Indonesia

1
Indonesia
Republic of Indonesia
Republik Indonesia
Flag National emblem
Motto:"Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" (Old Javanese)
"Unity in Diversity"
National ideology: Pancasila
[1]
Anthem:Indonesia Raya
Great Indonesia
Indonesia
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Capital
and largest city
Jakarta
610.5S 10649.7E
[2]
Official languages Indonesian
Demonym Indonesian
Government Unitary presidential constitutional republic
- President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
- Vice President Boediono
Legislature People's Consultative Assembly
- Upper house Regional Representative Council
- Lower house People's Representative Council
Independencefrom the Netherlands
- Declared 17 August 1945
- Acknowledged 27 December 1949
Area
- Land
1,904,569km
2
(15th)
735,358sqmi
- Water (%) 4.85
Population
- 2014estimate
253,603,649
[3]
- 2011census 237,424,363 (4th)
- Density
124.66/km
2
(84th)
322.87/sqmi
GDP(PPP) 2013estimate
- Total $2.388 trillion (9th)
- Per capita $9,559 (124th)
GDP(nominal) 2013estimate
- Total $867.468 billion (16th)
- Per capita $3,499 (115th)
Gini(2010) 35.6
medium
HDI (2013) 0.684
medium 108th
Currency Rupiah (Rp) (IDR)
Time zone various (UTC+7 to +9)
Drives on the left
Calling code +62
ISO 3166 code ID
Internet TLD .id
Indonesia (
i
/ndni/ IN-d-NEE-zh or /ndonizi/ IN-doh-NEE-zee-), officially the Republic of
Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia Indonesian pronunciation:[rpublik ndonesia]), is a sovereign state in
Indonesia
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Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising 13,466 islands.
[4]
It encompasses 33 provinces
and 1 Special Administrative Region (for being governed by a pre-colonial monarchy) with over 238 million people,
making it the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia's republic form of government comprises an elected
legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New
Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, the Philippines, Australia, Palau,
and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a
member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the world's 16th largest by nominal GDP.
The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and
then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and
political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has
been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought the now-dominant Islam,
while European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of
Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured
its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural
disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.
Indonesia consists of hundreds of distinct native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest and politically dominant
ethnic group are the Javanese. A shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity,
religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it.
Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the
diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast
areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural
resources, yet poverty remains widespread.
[5]
Etymology
Further information: Names of Indonesia
The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Inds and nsos, which means "island". The name dates to the
18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English
ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians and, his preference, Malayunesians for the inhabitants of the
"Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago". In the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan,
used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications
were reluctant to use Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the
Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indi), popularly Indi; the East (de Oost); and Insulinde.
After 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian
nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the
name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 18841894. The first Indonesian
scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the
Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.
Indonesia
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History
Main article: History of Indonesia
A Borobudur ship carved on Borobudur, c.
800CE. Indonesian outrigger boats may have
made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as
early as the 1st century CE.
Fossils and the remains of tools show that the Indonesian archipelago
was inhabited by Homo erectus, popularly known as "Java Man",
between 1.5 million years ago and as recently as 35,000 years ago.
[6][7]
Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago. In 2011
evidence was uncovered in neighbouring East Timor showing that
42,000 years ago these early settlers were catching and consuming
large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna,
[8]
and that they had the
technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and
other islands.
Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern
population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in
Indonesia around 2000BCE, and as they spread through the
archipelago, pushed the indigenous Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions.
[9]
Ideal agricultural conditions,
and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE,
[10]
allowed villages, towns, and small
kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and
international trade, including links with Indian kingdoms and China, which were established several centuries
BCE.
[11]
Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.
[12][13]
The nutmeg plant is native to
Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one
of the world's most valuable
commodities, it drew the first
European colonial powers to
Indonesia.
Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism arrived in Indonesia in the 4th and 5th
century, as trade with India intensified under the south Indian Pallava
dynasty.
[14]
From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom
flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that
were imported with it.
[15][16]
Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the agricultural
Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland
Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and
Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern
Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over
much of Indonesia.
Although Muslim traders first traveled through Southeast Asia early in the
Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to
the 13th century in northern Sumatra.
[17]
Other Indonesian areas gradually
adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end
of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing
cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in
Indonesia, particularly in Java.
[18]
The first regular contact between Europeans
and the peoples of Indonesia began in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serro, sought to monopolize
the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.
[19]
Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the
Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following
bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch
East Indies as a nationalized colony.
[20]
For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only
in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's present boundaries.
[21]

Japanese occupation during the Second World War ended Dutch rule
[22]
and encouraged the previously suppressed
Indonesian independence movement. A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of
Indonesia
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the Japanese occupation.
[23]
Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential
nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed President.
[24]
The Netherlands tried to reestablish their
rule, and the resulting conflict ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch
formally recognized Indonesian independence with the exception of the Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which
was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 New York Agreement, and the UN-mandated Act of Free
Choice of 1969
[25]
which was questionable and has resulted in a longtime independence movement.
[26]
Sukarno, Indonesia's founding
President.
Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism, and
maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the military and
the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).
[27]
An attempted coup on 30 September
1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during
which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.
[28][29]
Around
500,000 people are estimated to have been killed. The head of the military,
General Suharto, outmaneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno and was
formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration was
supported by the US government,
[30][31][32]
and encouraged foreign direct
investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three
decades of substantial economic growth. However, the authoritarian "New
Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political
opposition.
[33][34]
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the late 1990s Asian financial crisis.
This led to popular protest against the New Order which led to Suharto's
resignation in May 1998. In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military
occupation that was marked by international condemnation of repression of the East Timorese. Since Suharto's
resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and the first direct
presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism slowed
progress; however, in the last five years the economy has performed strongly. Although relations among different
religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, sectarian discontent and violence have persisted. A political
settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.
Government and politics
Main articles: Politics of Indonesia and Elections in Indonesia
A session of the People's Representative Council
in Jakarta
Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state,
power is concentrated in the central government. Following the
resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and
governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four
amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia
[35]
have revamped
the executive, judicial, and legislative branches. The president of
Indonesia is the head of state and head of government,
commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and the
director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs.
The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to
be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election
was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice
president. The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.
[36]
Indonesia
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The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions
are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state
policy. It has the power to impeach the president. The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative
Council (DPR), with 560 members, and the Regional Representative Council (DPD), with 132 members. The DPR
passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by
proportional representation. Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance.
[37]
The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.
[38]
Most civil disputes appear before a State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are heard before the High Court
(Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the country's highest court, and hears final cessation
appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and
insolvency; a State Administrative Court (Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear administrative law cases against the
government; a Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general
elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court
(Pengadilan Agama) to deal with codified Sharia Law cases.
Foreign relations and military
Main articles: Foreign relations of Indonesia and Indonesian National Armed Forces
President of Indonesia Susilo
Bambang Yudhoyono with Barack
Obama, the President of United
States, in ceremony at the Istana
Merdeka in Jakarta, 9 November
2010. Obama has become popular in
Indonesia due to the years he spent in
Jakarta as a child.
In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and
tensions with Malaysia, Indonesia's foreign relations since the Suharto "New
Order" have been based on economic and political cooperation with Western
nations. Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is
a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit. The nation restored
relations with the People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place
since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era. Indonesia has been a
member of the United Nations since 1950,
[39]
and was a founder of the
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference
(OIC, now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation). Indonesia is signatory to
the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the WTO, and
has historically been a member of OPEC, although it withdrew in 2008 as it was
no longer a net exporter of oil. Indonesia has received humanitarian and
development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western
Europe, Australia, and Japan.
The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and
prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda. The deadliest bombing killed
202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort town of Kuta in 2002. The attacks, and subsequent
travel warnings issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesia's tourism industry and foreign investment
prospects.
Indonesia's armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNIAD), Navy (TNIAL, which includes marines), and Air
Force (TNIAU). The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was
4% of GDP in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and
foundations. One of the reforms following the 1998 resignation of Suharto was the removal of formal TNI
representation in parliament; nevertheless, its political influence remains extensive.
[40]
Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of
human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.
[41]
Following a sporadic thirty-year guerrilla war between the Free
Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005. In Papua, there has
Indonesia
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been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels
of violence and human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Provinces of Indonesia and Subdivisions of Indonesia
Administratively, Indonesia consists of 34 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own
legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), which are
further subdivided into districts (kecamatan or distrik in Papua and West Papua), and again into administrative
villages (either desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari in West Sumatra, or gampong in Aceh). Village is the lowest level
of government administration in Indonesia. Furthermore, a village is divided into several community groups
(Rukun-Warga (RW)) which are further divided into neighbourhood groups (Rukun-Tetangga (RT)). In Java the
desa (village) is divided further into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), these units are the same as
Rukun-Warga. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have
become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration
level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an
elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief).
The provinces of Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater legislative privileges and a higher
degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example,
has the right to create certain elements of an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia Law
(Islamic law). Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting
Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution and its willingness to join Indonesia as a republic.
[42]
Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001 and was split into Papua and
West Papua in February 2003.
[43]
Jakarta is the country's special capital region.
Indonesian provinces and their capitals, listed by region
Indonesian name is in parentheses if different from English.
* indicates provinces with Special Status
Indonesia
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Sumatra
Aceh (Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam)
*
Banda Aceh
North Sumatra (Sumatera Utara) Medan
West Sumatra (Sumatera Barat) Padang
Riau Pekanbaru
Riau Islands (Kepulauan Riau) Tanjung Pinang
Jambi Jambi (city)
South Sumatra (Sumatera Selatan) Palembang
Bangka-Belitung (Kepulauan Bangka-Belitung) Pangkal Pinang
Bengkulu Bengkulu (city)
Lampung Bandar Lampung
Java
Special Capital Region of Jakarta
*
(Daerah Khusus Ibu Kota Jakarta) Jakarta
Banten Serang
West Java (Jawa Barat) Bandung
Central Java (Jawa Tengah) Semarang
Yogyakarta Special Region
*
(Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta) Yogyakarta (city)
East Java (Jawa Timur) Surabaya
Lesser Sunda Islands
Bali Denpasar
West Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Barat) Mataram
East Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Timur) Kupang
Kalimantan
West Kalimantan (Kalimantan Barat) Pontianak
Central Kalimantan (Kalimantan Tengah) Palangkaraya
South Kalimantan (Kalimantan Selatan) Banjarmasin
East Kalimantan (Kalimantan Timur) Samarinda
North Kalimantan (Kalimantan Utara) Tanjung Selor
Sulawesi
North Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara) Manado
Gorontalo Gorontalo (city)
Central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah) Palu
West Sulawesi (Sulawesi Barat) Mamuju
South Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan) Makassar
South East Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tenggara) Kendari
Maluku Islands
Maluku Ambon
North Maluku (Maluku Utara) Sofifi
Western New Guinea
West Papua
*
(Papua Barat) Manokwari
Papua
*
Jayapura
Geography
Main article: Geography of Indonesia
Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java.
Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is
among the world's highest.
Indonesia lies between latitudes 11S and 6N, and longitudes 95E
and 141E. It consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are
inhabited. These are scattered over both sides of the equator. The
largest are Java, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia),
New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea), and Sulawesi.
Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo, Papua New
Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of
Timor. Indonesia shares maritime borders across narrow straits with
Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Palau to the north, and with
Australia to the south. The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the
nation's largest city, followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and
Semarang.
At 1,919,440square kilometers (741,050sqmi), Indonesia is the world's 15th-largest country in terms of land area
and world's 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea and land area. Its average population density is 134people
per square kilometer (347per sqmi), 79th in the world, although Java, the world's most populous island, has a
population density of 940people per square kilometer (2,435per sqmi). At 4,884 metres (16,024ft), Puncak Jaya in
Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145square kilometers
(442sqmi). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam and Barito; such rivers are
communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.
Indonesia's location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates makes it the site of
numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes, including Krakatoa and
Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano,
approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due
Indonesia
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to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra, and the
Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However, volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that
has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.
Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average
annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,7803,175 millimeters (70.1125.0 inches), and up to 6,100 millimeters
(240 inches) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java,
Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%.
Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 2630C (7986F).
Biota and environment
Main articles: Fauna of Indonesia, Flora of Indonesia and Environment of Indonesia
The critically endangered Sumatran Orangutan, a
great ape endemic to Indonesia.
Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support
the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil), and its
flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species. The
islands of the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once
linked to the Asian mainland, and have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large
species such as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard,
were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution
have dwindled drastically. Forests cover approximately 60% of the
country. In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian
species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely
populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and
agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku having been long
separated from the continental landmasseshave developed their own
unique flora and fauna. Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and
is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.
Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and
39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic. Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers (50,000 miles) of coastline are
surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea
and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal
mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems. Indonesia is one of Coral Triangle countries with the
world's greatest diversity of coral reef fish with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only. The British
naturalist, Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian
species. Known as the Wallace Line, it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between
Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora
and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book, The Malay
Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the area. The region of islands between his line and
New Guinea is now termed Wallacea.
Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialization present serious environmental issues, which are often given a
lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. Issues include large-scale
deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia
and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid
urbanization and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and
reliable water and waste water services. Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's
third largest emitter of greenhouse gases. Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic
Indonesia
10
species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened, and
15 identified as critically endangered, including Bali Starling, Sumatran Orangutan, and Javan Rhinoceros. Much of
Indonesia's deforestation is caused by forest clearing for the palm oil Industry, which has cleared 18 million hectares
of forest for palm oil expansion. Palm oil expansion requires land reallocation as well as changes to the local and
natural ecosystems. Palm oil expansion can generate wealth for local communities if done right. If down wrong it
can degrade ecosystems and cause social conflicts.
Economy
Main article: Economy of Indonesia
Using water buffalo to plough rice fields in Java.
Agriculture had been the country's largest
employer for centuries.
Indonesia has a mixed economy in which both the private sector and
government play significant roles. The country is the largest economy
in Southeast Asia and a member of the G-20 major economies.
Indonesia's estimated gross domestic product (nominal), as of 2012
was US$928.274 billion with estimated nominal per capita GDP was
US$3,797, and per capita GDP PPP was US$4,943 (international
dollars). The gross domestic product (GDP) is about $1 trillion and the
debt ratio to the GDP is 26%. According to World Bank affiliated
report based on 2011 data, the Indonesian economy was the world's
10th largest by nominal GDP (PPP based), with the country
contributing 2.3 percent of global economic output. The industry sector
is the economy's largest and accounts for 46.4% of GDP (2012), this is followed by services (38.6%) and agriculture
(14.4%). However, since 2012, the service sector has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for
48.9% of the total labor force, this has been followed by agriculture (38.6%) and industry (22.2%). Agriculture,
however, had been the country's largest employer for centuries.
According to World Trade Organization data, Indonesia was the 27th biggest exporting country in the world in 2010,
moving up three places from a year before. Indonesia's main export markets (2009) are Japan (17.28%), Singapore
(11.29%), the United States (10.81%), and China (7.62%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are
Singapore (24.96%), China (12.52%), and Japan (8.92%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with export
revenues of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural
resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and
equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs. And the country's major export commodities include oil and gas,
electrical appliances, plywood, rubber, and textiles.
Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia and the country's
largest commercial center.
The tourism sector contributes to around US$9 billion of foreign
exchange in 2012, and ranked as the 4th largest among goods and
services export sectors. Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, China and
Japan are the top five source of visitors to Indonesia.
In the 1960s the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political
instability, a young and inexperienced government, and economic
nationalism, which resulted in severe poverty and hunger. By the time
of Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos
with 1,000% annual inflation, shrinking export revenues, crumbling
infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, and negligible investment. Following President Sukarno's
downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that
quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and
investment. (See Berkeley Mafia). Indonesia was until recently Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, and the
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11
1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates,
averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981.
[44]
Following further reforms in the late 1980s,
[45]
foreign investment flowed
into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-oriented manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997,
the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%.
[46]
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the Asian financial crisis of 199798. During the crisis there were sudden
and large capital outflows leading the rupiah to go into free fall. Against the US dollar the rupiah dropped from about
Rp 2,600 in late 1997 to a low point of around Rp 17,000 some months later and the economy shrank by a
remarkable 13.7%. These developments led to widespread economic distress across the economy and contributed to
the political crisis of 1998 which saw Suharto resign as president. The rupiah later stabilised in the Rp. 8,000 range
and economic growth returned to 4% per year by 2000. However, the currency still fluctuates, dropping below Rp
11,000 per dollar in September 2013. In addition, corruption has been a persistent problem. Transparency
International, for example, has since ranked Indonesia below 100 in its Corruption Perceptions Index. Since 2007,
however, with the improvement in banking sector and domestic consumption, national economic growth has
accelerated to over 6% annually and this helped the country weather the 20082009 global recession. The
Indonesian economy performed strongly during the Global Financial Crisis and in 2012 its GDP grew by over 6%.
The country regained its investment grade rating in late 2011 after losing it in the 1997. However, as of 2012, an
estimated 11.7% of the population lived below the poverty line and the official open unemployment rate was 6.1%.
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Indonesia and List of endangered languages in Indonesia
Balinese children. There are around 300 distinct
native ethnicities in Indonesia.
According to the 2010 national census, the population of Indonesia is
237.6 million, with high population growth at 1.9%. 58% of the
population lives in Java, the world's most populous island. In 1961 the
first post-colonial census gave a total population of 97 million.
Population is expected to grow to around 269 million by 2020 and 321
million by 2050.
[47]
There are around 300 distinct native ethnic groups in Indonesia, and
742 different languages and dialects. Most Indonesians are descended
from Austronesian-speaking peoples whose languages can be traced to
Proto-Austronesian (PAn), which possibly originated in Taiwan.
Another major grouping are Melanesians, who inhabit eastern
Indonesia.
[48]
The largest ethnic group is the Javanese, who comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and
culturally dominant. The Sundanese, ethnic Malays, and Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups.
[49]
A sense
of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.
[50]
Society is largely harmonious, although
social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence.
[51][52]
Chinese Indonesians are an
influential ethnic minority comprising 34% of the population.
[53]
Much of the country's privately owned commerce
and wealth is Chinese-Indonesian-controlled.
[54][55]
Chinese businesses in Indonesia are part of the larger bamboo
network, a network of overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common
family and cultural ties. This has contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.
[56]
Indonesia
12
The Istiqlal Mosque in Central Jakarta. Indonesia
is the world's most populous Muslim-majority
nation.
The official national language is Indonesian, a form of Malay. It is
based on the prestige dialect of Malay, that of the Johor-Riau
Sultanate, which for centuries had been the lingua franca of the
archipelago, standards of which are the official languages in Singapore,
Malaysia and Brunei. Indonesian is universally taught in schools,
consequently it is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language
of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It was
promoted by Indonesian nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the
official language under the name Bahasa Indonesia on the
proclamation of independence in 1945. Most Indonesians speak at least
one of the several hundred local languages and dialects, often as their
first language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely spoken as the
language of the largest ethnic group. On the other hand, Papua has over 270 indigenous Papuan and Austronesian
languages, in a region of about 2.7 million people.
While religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution, the government officially recognizes only six
religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Indonesia is the
world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, at 87.2% in 2010, with the majority being Sunni (99%).
[57][58]
On 21
May 2011 the Indonesian Sunni-Shia Council (MUHSIN) was established. The council aims to hold gatherings,
dialogues and social activities. It was an answer to violence committed in the name of religion. Seven percent of the
population was Christian, 1.7% Hindu, and 0.9% Buddhist or other. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese, and most
Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese. Though now minority religions, Hinduism and Buddhism
remain defining influences in Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the
13th century, through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century.
Roman Catholicism was brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries,
[59]
and the
Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's
colonial period.
[60][61]
A large proportion of Indonesianssuch as the Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and
Dayak Christianspractice a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion, which draws on local customs and
beliefs.
[62]
Education in Indonesia is compulsory for twelve years. Parents can choose between state-run, non sectarian public
schools supervised by the Department of National Education (Depdiknas) or private or semi-private religious
(usually Islamic) schools supervised and financed by the Department of Religious Affairs. The enrolment rate is 94%
for primary education (2011), 75% for secondary education, and 27% for tertiary education. The literacy rate is 93%
(2011).
Culture
Main article: Culture of Indonesia
Indonesia
13
Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) in Wayang Purwa
type, depicting five Pandava, from left to right:
Bhima, Arjuna, Yudhishtira, Nakula, and
Sahadeva, Indonesia Museum, Jakarta.
Indonesia has about 300 ethnic groups, each with cultural identities
developed over centuries, and influenced by Indian, Arabic, Chinese,
and European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for
example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology, as do
wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. Textiles such as batik,
ikat, ulos and songket are created across Indonesia in styles that vary
by region. The most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture
have traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European
architectural influences have been significant.
Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports
are often associated with illegal gambling. The most popular sports are badminton and football. Indonesian players
have won the Thomas Cup (the world team championship of men's badminton) thirteen of the twenty-six times that it
has been held since 1949, as well as numerous Olympic medals since the sport gained full Olympic status in 1992.
Its women have won the Uber Cup, the female equivalent of the Thomas Cup, twice, in 1994 and 1996. Liga
Indonesia is the country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include sepak takraw, and bull racing in
Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as caci in Flores and pasola
in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art.
A selection of Indonesian food, including ikan
bakar (roasted fish), ayam goreng (fried chicken),
nasi timbel (rice wrapped in banana leaf), sambal,
fried tempeh and tofu, and sayur asem.
Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European,
Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents. Rice is the main staple food
and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably
chili), coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients.
[63]
Indonesian traditional music includes gamelan and keroncong. The
Indonesian film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and
dominated cinemas in Indonesia, although it declined significantly in
the early 1990s. Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian
films released each year has steadily increased.
The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit
inscriptions dated to the 5th century. Important figures in modern
Indonesian literature include: Dutch author Multatuli, who criticized
treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; Sumatrans
Muhammad Yamin and Hamka, who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians;
[64]
and
proletarian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist.
[65][66]
Many of Indonesia's peoples
have strongly rooted oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.
Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which the
now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media. The
TV market includes ten national commercial networks, and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI.
Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 25
million users in 2008, Internet usage was estimated at 12.5% in September 2009. More than 30 million cell phones
are sold in Indonesia each year, and 27% of them are local brands.
Indonesia
14
Notes
[1] [1] Vickers, p. 117
[2] http:/ / tools.wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Indonesia& params=6_10. 5_S_106_49. 7_E_type:country
[3] http:/ / www. census. gov/ popclock/
[4] "The Naming Procedures of Indonesias Islands", Tenth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, New
York, 31 July 9 August 2012, United Nations Economic and Social Council
[5] ; correction (http:/ / www. economist. com/ node/ 8001604?story_id=8001604).
[6] Finding showing human ancestor older than previously thought offers new insights into evolution (http:/ / www. terradaily. com/ reports/
Finding_showing_human_ancestor_older_than_previously_thought_offers_new_insights_into_evolution_999. html). Terradaily.com. 5 July
2011. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
[7] [7] cited in ; cited in ; cited in
[8] Evidence of 42,000 year old deep sea fishing revealed | Archaeology News from Past Horizons (http:/ / www. pasthorizonspr. com/ index.
php/ archives/ 11/ 2011/ evidence-of-42000-year-old-deep-sea-fishing-revealed). Pasthorizonspr.com. 26 November 2011. Retrieved 29
January 2012.
[9] Taylor, pp. 57
[10] Taylor, pp. 89
[11] Taylor, pp. 1518
[12] Taylor, pp. 3, 911, 135, 1820, 223
[13] Vickers, pp. 1820, 60, 1334
[14] [14] Guide to the Temples of Java (Indonesia) by Approach Guides,David Raezer,Jennifer Raezer
[15] Taylor, pp. 2226
[16] [16] Ricklefs, p. 3
[17] Ricklefs, pp. 314
[18] Ricklefs (1991), pp. 1214
[19] Ricklefs (1991), pp. 2224
[20] [20] Ricklefs, p. 24
[21] Dutch troops were constantly engaged in quelling rebellions both on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro
in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra and Pattimura in Maluku, and a bloody thirty-year war in Aceh weakened the Dutch and tied
up the colonial military forces.(
[22] [22] Ricklefs
[23] Cited in: Dower, John W. War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (1986; Pantheon; ISBN 0-394-75172-8)
[24] [24] Taylor, p. 325
[25] Indonesia's 1969 Takeover of West Papua Not by "Free Choice" (http:/ / www. gwu. edu/ ~nsarchiv/ NSAEBB/ NSAEBB128/ ). National
Security Archive, Suite 701, Gelman Library, The George Washington University.
[26] [26] Irian Jaya Under the Gun, Jim Elmslie, University of Hawaii Press, 2002, pg. 12
[27] Ricklefs, pp. 237280
[28] Friend, pp. 107109
[29] Ricklefs, pp. 280283, 284, 287290
[30] US National Archives, RG 59 Records of Department of State; cable no. 868 (https:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20040701005635/ http:/ /
www.state. gov/ r/ pa/ ho/ frus/ johnsonlb/ xxvi/ 4445.htm), ref: Embtel 852, 5 October 1965.
[31] [31] Vickers, p. 163
[32] David Slater, Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North-South Relations, London: Blackwell, p. 70
[33] [33] Vickers
[34] [34] Schwarz
[35] [35] In 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001
[36] (2002), The fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution, Chapter III The Executive Power, Art. 7.
[37] Reforms include total control of statutes production without executive branch interventions; all members are now elected (reserved seats for
military representatives have now been removed); and the introduction of fundamental rights exclusive to the DPR. (see Harijanti and Lindsey
2006)
[38] Based on the 2001 constitution amendment, the DPD comprises four popularly elected non-partisan members from each of the thirty-three
provinces for national political representation.
[39] [39] Indonesia temporarily withdrew from the UN on 20 January 1965 in response to the fact that Malaysia was elected as a non-permanent
member of the Security Council. It announced its intention to "resume full cooperation with the United Nations and to resume participation in
its activities" on 19 September 1966, and was invited to re-join the UN on 28 September 1966.
[40] Friend, pp. 473475, 484
[41] Friend, pp. 270273, 477480
[42] The positions of governor and its vice governor are prioritized for descendants of the Sultan of Yogyakarta and Paku Alam, respectively,
much like a sultanate. (Elucidation on the Indonesia Law No. 22/1999 Regarding Regional Governance. People's Representative Council
Indonesia
15
(1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122; (translated version). The President of Republic of Indonesia (1974). Chapter VII Transitional
Provisions, Art. 91)
[43] [43] Part of the autonomy package was the introduction of the Papuan People's Council, which was tasked with arbitration and speaking on
behalf of Papuan tribal customs. However, the implementation of the autonomy measures has been criticized as half-hearted and incomplete.
[44] Schwarz, pp. 5257
[45] Following a slowing of growth in the 1980s, due to over regulation and dependence on declining oil prices, growth slowed to an average of
4.3% per annum between 1981 and 1988. A range of economic reforms were introduced in the late 1980s. Reforms included a managed
devaluation of the rupiah to improve export competitiveness, and de-regulation of the financial sector (Schwarz, pp. 5257).
[46] Schwarz, pp. 5257.
[47] World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision (http:/ / esa. un. org/ unpd/ wpp/ unpp/ p2k0data. asp) (2012). Indonesia. Population
(thousands). Median variant. 19502100. United Nations
[48] Taylor, pp. 57
[49] Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.
[50] [50] Ricklefs, p. 256
[51] Domestic migration (including the official Transmigrasi program) are a cause of violence including the massacre of hundreds of Madurese
by a local Dayak community in West Kalimantan, and conflicts in Maluku, Central Sulawesi, and parts of Papua and West Papua
[52] ; Kyoto University: Sulawesi Kaken Team & Center for Southeast Asian Studies
[53] Johnston notes that less than 1% of the country's 210 million inhabitants described themselves as ethnic Chinese. Many sociologists regard
this as a serious underestimate: they believe that somewhere between six million and seven million people of Chinese descent are now living
in Indonesia. The Republic of China (Taiwan)'s Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission gives a figure of 7,776,000, including 207,000 of
Taiwan origin; see Statistical Yearbook, Taipai: Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, 2007, pp. 1113, ISSN 1024-4374. Retrieved 30
September 2010.
[54] Schwarz, pp. 53, 8081
[55] Friend, pp. 8587, 164165, 233237
[56] The riots in Jakarta in 1998much of which were aimed at the Chinesewere, in part, expressions of this resentment.
[57] Sunni and Shia Muslims (http:/ / www. pewforum. org/ 2011/ 01/ 27/ future-of-the-global-muslim-population-sunni-and-shia/ ).
pewforum.org. 2011-01-27.
[58] [58] Muslim 207176162 (87.18%), Christian 16528513 (6.96), Catholic 6907873 (2.91), Hindu 4012116 (1.69), Buddhist 1703254 (0.72), Khong
Hu Chu 117091 (0.05), Other 299617 (0.13), Not Stated 139582 (0.06), Not Asked 757118 (0.32), Total 237641326
[59] [59] Ricklefs, pp. 25, 26, 28
[60] [60] Ricklefs, pp. 28, 62
[61] [61] Vickers, p. 22
[62] Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta,
1997, pp.1518, ISBN 979-605-406-X;
[63] Compared to the infused flavors of Vietnamese and Thai food, flavors in Indonesia are kept relatively separate, simple and substantial.
[64] Taylor, pp. 299301
[65] Vickers, pp. 37
[66] [66] Friend, pp. 74, 180
References
Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-01137-6.
Ricklefs, M. C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition. MacMillan.
ISBN0-333-57689-6.
Schwarz, A. (1994). A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Westview Press. ISBN1-86373-635-2.
Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
ISBN0-300-10518-5.
Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-54262-6.
Indonesia
16
External links
Government
Government of Indonesia (http:/ / www. indonesia. go. id/ en/ )
Minister of The State Secretary (http:/ / www. setneg. go. id/ ) (Indonesian)
Statistics Center (http:/ / www. bps. go. id/ )
Chief of State and Cabinet Members (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ world-leaders-1/ ID. html)
General information
Indonesia (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ id. html) entry at The World
Factbook
Indonesia (http:/ / ucblibraries. colorado. edu/ govpubs/ for/ indonesia. htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Indonesia (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Regional/ Asia/ Indonesia) at DMOZ
Indonesia profile (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-asia-pacific-14921238) from the BBC News
Indonesia (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 286480/ Indonesia) at Encyclopdia Britannica
Wikimedia Atlas of Indonesia
Official Site of Indonesian Tourism (http:/ / www. indonesia. travel/ )
Key Development Forecasts for Indonesia (http:/ / www. ifs. du. edu/ ifs/ frm_CountryProfile. aspx?Country=ID)
from International Futures
Article Sources and Contributors
17
Article Sources and Contributors
Indonesia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=623455693 Contributors: (, *drew, -iNu-, 10metreh, 112311A, 1exec1, 23prootie, 5 albert square, 64.240.35.xxx, 7107delicious,
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Akuindo, Al Ameer son, Al-Andalus, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, AlbertR, Albertc1990, Albertus Aditya, Aldnonymous, Ale jrb, AlefZet, Alex43223, Alexander Domanda, AlexanderKaras,
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