 can be used to compute R for any straight, conductive material, there will be a loss of electrical energy.
homogeneous conductor with a uniform cross-sectional area The power P delivered to electrical charges in a volume v is
A at zero frequency. Conversely, if the conductor is inhomo- given by Joule's law:
geneous or has a nonuniform cross section, R must be com-
puted using equation 1.11.
The resistance R and capacitance C of two perfect conduc- P = J E. l d v [ W ] , (1.16)
tors (or, simply, two constant potential surfaces) at zero fre- v

quency are related as (Cheng, 1981):

RC = -r7,
where e (permittivity) and a are the material parameters of the
otherwise homogeneous space between the perfect conductors.
Example 1.3
Suppose you wish to determine the resistance of a 1-m length
of 12-gauge copper wire at 20°C and at a temperature of
where P has units of joules per second [J/s] or watts [W]. This
power is dissipated as heat in the conductive material through
t~.,J) an irreversible process since P is unchanged when the direction
of E in equation 1.16 is reversed with ] given in equation 1.8.
Considering a conductor with a uniform cross section and
a length L, if both E and J are directed along the conductor's
length at all points, then from equation 1.16:
P=J'EdlIJds
L s (1.17)
=vi[w].

L This familiar expression for power in electrical circuits can be

I,
O', E .."'"
.......J li ,I
,I expressed in two alternative forms using Ohm's law for resis-
tors (in equation 1.11) as:
. / ;' A
i (os i - V 2
""~ ',, s i '~-t" / P -- -- I2R[W]. (1.18)
--,......~ ~ ~ ".., ) R

This power is dissipated in the resistor and transferred to its

surroundings through joule heating.
+l'l'-
v
Example 1.4
FIGURE 1.1 Conventions Used in the Computation of Resistance If a 75-W incandescent light bulb is connected to a 120-V
Using Equation 1.11 electrical outlet, equation 1.18 can be used to compute the
482 Keith W. Whites

resistance of the light bulb provided Vand ! are root-mean- Z/j = 0, (1.24)
square values. In this case: J

R- V ~ s -- 1202 _ _ 19a, (1.19) which is the circuit form of KCL.

P 75
Example 1.5
which is the resistance when the light bulb is turned on. If the Conductors are intrinsically charge neutral even if a current
cost of electricity is 5 ¢(kW.h), it would cost $2.70 exists in the conductor. If an excess charge is somehow intro-
(= 75 x 24 × 30 x 0.05/1000) to light this bulb continuously duced into the conductor, it will redistribute itself until the
for 1 month. The resistance in equation 1.19 will likely be very electric field due to the excess charge is zero. For example,
different than when the light bulb is off and cold. From suppose an excess charge is introduced into an isolated con-
equation 1.9 using equation 1.12: ductor. Beginning with equation 1.21, substituting equation
1.8, and using Gauss's law V • (eE) = p, we can determine that
R - R0 = ~Ro(T - To)[~] (1.20)
the free volume charge p must satisfy the equation (Cheng,
1989):
Assuming the tungsten filament is approximately 3000°C when
lit and using a = 0.0045/° C from Table 1.1, then using this Op a
last equation gives R0 ~ 13 1) for the resistance of a room- O~-+ 7 p = 0, (1.25)
temperature 75-W light bulb. This agrees closely with a meas-
with solution
ured value of 13.1 ~ even though using a at such a large
temperature was not justified. p = po e-t# [C/m31, (1.26)
where
1.2.5 Conservation of Charge and Kirchhoff's
Current Law z =- [s]. (1.27)
O"
A basic postulate of physics is that electrical charge can neither
be created nor destroyed. This fact is manifested in electro- In these results, P0 is the charge density distribution at an
magnetics through the continuity equation: initial time and r is the relaxation time constant. For all
practical purposes, the charge is redistributed in a time equal
Op to 5z. This time is very brief for metals and much longer for
V .1 = -~-~. (1.21)
good dielectrics. At these two extremes, copper has a relaxation
time z ~ 1.5 x 10 -19 S, while for fused quartz, r ~ 4 days.
This equation relates the net outward flux of J per unit volume
to the time rate of change of the volume electric charge
density p at every point. When there is no time variation 1.3 Governing Equations of
(which is the situation for magnetostatics), the conservation Magnetostatics
of charge equation 1.21 becomes:
1.3.1 Postulates of Magnetostatics
V . I = 0. (1.22)
The natural phenomenon of magnetostatics is governed by a
Physically, this equation tells us that the net outward flux of ] short and succinct set of equations. The circulation of the
per unit volume at every point must vanish. In other words, magnetic field intensity H [A/m] is governed by Ampbre's
law"
the electric current density ] acts like an incompressible fluid.
Applying the divergence theorem (Paul et al., 1998) to
V x H = ] (point form). (1.28)
equation 1.22 gives the integral form of the static continuity
equation as: ~ H . dl = Ine t (integral form). (1.29)

~
5
l. d s = O. (1.23)
The
c

Ine t is the net current passing through the open surface

This result is Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) expressed in
integral form. Using equation 1.23 at a junction of N conduct-
ing wires in a nonconducting space (such as air), the currents
/j in all wires satisfy:
bounded by the closed contour c (Cheng, 1989). Furthermore,
the net outward flux of the magnetic flux density B [Wb/m 2
or T] is governed by Gauss's law for magnetic fields:
V . B = 0 (point form). (1.30)
1 Magnetostatics 483

~
5
B. ds = 0 (integral form). (1.31)
I~ [ l(r') x R
B(r) = ~ j - -~3
rI
dr' [T]. (1.45)

The B and H vector fields are related through the constitutive The vector R = r - r' points from the source point to the
equation: observation point. For a surface current density ],, the Biot-
Savart law reads:
B=~H[T], (1.32)

where # is the permeability [H/m] of the material.

B(r) = I~
~j
fls(r')~3 × R ds' [T], (1.46)
All magnetostatic fields must satisfy the equations 1.28 {
through 1.31. Very few magnetostatic problems, however,
have simple and analytical solutions for the vector fields B whereas for a filamentary current I (pointing in the direction
and H. Table 1.2 contains a representative list of problems of dl' at r'), the Biot-Savart law is written as:
that do have simple analytical solutions. These problems all
contain much symmetry, which is the key to arriving at these bt ~ I ( r ' ) d l ' × R
simple solutions. B(r) = 4 ~ J R3 [T]. (1.47)
cI
Example 1.6
In rare instances, the integral forms of Amp6re's law equation The B field can also be computed from the magnetic vector
1.29 and Gauss's law equation 1.31 can be used to solve for H potential A as:
and B. This occurs when the problem contains sufficient sym-
metry so that H and B can be factored out of the integrals in B=g7x A [T] (1.48)
these two equations (Paul et al., 1998). As an example consider
the toroid shown in Table 1.2. Assuming that the wire (carry- where for a volume current density J at source coordinates r':
ing current /) is "tightly wound" on the toroid, then using
Ampere's law around a circular contour inside the toroid gives:
A(r) = 4~ I ](r~ff) dv' [ W b / m ]. (1.49)

~c
H . dl = NI, (1.42) v'

Expressions for A produced by ]s and Iare similar to equations

because the current pierces the open surface (bounded by
contour c) N times. By symmetry and using a cylindrical
coordinate system with dl = (#rd(~, in this case, gives:
1.46 and 1.47, respectively (Paul et al., 1998). In rare instances,
computation of A first and then B is simpler than computing B
directly using the Biot-Savart law.

2"rrr H¢ = 741, (1.43) Example 1.7

#NI A direct current/exists in the circular loop shown in Table 1.2.
B4~ = ~ IT]. (1.44) You can use the Biot-Savart law (equation 1.47) to find a
simple analytical solution for B along the z-axis. (This is not
Equation 1.44 is the solution given in Table 1.2. Outside the true for observation points off the z-axis. Instead, numerical
toroid, Inet = 0, and consequently Be = 0. integration of (equation 1.47) would be required) (Whites,
1998, Example 4.10). For this geometry, referring to
equation 1.47 and the circular loop figure in Table 1.2,
1.3.2 B i o t - S a v a r t L a w a n d V e c t o r M a g n e t i c dl' = (o'ad(J and R = r r' = ~:z Fa. Consequently, from
- -

Potential A equation 1.47:

Amp&e's law (equations 1.28 and 1.29) and Gauss's law (equa- 2x 2~r
tions 1.30 and 1.31) are the rules that all magnetostatic fields
must obey. Except in very limited situations, as discussed in the ~(a ~ z2)3~/7 4~r(a2~ Z2)3/2 J (~"az + za 2) d~b !

[2f 2;1
o o
previous section, these laws cannot be used to directly com-
pute B or H. Instead, if a given current density I is prescribed _ #I
at source coordinates r', the B field can be directly computed 4,rr(a2 + z2)3/2 ~az cos4'd4' + ~,az sin~o'd4' + ~a 2 d~' .
0
at any observation coordinate r using the Biot-Savart law
(Paul et al., 1998): (1.50)
484 Keitk W. Whites

TABLE1.2 Examplesof Problemswith SimpleAnalyticalSolutionsfor B [T]

Name Geometry Solution

Infinitesheet1 x~ y B = ±~.~y<>0 (1.33)

''al Finite:
L --k ..... B = ~/~4~/r( cos o{2 -- cos 51) (1.34)
Straightwire2 ~ i'~ ' Y Infinite:
(1.35)
-L

Circularloop (alongz axis) 3 B = z^ ~~;~ (x --- y = O) (1.36)

Y
x I
Z

Magneticdipole1 0 ~ r B ~ (i'2cos0 + 0 sin0) (1.37)

m=2m I :Y
Z
,t
~ ~ Ntums
Longsolenoid(L >> a) 1 L k/z/ B .~ ~ # ( ~ ) I inside (1.38)

Toroid' # ~ B= {~Nr r inside (1.39)

h ~ y 0 outside

x~ r - ~ . Nturns

Coaxialcable1 B= 4~~/~ rw < r < r~ (1.40)

Z 0 r>rs

p
Nturns
B= ~.PN2Ia2{ [a2 q- (z + k2)2]-3/2
"~~i each
q_ [a2 q_ ( z , ~)2] 3/2} (1.41)
Helmholtzcoils(alongz axis)4
(alongz axis)

1Paulet al. (1998). 2Inanand Inan (1999). 3Cheng(1989). 4Whites(1998),Sec4.3, Prob.4.3.4.

1 Magnetostatics 485

Therefore, 1.4 Magnetic Force and Torque

#Ia 2
B(z) = ~ [T], (1.51) 1.4.1 A m p 6 r e ' s Force Law
2(a 2 + Z2)3/2
One of the most fundamental principles in magnetostatics is
which is the result of equation 1.36 listed in Table 1.2. that a current immersed in a magnetic field experiences a force.
This magnetic force behaves very differently than the electro-
1.3.3 B o u n d a r y C o n d i t i o n s for B, H, and ] static force. Considering two closed loops of current shown in
Figure 1.2, the total net magnetic force on the current in loop
The vector field quantities B and H behave in a prescribed 1 due to the current in loop 2 is given by Amp6re's force law
manner at the interface between two different magnetic mate-
(Paul et al., 1998):
rials. The component of B perpendicular to the interface (in
the direction of the unit vector n) is continuous across the
F12 = ~ # I l I 2 ~ dll x(dl2xR12)R~
2 [N]. (1.59)
interface. That is:
cl c2
h. (B2 - B1) = 0, (1.52)

or equivalently, This force law can also be expressed in the slightly different
form:
Bn2 = Bnl. (1.53)
The B1 (or B2) is B at the interface but just inside material
F12-
,uI, I2 ~R12(d~3.dl2)
4"rr J J R12
[N]. (1.60)
1 (or 2) and h is a unit vector pointing from region 1 toward
Cl C2
region 2.
Conversely, the tangential components of H are discontinu-
By interchanging indices 1 and 2 in equation 1.60, it is easy to
ous across a boundary that has a surface current density Js as:
see that:
h × (Hi - H1) = ]s. (1.54)
F21 = -F12, (1.61)
In scalar form, using the right-handed coordinate system
{n, t, u}, the tangential components of H(Ht2, and Hti) are as required by Newton's third law (Whites, 1998).
discontinuous across the material interface by an amount Substituting equation 1.47 into equation 1.59, the net force
equal to Is,,, which is the component of ]s perpendicular to on loop 1 can be expressed as:
Ht2 and Htl. That is:
Hi2 -- Ht~ = Is,,. (1.55) F12 = ~Ildll x B2(r~) [N]. (1.62)
Cl
A surface current density Is exists at an interface only in
certain situations such as an impressed source layer, on the It is very clear from this result that a current immersed in a
surface of superconductors, and, for time-varying fields, on magnetic field experiences a force. Specifically, the magnetic
the surface of perfect electrical conductors (a ---+oo) (Paul etal.,
field is produced by the current in loop 2, and the force F12 in
1998). When Is does not exist at the interface, then from
equation 1.62 is that experienced by the current in loop 1.
equation 1.55:

Ht2 = Htl, (1.56) Example 1.8

Using equation 1.62 it can be shown that the net magnetic
so that the tangential components of H are continuous across force on any closed loop of current immersed in a uniform B
the interface.
At the interface between two materials with conductivities
al and o'2, the components o f ] that are normal (i.e., perpen-
dicular) to the interface are continuous across the interface:

]~2 = J,1, (1.57) Loop 1~] ~ Loop

2
d~l H12
while the tangential components are discontinuous according
to the relationship:

Jt2 ]tl FIGURE 1.2 Differential Current Elements 11dll and I2dl2 Located
-- = --. (1.58)
O"2 O" in Two Current Loops
486 K e i t h W. W h i t e s

Because of this second fact, a magnetic force can only

change the direction of a moving charge and not its speed.
This can be easily understood by considering the differential
work d W performed by the magnetic field when the particle is
C~~~ X displaced a small distance d l = v d t in time d t (Ulaby, 2001):

d W = Fro" d l = ( F m . v ) d t = 0, (1.66)
B = ,~B o

since from equation 1.65, F m • v = O.

FIGURE 1.3 Closed Loop of Current I Immersed in a Uniform B
Field
Example 1.9
The Lorentz force equation can be applied to charged particle
field is zero (Ulaby, 2001). When B is uniform, then from motion through solids and gases. An example of the former is
equation 1.62: the Hall effect in a conductor as illustrated in Figure 1.4. In
steady-state, the force of equation 1.65 on an electron qe
passing through this material is zero such that:
(1.63)
E = -v x B = -j'vBo [V/m]. (1.67)
=0
The difference in potentials at the y = w and y = 0 faces of the
This result is true regardless of the shape of the current loop so material is as follows:
long as the B field is uniform. As an example, the net magnetic w
force on the loop in Figure 1.3 can be computed using equa-
VI4 = - I E r d y = vwBo [V], (1.68)
tion 1.62 as:
0

because of the charge accumulation on these two faces. This

F = I~dl x B = I (3¢dx) x (3¢Bo) + adqb) x (3¢Bo
VH is called the Hall voltage.
c 0
7~
From the sign of V,, the polarity of the charge can be
determined; from the magnitude of V,, the number density
= I J ( - 3¢sin q~+ j, cos q~)ad(a x (dcBo) = - £IaBo sin ~b]0 = 0, of charge carriers can be computed. A Hall device can also be
0 used to measure conductivities of materials and to measure
(1.64) magnetic field strengths (Inan and Inan, 1999; Halliday, 1992).
Imagine that a copper foil of thickness d = 100~m with
which is zero, as expected in light of equation 1.63. current I = 20 A is placed in magnetic field with B0 = 0.5 T.
Substituting equation 1.2 in equation 1.68 and rearranging
1.4.2 Lorentz Force Equation gives the following:

Moving charges in a magnetic field also experience a magnetic //30

force, similar to current in the previous section. The total force VH-
dNe
experienced by a charge q moving with velocity v is given by (20A)(0.5 T)
= 7.35/zV.
the celebrated Lorentz force equation: (100x 10 6 m)(8.49x 1028 m-3)(1.6022 × 10 19 C)
(1.69)
F= q ( E ÷ v x B ) [N], (1.65)

which is the sum of an electric force ( F e = qE) and a magnetic

Y
force (Fro = q v x B).
There are two important distinctions concerning the behav-
B=/Bo÷ / ++++++++++++
ior of the electric and magnetic forces in the Lorentz force
equation. First, it is apparent from equation 1.65 that the
electric force F e acts on both moving and stationary charges,
whereas the magnetic force Fm acts only on moving charges.
Second, energy is transferred from the electric field to the
charged particle, whereas no energy is transferred from the FIGURE 1.4 Hall Effect and a Conducting Material Placed in a
magnetic field to a moving (or stationary) charged particle. Uniform B Field
1 Magnetostatics 487

1.4.3 Torque and Magnetic Dipole Moment microscopic magnetic dipole moments m. These magnetic
dipole moments can be used to develop a phenomenological
In example 1.8, it was mentioned that the net magnetic force
model for the classical effects and many quantum mechanical
on a closed loop of current in a uniform B field is zero.
aspects of magnetization (Paul et al., 1998; Plonus, 1978).
However, this closed loop of current does experience a torque
The macroscopic effects of magnetization are described by a
and will rotate if it is free to do so. The torque T exerted on
magnetization vector field M as a vector sum of mi in a small
any planar loop of current immersed in a uniform B field is
volume Av':
given as (Cheng, 1989):
N
T = m x B [N-m], (1.70) ~, mi
M = lim i=1 (1.74)
Av'~0~ Av [A/m],
where the magnetic dipole moment m of a planar current
loop of area A is as follows:
where N moments are assumed contained in Avq By defi-
nition, the magnetic field intensity H is then given as:
m = nm = hIA [A-m2]. (1.71)
B
The unit normal vector h is determined using the right-hand H = - - - M [A/m]. (1.75)
rule. That is, with the fingers pointing in the direction of the /.to
current, the thumb points in the direction of n. The magnetic
The permeability of free space, ~0, is identically equal to
dipole moment m of any planar loop can be computed using
4w x 10 7 [H/m].
equation 1.71. (Note, however, that the B field from equation
From experimentation, it has been found that for many
1.37 produced by m is valid only at distances "far" from the
materials, M and H are simply related as:
loop [White, 1998, Example 4.10].)
M = Zm H [A/m]. (1.76)
Example 1.10
The object shown in Figure 1.3 is an example of a planar In this expression, Zm is the magnetic susceptibility of the
current loop in a uniform B field that experiences a torque. material and is a dimensionless quantity. The values of Zm are
The magnetic dipole moment of this loop can be found using typically found through experimental measurement.
equation 1.71: Substituting equation 1.76 into 1.75 and rearranging gives
the following equations:
m= ~a 2 [A-m2], (1.72)
2 B=P0(1 + Zm)H [T] (1.77)
and the torque can be determined from equation 1.70 as: or

B = ~ H [T], (1.78)
T---- (z~'rra 2) × (~¢Bo) = j ~ Bo"rra2 [N-m]. (1.73)
where
/'/ = # 0 # r = ]A0(1 q- Xm) [H/m] (1.79)
The directions of T and the loop rotation--if it were free to
move--are both indicated in Figure 1.3. The direction of is the permeability and #r is the relative permeability of the
rotation is determined from T using the right-hand rule: material. For free space, #r = 1. Equation 1.78 is the consti-
With the thumb in the direction of T, the fingers give the tutive relationship for magnetic fields.
sense of rotation. The loop will not experience a torque when
the unit normal vector h is pointing in the direction of B. Example 1.11
A magnetic sphere of radius a and permeability # is placed in a
uniform incident field Hinc = ~H0. It can be shown that the
1.5 Magnetic Materials secondary field inside and outside the sphere is the following
(Plonus, 1978; Ramo et al., 1999):
1.5.1 Magnetization Vector and Permeability
When magnetic material is placed in an incident (or external)
magnetic field, a secondary magnetic field is produced by
H sec°ndary =
{ ~-~-~0.(
--~-o lio
p - p o r d a3
) r < a
[A/m].
uGSG0~0 V ~'2 cos 0 + 0sin 0 r>a
the material. Similar to a dielectric material, the magnetic
material is said to have become polarized by the alignment of (1.80)
488 Keith W. Whites

z TABLE 1.3 Relative Permeability Ix of Selected Materials

at Zero Frequencyand at Room Temperature1
Material #r
H
Diamagnetic (~r ~ 1)
Water 0.99999
Copper 0.99999
Silver 0.99998

/ 0
Gold 0.99996
Bismuth 0.99983
Paramagnetic (P'r "~ 1)
Air 1.000004
Magnesium 1.000012
Aluminum 1.000021
Titanium 1.00018
FeO2 1.0014
Ferromagnetic (~ . . . . . )
Cobalt 250
FIGURE 1.5 Magnetic Sphere of Permeability Ix Immersed in a Nickel 600
Uniform H Field. The field lines become strictly vertical when the Mild steel 2,000
sphere is removed. Iron 5,000
Mumetal 100,000
Supermalloy 1,000,000

The total H at any point is the sum H = H inc q- H sec°ndary.
A plot of the H field lines is shown in Figure 1.5. The magnetic
sphere causes H to be disturbed from its original uniform
nature. Inside the sphere, however, H is uniform and pointed
along the same axis as the incident field, though its amplitude
is now less than H0 (and the amplitude of B is greater than/30)
when # > #0- This disturbance in H is due to the secondary H
produced by the induced magnetization M of the sphere. Using
equation 1.76:
( Z 3Zm#° H 0 ~- Z 3(~t-/~°) Hd
M = ~ ~ o r < a [A/m], (1.81)
0 r>a
which is zero outside the sphere because there is nothing to
magnetize in free space.
1.5.2 Magnetic Materials
There are five major classifications for magnetic materials as
briefly discussed in this subsection (Inan and Inan, 1999; Paul
et al., 1998; Halliday et al., 1992). Diamagnetic materials have
Zm < 1, and the remaining four types all have Zm > 1. Because
of this, diamagnetic materials are repelled by a strong magnet,
whereas specimens of the other four categories are attracted to
a strong magnet.
• Diamagnetic materials have a small negative Zm so that
#r < 1 as shown in Table 1.3. M1 materials are diamagnetic
to some extent although this behavior may be superceded
by a more dominant effect, such as ferromagnetism. Dia-
magnetism is a classical (versus quantum mechanical)
effect produced by moving charges. The induced magnet-
ization M is opposed to the applied B, thus reducing the
1Paul et al. (1998).
total B in such a material sample. This effect is directly
analogous to the polarization effects in ordinary dielec-
trics.
• Paramagnetic materials have a small positive )~,~ so that
#r > 1 as shown in Table 1.3. Paramagnetism is a quan-
tum mechanical effect largely due to the spin magnetic
moment of the electron. While these permanent magnetic
moments are usually randomly oriented (so that M = 0),
they become partially aligned in an applied B. In this
latter state, the magnetization M is aligned with the
applied B, thus increasing the total B in the sample
(and, consequently, decreasing H).
• Ferromagnetic materials also have a positive Zm, but the
resulting #r is usually much greater than 1. There is a
much stronger quantum mechanical interaction between
neighboring spin moments than with paramagnetic
materials that can also lead to magnetization M without
an applied B. Ferromagnetism is strongly temperature
dependent. Only the elements iron, nickel, and cobalt
are ferromagnetic at room temperature. Above the
Curie temperature To a ferromagnetic material becomes
paramagnetic, and the magnetic susceptibility decreases
with increasing temperature. The Tc of the room tem-
perature ferromagnetic materials are 770°C for iron,
354°C for nickel, and 1115°C for cobalt.
• Antiferromagnetic materials are quite similar to ferro-
magnetic materials in that there is a strong quantum
mechanical interaction between neighboring atomic mol-
ecules. However, this strong interaction causes an anti-
parallel alignment of magnetic moments yielding a zero
1 Magnetostatics 489

magnetization M. The elements chromium and manga-

nese are examples of antiferromagnetic materials. This
B[T]
ff B s (Saturation)
effect is highly temperature dependent. Below the Nfel
temperature TN, the magnetic susceptibility increases (Remanen
with increasing temperature but decreases for tempera-
ture greater than TN (Kittel, 1996).
• Ferrimagnetic materials possess characteristics between
those of ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials.
There is an incomplete antiparallel alignment of magnetic (Coercivity)S/ .~~ '
H [A/m]

moments as in the antiferromagnetic materials, and, con-

sequently, there is a net magnetization M, though typi-
cally less than ferromagnetic materials. Ferrites are a
special class of ferrimagnetic material that have a low
Hysteresis
conductivity at high frequencies. These ceramic-like ma-
FIGURE 1.6 Magnetization Curves for a Typical Ferromagnetic
terials are extremely useful in high-frequency applications
Material. The initial magnetization curve is indicated by the dashed
due to their small conduction losses. Examples include
line, while the hysteresis curve is indicated by the solid line.
MnZn with/~ . . . . . ~ 2000 and NiZn with #r, max ~ 100.

The m a x i m u m B that the material attains for any H is called

1.5.3 D o m a i n s a n d Hysteresis
The origin of the extremely large permeabilities of ferromag-
netic materials is the existence of magnetized domains in these
materials (Plonus, 1978; Kittel, 1996). A magnetized domain
is a microscopic region (on the order of 0.1 to 1 m m 3) where
the magnetization is uniform and saturated. Between adjacent
domains are domain walls. Without an external field (at point
O in Figure 1.6), these domains are randomly orientated so
that the net magnetization of the material is zero. In the
presence of external magnetic rid&, these domains align and
produce an enormous secondary B in the same direction as the
applied field, thus giving a possibly enormous permeability.
If the applied fields become strong enough, the domains
rotate and the material leaves the initial linear region of oper-
ation and enters the nonlinear and multivalued region indi-
cated by the hysteresis curve in Figure 1.6. The ratio B/H at
any point on the curves is the permeability #. Around point O,
the slope is nearly constant, whereas on the hysteresis curve it
is not; this indicates that the ferromagnetic material has
become nonlinear.
the saturated B, Bs in Figure 1.6, corresponding to total align-
ment of domains. When H is then reduced from this point to
zero, B reduces to Br, which is the remanent B field or rema-
nance. The negative (or antiparallel) H required to further
reduce B to zero is Hc, the coercivity. Materials with a large
Hc (called hard ferromagnetic materials) expend more energy
per complete transversal of the hysteresis curve and conse-
quently find applications as permanent magnets (see the next
section). Conversely, materials with small ~ (called soft ferro-
magnetic materials) expend much less energy per hysteresis-
curve cycle and find uses in transformers, relays, and generators.
The properties of a few selected soft ferromagnetic materials
are listed in Table 1.4, including tx along the initial magnetiza-
tion curve in Figure 1.6 and the m a x i m u m Ix found anywhere
along the hysteresis curve.
1.5.4 P e r m a n e n t M a g n e t s
Permanent magnets are materials that possess a magnetization
M in the absence of an applied magnetic field. These magnets

TABLE 1.4 Properties of Selected Soft Ferromagnetic Materials 1

Material
(% by weight; remainder is Fe) Initial Pr Max/# Bs [T]2 B~ IT]2 Hc [A/m]3
Commercial iron (0.2 impurities) 250 9,000 2.15 0.77 ~ 80
Purified iron (0.05 impurities) 10,000 200,000 2.15 -- 4
Silicon-iron (4 Si) 1,500 7,000 1.95 0.5 20
Silicon-iron (3 Si) 7,500 55,000 2 0.95 8
Mumetal (5 Cu, 2 Cr, 77 Ni) 20,000 100,000 0.65 0.23 4
78 Permalloy (78.5 Ni) 8,000 100,000 1.08 0.6 4
Supermalloy (79Ni, 5Mo) 100,000 1,000,000 0.79 0.5 0.16

1plonus (1978).
2Multiply by 10,000 for cgs unit of gauss [G].
3Multiply by 47 x 10 3 for cgs unit of oersted JOe].
490
B [T]
-H(A/m) • Hc O (ell)max BH (Jim3)
Demagnetization-- ] -~ Energyproduct
FIGURE 1.7 Demagnetization and Energy Product Curves for a
Permanent Magnet
can be constructed from ferromagnetic or other materials that
are nonlinear with magnetization curves containing hysteresis,
as shown in Figure 1.6. If the material has been properly
magnetized, then a remanent B field Br exists in the material
even when H = 0. Consequently, this material acts as a per-
manent magnet.
In many applications of permanent magnets--such as in
electrical motors, generators, and relays--the permanent
magnet is part of a magnetic circuit containing an air gap. In
these situations, as derived in example, 1.12, the permanent
magnet generally operates in the second (or fourth) quadrant
of the hysteresis curve (Bozorth, 1978). This second-quadrant
portion of the hysteresis curve is called the demagnetization
curve and is illustrated in Figure 1.7.
One quality measure of a permanent magnet is the "size" of
this demagnetization curve. A large Br and/4~ in Figure 1.7
ensures that the intrinsic magnetization of the magnet is large
and remains "permanent" even for large H. Another selection
criterion used for permanent magnets is based on the energy
product BH. This quantity is appropriately named since
energy density is proportional to this product (see subsection
1.7.2), which is also plotted in Figure 1.7 by multiplying B and
H at each point along the demagnetization curve. The max-
imum energy product(BH)ma~ is yet another measure of the
quality of a permanent magnet since H in the air gap produced
by the permanent magnet shown in Figure 1.8 is maximum
(with I = 0) when the energy product is maximum. This
maximum energy product (BH)max for a selected number of
steels, alloys, and other materials is listed in Table 1.5 together
with the r e m a n a n c e Br and coercivity Hc.
Hm~oermanent Magnet
/ Hg = - ~gg H m [A/m].
FIGURE 1.8 Ring of Permanent Magnet Material and Air Gap
Excited by a Coil of Wire with N Turns and Current I
Keith W. Whites
Example 1.12
The geometry shown in Figure 1.8 is an excellent canonical
problem to illustrate the salient features of permanent magnet
circuits. Assume a small cross-section and ignore all leakage
flux. The first topic is to show the steps necessary to determine
B in this problem, which is the same in the gap and the magnet
because of the boundary condition shown in equation 1.52. To
do this, two equations will be solved simultaneously. The first
equation is the hysteresis curve for the permanent magnet,
which is shown in Figure 1.9.
The second equation comes from an application of
Ampbre's law of equation 1.29 around the permanent magnet
circuit in Figure 1.8:
~ H . dl = 741. (1.82)
¢
Assuming no "flux leakage" from the permanent magnet or
"flux fringing" in the air gap (see Section 1.8), then:
Hmlm + Hglg = NI, (1.83)
where Hm and Hg are the magnetic fields in the magnet and air
gap, respectively. In the air gap, Hg = B/p, o. Substituting this
into equation 1.82 and rearranging gives:
NI
B=-#o
l•gHm+#o~-g [T]. (1.84)
This straight-line equation 1.84 is also drawn in Figure 1.9.
The intersections of this "load line" (Bozorth, 1978, Ch. 9)
with the hysteresis curve give the two possible solutions
for B in the permanent-magnet circuit of Figure 1.8. The actual
operating point depends on the previous time history because
this is a nonlinear circuit. Nevertheless, note from this example
that the second quadrant of the hysteresis curve (which is
symmetrical with the fourth) is the important quadrant. This
illustrates why the second quadrant is used as a measure of
comparison for magnets, as shown in Figure 1.7.
The second topic considered in this example is the relation-
ship between Hg in the air gap and the maximum energy
product (BHm)max of the permanent magnet in Figure 1.8.
With 1 = 0 in equation 1.82, then:
(1.85)
Multiplying this result by Hg and using the constitutive rela-
tionship B = polls yields (Bozorth, 1978, Ch. 9):
i_12 _ lm B H m (1.86)
Ig Po
1 Magnetostatics 491

TABLE 1.5 Properties of Selected Permanent Magnet Materials 1

Material Br [T]2 Hc [A/m]3 (BH)max[J/m3] 4

Barium ferrite (Ferroxdure) 0.2 120,000 8,000

Iron powder (100% Fe) 0.57 61,000 12,800
Steel (% by weight; remainder is Fe):
Carbon steel (0.9 C, 1 Mn) 1 4,000 1,600
Chromium steel (1 C, 0.5 Mn, 3.5 Cr) 0.95 5,200 2,200
Tungsten steel (0.7 C, 0.5 Mn, 0.5 Cr, 6 W) 0.95 5,900 2,600
Cobalt steel (0.7 C, 0.35 Mn, 2.5 Cr, 8.25 W, 17 Co) 0.95 13,500 5,200
Alnico (% by weight; remainder is Fe):
I (12 AI, 20 Ni, 5 Co) 0.71 33,800 10,700
II (10 A1, 17 Ni, 12.5 Co, 6 Cu) 0.72 43,400 13,100
III (12 A1, 25 Ni) 0.68 36,600 10,700
IV (12 A1, 28 Ni, 5 Co) 0.55 55,700 10,300
V (8 A1, 14 Ni, 24 Co, 3 Cu) 1.25 47,700 39,800
VI (8 AI, 15 Ni, 24 Co, 3 Cu, 1.25 Ti) 1.03 59,700 29,000
VIII (7 A1, 15 Ni, 35 Co, 4 Cu, 5 Ti) 1.04 126,000 44,000
Samarium Cobalt, SmCO (rare earth):
18 0.86 573,000 140,000
22 0.985 696,000 180,000
26 H 1.06 736,000 210,000
27 H 1.1 820,000 220,000
32 H ~ 1.16 756,000 250,000
Neodymium Iron Boron, NdFeB (rare earth):
27 1.085 768,000 210,000
30 H 1.12 851,000 240,000
35 1.23 899,000 280,000
39 H 1.28 979,000 320,000
45 1.355 935,000 350,000
48 1.41 1,030,000 380,000

lPlonus ( 1978); Pollock ( 1993); Magnet Sales + Manufacturing (1995).

2Multiply by 10,000 for cgs unit of gauss [G].
3Multiply by 4w x 10-3 for cgs unit of oersted [Oe].
4Multiply by 4"rr x 10 5 for cgs unit of mega-gauss-oersted [MG-Oe].

B [T] 1.6 Inductance

1.6.1 Magnetic Flux and Flux Linkage
Loadli~? Magnetic flux a n d flux linkage are two qualities of a spatially

N~l\.x,.J [A/m]
,, Hm
distributed magnetic field that are closely related to inductance.
The flux of the B field, ~bm, t h r o u g h a loop is the integral of the
c o m p o n e n t of B n o r m a l to the loop over the loop cross-
section. Mathematically, the m a g n e t i c flux t h r o u g h loop i
HysteresiHsC/ p r o d u c e d by c u r r e n t in loop j is defined as (Paul et al., 1998):
curve ~
= [Bj-dsi [Wb]. (1.87)
5i
FIGURE 1.9 Solution for B in the Permanent-Magnet Circuit of
Figure 1.8 In the case that i = 1 a n d j = 2, for example, t h e n @m,12 is
the magnetic flux t h r o u g h loop 1 p r o d u c e d b y the c u r r e n t in
loop 2. Alternatively, magnetic flux can also be c o m p u t e d as
That is, the square of the m a g n e t i c field in the air gap is
(Paul et al., 1998):
directly p r o p o r t i o n a l to the m a x i m u m energy p r o d u c t of the
magnet. In other words, choosing a m a g n e t with a larger
m a x i m u m energy p r o d u c t will p r o d u c e a larger magnetic Cm,;j ~ a j . dli [Wb], (1.88)
6i
field in the air gap s h o w n in Figure 1.8.
492 Keith W. Whites

where Aj is the magnetic vector potential of current loop j.

Inductors are commonly constructed by wrapping many
turns of wire around a core. This is an efficient method of
increasing the inductance since for the same amount of cur-
rent, the flux through (or "linking") the open surface bounded
by the contour is approximately proportional to the number
of wire turns. Accordingly, for loop i with Ni identical and
"tightly wound" turns, the flux linkage is defined as:
Aij = NitP m, ij[Wb ] . (1.89)
a21 = S2~//rn,21 -- pN2NIllhln(!)2~ [Wb]. (1.93)
1.6.2 D e f i n i t i o n o f I n d u c t a n c e
An inductor is a device that can store energy in a magnetic
field. Coils, solenoids, and toroids are all examples of induc-
tors. For an ideal two-terminal inductor with inductance L, the
voltage-current relationship is:

This flux linkage represents the total magnetic flux that passes VL(t) = L [V]. (1.94)
through (or is "linked" by) the open surface bounded by the
multiturn contour. For practical inductors, however, nonideal effects may alter
this voltage-current relationship through an additional series
Example 1.13 resistance and possible lead capacitance and inductance (Paul,
The toroid in Figure 1.10 will be used to illustrate the compu- 1992, Ch. 6).
tation of magnetic flux and flux linkage. Assume that p is so Assuming an ideal inductor, the computation of inductance
large that all of the magnetic field is trapped in the toroid. In becomes a strictly magnetostatic problem.
other words, ignore all "flux leakage." With a current I1 in coil Considering one or more loops of current in space, it can be
1, applying Amp~re's law of equation 1.29 along a closed shown that the magnetic flux through a loop is proportional to
contour in the toroid yields: the current that produces the magnetic flux (Paul et al., 1998).
(This behavior is evident in equation 1.91 for the toroid.) The
Nx Ix constant of proportionality is called inductance with units of
B,b,1 = U-~7-r [T]. (1.90)
henry (H). Specifically, inductance is defined in terms of the
flux linkage and current as:
Using the definition in equation 1.87, the magnetic flux
through coil 1 due to 11 (the "self flux") is as follows: flux linkage through ith coil due to current in jth coil
L;j = [H]
current in jth coil
h/2 b (1.95)
~m, ll = jB1 dsl = I I *" #N~II"*
~
#Nl2"rrll h ln (\a,/
b~ [Wb],
or
sl -h/2 a
(1.91) Lij - Aij _ Ni~m,O [H], (1.96)

which is also equal to t~m,21 (the "mutual flux") since the cross
sections of the two coils are identical. assuming from equation 1.89 that all Ni turns of the inductor
The flux linkage through coil 1 is from equations 1.89 and are identical. The Neumann formula (Cheng, 1989):
1.91:

Lij = ~ j j ~ - - / ) [HI (1.97)

AH : g@m, I l h In (b'~
11 -- # g (2~ \ a J [Wb], (1.92) ci cj

whereas the flux linkage through coil 2 is as written here: is a useful alternative form to equation 1.96, especially for
filamentary currents.
If i = j, Lii ( = L) is called a self-inductance, whereas if i ¢ j,
Z Lij is called a mutual inductance. A list of self-inductances
for a few selected geometries is shown in Table 1.6. Inductance
/t0 . a ~ . . ~
will not depend on current if the inductor is constructed from
linear materials. Conversely, if ferromagnetic materials are used
to fabricate the inductor, the inductance may be dependent on
N2 t u r n s T ~ ' ~ N1 turns
/1 current since, as discussed previously, ferromagnetic materials
can behave nonlinearly.
FIGURE 1.10 Two Wire Coils Wrapped Around a Toroid with Other than for very simple and ideal geometries, neither
Large # equations 1.96 and 1.97 can be analytically evaluated to give
1 Magnetostatics 493

TABLE 1.6 Self-Inductancesfor a Selected Set of Geometries

Name Geometry Inductance [H]

( ~ L :#N2hln(b'~ (1.98)
T°r°idt ~ 2~ \aJ
h ..~..~ ,,y

x ~ V x " N turns
z

~ ~
T Ntums #N2~a2
Solenoid (radius = a) h L/ h >> a]3: L ~ - - h (1.99)
lOflN2,a2
h ~- 0.4a (Wheeler formula)3: L ~ - - (1.100)
10h + 9a
2a

Coaxial cablel(h >) r,) L ~ -~.ln(f~'~ +~9.h (1.1Ol)

Two-wireline2 T0 "~
)~2rw L,,~#hln(d) (1.102)
O n krw/
J" o )

1paul et al. (1998). 2Plonus(1978). 3Ramoet al. (1994).

simple formulas for inductance. This is only possible for in- A21 t~N2Nlhln(b" ~ (1.1o4)
ductors with high degrees of symmetry, such as the toroid or L21- I ~ - 2w kay [H].
infinitely long coaxial cable shown in Table 1.6. Mternatively,
numerical integration can be used instead to evaluate equa- In both cases, the inductance is proportional to the square of
tions 1.96 and 1.97; the latter is particularly suited for coil-type the number of wire turns. This behavior is common to all coil-
inductors (Whites, 1998, Example 4.15). type inductors.
The self-inductance for coil 2 and the mutual inductance L12
Example 1.14 can also be computed using equation 1.96. A current 12 is
The self- and mutual inductances of the wire coils on the assumed to exist in coil 2 for the purposes of these inductance
toroid in Example 1.13 can be computed using equation 1.96 calculations. Since the inductance of inductors formed from
together with the flux linkages in equations 1.92 and 1.93. For linear materials does not depend on the current in the wire,
coil 1, the self-inductance is the following: assuming this current 12 is only a construction step. From
equation 1.96:
An _#N21hln(b_~ [H], (1.103)
Ln- 11 2¢r \aJ A22 _ #N2hln(_b'~ [H], (1.105)
L 2 2 - 12 2"rr \a/
which is the first entry in Table 1.6, while the mutual induc-
tance is the following: and the mutual inductance is
494 Keith W. Whites

A12 #N~NZhln(b"] (1.106)

r~
L12- I2 -- 2n k, aJ [H].

Comparing equations 104 and 106, it is apparent that

L12 = L2> This is a general result. In particular, by interchang-
ing indices i and j in equation 1.97 it can be shown that:
FIGURE 1.11 Coaxial Cable with a Nonmagnetic Center Con-
Lq=Lji i¢j (1.107) ductor. All current I in the center conductor is assumed to return
on the outer conductor.

1.7 Stored Energy and

1.7.1 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field I

Hour = ~b~wr rw < r < rs [A/m]. (1.112)
As described by Amp&e's force law discussed in Section 1.4.1,
a magnetic force exists between loops of constant current. From equations 1.108 and 1.78:
Were the loops flee to move, they would migrate toward or
away from each other depending on their orientations. The z0+l 2n rs
work done to keep the current loops stationary is stored as
energy in the magnetic field around the loops (Halliday et al.,
Win=~ J l~lHI2dv=~J J Jt~H~rdrdOdz
coax zo 0 0
2002). Energy is also stored in the magnetic field of a single (1.113)
current loop as well as other situations where a magnetic
field exists.
Magnetic energy Wm can be computed by integrating the
dot product of B and H through space as (Cheng, 1989):
=IZ P~o H~,inrdr+D H~,outrdr [J]"
0 rw
i }
Substituting He inside and outside the center conductor from
Wm= ~ B. Hdv []]. (1.108) equations 1.111 and 1.112, respectively, and integrating gives
all space

Any change to this stored magnetic energy occurs when the

magnetic field changes with time according to Faraday's law.
W~ : i2[ 1v~ +#4 0 ffln(rs'~]\rwjl[J]' (1.114)

Once B and H have reached a steady-state, equation 1.108 for the 1-m section of coax.
provides a method to compute the time-stationary stored
magnetic energy.
A magnetic energy density Wm can be defined at every point 1.7.2 Energy Stored in an Inductor
r in space from the integrand of equation 1.108 as: Inductors are the primary circuit elements for storage of mag-
1 netic energy. Ideally, they are the only circuit elements with this
win(r) : ~ B ( r ) . H ( r ) [j/m3]. (1.109) property. The magnetic energy Wm stored by an inductor with
current I is as follows:
The total stored magnetic energy can be computed by integrat-
ing Wm throughout space as:
W m = ~ZI 2 [J]. (1.115)
Win= [ wm(r)dv [J]. (1.110)
,3 In this expression, L is the self-inductance of the inductor as
all space
discussed in Subsection 1.6.2.
With coupled inductors--such as when two or more coils
Example 1.15 are wrapped around a common high permeability core--the
We will compute the magnetic energy stored in a 1-m section energy expression becomes more complicated. In the case of
of a long coaxial cable shown in Figure 1.11. Using Amp6re's two coupled inductors with currents I1 and I2 in coils 1 and 2,
law, the magnetic field inside and outside the center conductor respectively, the energy stored in the magnetic field is (Paul
are, respectively, (Whites, 1998, Example 4.2): et al., 1998):
Ir 1 2 +L1211/2 [J],
Hin = ~bZ--5- r < rw [A/m] (1.111) Wm= LHI ( +~L22I~ (1.116)
L~r;
1 Magnetostatics 495

w h e r e Lll and L22 are the self-inductances of coils 1 and 2,
respectively, and L12( = L21 ) is the mutual inductance between
the two coils. As expected, the first two terms in equation 1.116
represent the magnetic energies stored in coils 1 and 2, respec-
tively, while the last term is the energy stored in the mutual
inductances of the two-coil system. One potential subtlety is
that these self-inductances in equation 1.116 are those com-
puted for a coil with the other one present but having a current
equal to zero (Paul et aL, 1998).
Example 1.16
The energy stored in a 1-m section of the long coaxial cable in
Figure 1.11 was computed to be equation 1.114 in example
1.15. This magnetic energy calculation will be repeated here but
using the inductance expression of equation 1.115. The induc-
tance for a 1-m section of coaxial cable is given from the third
entry in Table 1.6 as:
mation used to solve for magnetic fields and magnetic fluxes
(Cheng, 1989; Paul et al., 1998; Planus, 1978). Applications for
this method include the design of electrical generators, motors,
transformers, and actuators. Magnetic circuit analysis is quite
similar to electrical circuit analysis. Quantities that serve
analogous purposes in both types of circuit analyses are listed
side by side in Table 1.7.
Magnetic circuit analysis is illustrated with the specific
example of the toroid shown in Figure 1.12(A). There are two
primary assumptions made in magnetic circuit analysis (Paul
et al., 1998). First, it is assumed that the permeability of the
structure is very large (# >> #0). Second, since # >> #0, it is
further assumed that all of the magnetic field lines flow along
the magnetic core and do not deviate outside of the structure;
that is, it is assumed there is no flux leakage out of the toroid in
Figure 1.12(A). Applying Amp~re's law of equation 1.29 gives:

L= #in(r') #o
~ H. dl = NI, (1.119)
(1.117) C
2~r 77w + ~ [H].
such that inside a linear magnetic core:
Using this inductance in equation 1.115 with a current I in the
coaxial cable gives: ~NI
B + = ~ - ~ - [T]. (1.120)

Wm =
1 [# ln(r'~
2 [2-rr krw/ + ~
#0112 [J]'
(1.118) Another common assumption in magnetic circuit analysis -
though not required - is that the cross-sectional dimensions
which is identical to equation 1.114 as expected.
In some situations, applying this procedure in reverse can
If/m
be a convenient method for computing inductance. That is, the
stored magnetic energy is computed first, and from this,
the inductance is determined using equation 1.115.

1.8 Magnetic Circuits

(A) Physical Geometry (B) Equivalent Magnetic Circuit
Magnetic circuit analysis is a technique that can be applied
to certain magnetic field problems to greatly simplify the F I G U R E 1.12 Toroid with High Permeability Core of Circular
solution. In short, this technique is a lumped-element approxi-. Cross-Sectional Area A

TABLE 1.7 Analogous Quantities in Electrical and Magnetic Circuit Analysis I

Electrical circuits Magnetic circuits

Conductivity [S/m] Permeability [H/m] //

EMF [V] V MMF [A] g~
Current [A] I Magnetic flux [Wb]
Resistance [1)] R = ±aA Reluctance [H 1]
Ohm's law V = IR Vm = t)mR
KVL (around a loop) Y~ Vi = ~ RjIi Vm,i = ~ RjOm,j
i j i J
KCL (at a junction) ~ Ij = 0 E ~bmj = 0
J J

1paul et al., (1998); Cheng (1989).

496 Keith W. Whites

are small with respect to the length (the "large aspect ratio" ent magnetic flux paths, as appropriate, then computing the
assumption). In these situations, B will be approximately uni- reluctances of the paths using equation 1.125. The last two
form over the cross section. Assuming that is the case here, entries in Table 1.7 list the laws used to solve magnetic circuit
then from equation 1.120: problems. In particular, the sum of mmfs around a closed loop
is equal to the sum of"reluctance drops" (KVL analogy), while
B4 ~ p N I = B [T]. (1.121) the sum of magnetic fluxes into a junction equals zero (KCL
2wa analogy) (Cheng, 1989; Paul et al., 1998)
Consequently, the magnetic flux @m in a core with cross-
Example 1.17
sectional area A will be approximately
The geometry shown in Figure 1.13(A) is used to illustrate the
pANI solution of magnetic field problems using magnetic circuit
I~m ,'~ B A -- [Wb], (1.122) analysis. The structure is assumed to have a square cross
2"rra
section of area 10 6 m 2, a core with #r = 1,000, and dimen-
and the flux will have this value all around the toroid. sions 11 = 1 cm,/3 = 3 cm, and 14 = 2 cm.
The equivalent magnetic circuit for the toroid in Fig. One distinguishing characteristic of this structure is the air
1.12(A) is developed by expressing equation 1.122 as the gap at the bottom of the center section shown in Figure
ratio of two quantities: 1.13(A). If the length of the air gap is small with respect to
the cross-sectional dimensions, we can ignore flux fringing (or
NI Vm "spreading out" of the B field lines) in the air gap (Plonus,
[Wb]. (1.123)
~Jm- (2rraX~ - - R 1978). Consequently, this gap can be simply modeled as an-
k PA/I
other reluctance as indicated by Rg in the equivalent magnetic
circuit of Figure 1.13(B).
In the numerator,
The goal here will be to solve for the magnetic flux density
in the air gap. Using equation 1.125 the four reluctances in
Vm=NI [A]. (1.124) Figure 1.13(B) can be calculated as:

Equation 1.124 shows what is called the magnetomotive force

(MMF) that serves an analogous function in this circuit as a R] - 211 + 14 _ 31.83 x 106 [H-l]. (1.126)
1000PoA
voltage source (EMF) in an electrical circuit. In the denomi-
nator of equation 1.123: R 2 = 14 - lg - 0.001/2 = 15.44 × 1 0 6 [H-l]. (1.127)
1000#oA
1
R =-- [H-l]. (1.125) R3 - 213 + 14 _ 63.66 × 106 [H-l].
pA (1.128)
1000PoA
Equation 1.125 shows the reluctance of the core (with mean lg _ 79.58 × 106 [H-l]. (1.129)
length 1), which is analogous to resistance as shown in Table R g - P° A
1.7. The equivalent magnetic circuit for the toroid is shown in
Figure 1.12(B). The magnetic flux through the source coil, I~m,1 , c a n be calcu-
Other magnetic field problems can be solved using this lated as the source mmf divided by the total reluctance seen by
magnetic circuit analysis by dividing the geometry into differ- the source as:

I1 , 6
Iffm, 1 ~1

10 mA
2000 II /2
turns II
~m,1 0.1 mm
~' I/fm, 3
1 mm
(A) PhysicalGeometry (B) Equivalent Magnetic Circuit

FIGURE 1.13 MagneticCircuit Geometry with a Small Air Gap

1 Magnetostatics 497

i)m, 1 --. V m -- NI
Kittel, C. (1996). Introduction to solid state physics. (7th ed.). New
Rtotal R1 + (R2 + Rg)IIR3 = 0.286 x 10-6[¥Vb]. York: John Wiley & Sons.
Magnet Sales & Manufacturing. (1995). Catalog 7, High-performance
(1.130) permanent magnets.
Paul, C.R., Whites, W., and Nasar, S.A. (1998). Introduction to electro-
Using "flux division" (which is analogous to current division magnetic fields. (3d ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
in electrical circuits), the magnetic flux through the air gap is Paul, C.R. (1992). Introduction to electromagnetic compatibility. New
then: York: John Wiley & Sons.
Plonus, M.A. (1978). Applied electromagnetics. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
R3 Ore.1 = 0.115 × 10-6[Wb]. (1.131) Pollock, D.D. (1993). Physical properties of materials for engineers.
@m,2 = ~P~3-[- ~PL2-[- ~ g (2d ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Ramo, S., Whinnery, ].R., and Van Duzer, T. (1994). Fields and waves
in communication electronics, (3d ed.). New York: John Wiley &
Sons.
References Schein, L.B. (1992). Electrophotography and development physics.
Bozorth, R.M. (1978). Ferromagnetism. New York: IEEE Press. (2d ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Cheng, D.K. (1989). Field and wave electromagnetics. (2d ed.). Ulaby, ET. (2001). Fundamentals of applied electromagnetics. Upper
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Inan, U.S., and Inan, A.S. (1999). Engineering electromagnetics. Menlo Weast, R.C. (Ed.). (1984). CRC handbook of chemistry and physics.
Park, CA: Addison Wesley. (65th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Halliday, D., Resnick, R., and Krane, K.S. (2002). Physics. (5th ed.). Whites, K.W. (1998). Visual electromagneticsfor mathcad. New York:
New York: John Wiley & Sons. McGraw-Hill.