Vital metabolism for survival of

life in the earth

Prof Adinpunya Mitra
Agricultural & Food Engineering Department
THE SUN: MAIN SOURCE OF
ENERGY FOR LIFE ON EARTH
Almost all plants are photosynthetic autotrophs, as
are some bacteria and protists
Autotrophs generate their own organic matter through
photosynthesis
Sunlight energy is transformed to energy stored in the
form of chemical bonds
(a) Mosses, ferns, and
flowering plants
(b) Kelp
(c) Euglena
(d) Cyanobacteria
THE BASICS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Light Energy Harvested by Plants &
Other Photosynthetic Autotrophs
6 CO
2
+ 6 H
2
O + light energy C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6
O
2

Different wavelengths of visible light are seen by
the human eye as different colors.
WHY ARE PLANTS GREEN?
Gamma
rays
X-rays UV Infrared
Micro-
waves
Radio
waves
Visible light
Wavelength (nm)
Transmitted light
Sunlight minus absorbed
wavelengths or colors
equals the apparent color of
an object.
WHY ARE PLANTS GREEN?
Structure of Plant Cell and Chloroplast
Electron Microscopic View
Image of plant cells
Light Microscopic View
WHY ARE PLANTS GREEN?
Plant Cells
have Green
Chloroplasts

The thylakoid
membrane of the
chloroplast is
impregnated with
photosynthetic
pigments (i.e.,
chlorophylls,
carotenoids).

Chloroplast Structure
Inner membrane
called the
thylakoid
membrane.

Thickened
regions called
thylakoids. A
stack of
thylakoids is
called a granum.
(Plural grana)

Stroma is a liquid
surrounding the
thylakoids.
Chloroplasts
absorb light
energy and
convert it to
chemical energy
Light
Reflected
light
Absorbed
light
Transmitted
light

Chloroplast
THE COLOR OF LIGHT SEEN IS THE
COLOR NOT ABSORBED
Photosynthesis is the process by which
autotrophic organisms use light energy to
make sugar and oxygen gas from carbon
dioxide and water
AN OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Carbon
dioxide
Water Glucose Oxygen
gas
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The Calvin cycle makes
sugar from carbon
dioxide
ATP generated by the light
reactions provides the energy
for sugar synthesis
The NADPH produced by the
light reactions provides the
electrons for the reduction of
carbon dioxide to glucose
Light

Chloroplast
Light
reactions
Calvin
cycle
NADP

ADP
+ P
The light reactions
convert solar
energy to chemical
energy
Produce ATP & NADPH



AN OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Chloroplasts: Sites of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Occurs in chloroplasts, All green plant parts
have chloroplasts and carry out
photosynthesis
The leaves have the most chloroplasts
The green color comes from chlorophyll in the
chloroplasts
The pigments absorb light energy
In most plants, photosynthesis occurs
primarily in the leaves, in the chloroplasts
A chloroplast contains:
stroma, a fluid
grana, stacks of thylakoids
The thylakoids contain chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is the green pigment that captures
light for photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts
The location and structure of chloroplasts
LEAF CROSS SECTION
MESOPHYLL CELL
LEAF
Chloroplast
Mesophyll
CHLOROPLAST
Intermembrane space
Outer
membrane
Inner
membrane
Thylakoid
compartment
Thylakoid
Stroma
Granum
Stroma Grana
Chloroplasts contain several pigments
Chloroplast Pigments
Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll b
Carotenoids
Figure 7.7
Chlorophyll a & b
Chl a has a methyl
group

Chl b has a carbonyl
group
Porphyrin ring
delocalized e
-
Phytol tail
Different pigments absorb light
differently
Pigment Absorption
How Light is Captured?
The Light Reactions
(light dependent)
Photosystem Icyclic
photophosphorylation

Photosystem IInoncyclic
photophosphorylation

Photolysis
The Z scheme (Light Reactions)
Cyclic Photophosphorylation
Process for ATP generation associated with
some Photosynthetic Bacteria
Reaction Center => 700 nm
Primary
electron acceptor
Primary
electron acceptor
Photons
PHOTOSYSTEM I
PHOTOSYSTEM II
Energy for
synthesis of
by chemiosmosis
Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
Photosystem II regains electrons by splitting
water, leaving O
2
gas as a by-product
Water-splitting
photosystem
NADPH-producing
photosystem
ATP
mill
Two types of
photosystems
cooperate in the
light reactions
Concept of Light Reaction
The O
2
liberated by photosynthesis is made
from the oxygen in water (H
+
and e
-
)
Plants produce O
2
gas by splitting H
2
O
2 H

+
1
/
2

Water-splitting
photosystem
Reaction-
center
chlorophyll
Light
Primary
electron
acceptor
Energy
to make
Primary
electron
acceptor
Primary
electron
acceptor
NADPH-producing
photosystem
Light
NADP

1
2
3
How the Light Reactions Generate ATP and NADPH?
Two connected photosystems collect
photons of light and transfer the energy to
chlorophyll electrons
The excited electrons are passed from the
primary electron acceptor to electron
transport chains
Their energy ends up in ATP and NADPH
In the light reactions, electron transport
chains generate ATP, NADPH, & O
2

Chemiosmosis powers ATP synthesis
in the light reactions
The electron transport chains are arranged
with the photosystems in the thylakoid
membranes and pump H
+
through that
membrane
The flow of H
+
back through the membrane is
harnessed by ATP synthase to make ATP
In the stroma, the H
+
ions combine with NADP
+

to form NADPH
Chemiosmosis powers ATP
synthesis in the light reactions
The production of ATP by chemiosmosis in
photosynthesis
Thylakoid
compartment
(high H
+
)
Thylakoid
membrane
Stroma
(low H
+
)
Light
Antenna
molecules
Light
ELECTRON TRANSPORT
CHAIN
PHOTOSYSTEM II PHOTOSYSTEM I ATP SYNTHASE
A Photosynthesis Road Map
Chloroplast
Light

Stack of
thylakoids ADP
+ P

NADP

Stroma
Light
reactions
Calvin
cycle
Sugar used for
Cellular respiration

Cellulose
Starch
Other organic compounds
The Calvin Cycle in
Photosynthesis
The Calvin cycle is the mechanism
for turning CO
2
into glucose

Calvin Cycle Strategy
6CO
2
Glucose
(Ideal)
(Real)
6CO
2
+ 6RuBP G6P + 6RuBP
6C 30C
6C 30C
(Mechanism)
6CO
2
+ 6RuBP 12, 3PGA
The Calvin/Benson/C
3
cycle
Has 3 phases:
1. carbon fixation phase
2. reduction of CO
2
phase
3. regeneration of RuBP phase
Light-independent reactions
(Dark Reactions)
The free energy of cleavage of ~P bonds of ATP, and
reducing power of NADPH, are used to fix and
reduce CO
2
to form carbohydrate.
Enzymes & intermediates of the Calvin Cycle are
located in the chloroplast stroma, a compartment
somewhat analogous to the mitochondrial matrix.
grana disks
(thylakoids)
stroma
compartment
2 outer
membranes
Chloroplast
Calvin Cycle,
earlier designated
the photosynthetic
"dark reactions," is
now called the
carbon reactions
pathway:
Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase (RuBP Carboxylase),
catalyzes CO
2
fixation:
ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate + CO
2
2 3-phosphoglycerate
Because it can alternatively catalyze an oxygenase reaction,
the enzyme is also called RuBP Carboxylase/Oxygenase
(RuBisCO). It is the most abundant enzyme on earth.
Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
(RuBP)
OH
H
2
C
C H
C
C
OH H
H
2
C OPO
3
2-
OPO
3
2-
O
3-Phosphoglycerate
(3PG)
OH
H
2
C
C H
C
O O
OPO
3
2-
-
carbon fixation phase
Reduction of CO2
phase
Regeneration of RuBP
phase
3-PGA
1,3 bisPO
4
glycerate
Glyceraldehyde-3-PO
4

Fructose 1,6bisPO
4

Glucose-6-PO
4

DHAP
Calvin
Calvin
Calvin
ATP
ADP
NADPH + H
+

NADP
+

Fructose-6-PO
4

12c
18c
6c
24c
6c
12c
36c
36c
Carbon Balance in
Calvin Cycle
Synthesis of Sucrose and Starch
F6P G6P G1P
ADP-glucose
ATP
PP
i

(glucose)
n

ADP + (glucose)
n+1

Starch
(amylose)
UDP-glucose
fructose-6-PO
4

UDP + Sucrose-6-PO
4

H
2
O
P
i

UTP
PP
i

Stroma
Cytosol
Sucrose
Thank goodness for
photosynthesis
CO
2
+ ATP + NADPH
Glyceraldehyde-3-P + ADP + P
i
+ NADP
+
Glyceraldehyde-3-P may be converted to other CHO:
metabolites (e.g., fructose-6-P, glucose-1-P)
energy stores (e.g., sucrose, starch)
cell wall constituents (e.g., cellulose).
Glyceraldehyde-3-P can also be utilized by plant cells as
carbon source for synthesis of other compounds such as
fatty acids & amino acids.


glyceraldehyde-
3-phosphate
OH
H
2
C
C H
CHO
OPO
3
2 O C O
carbon
dioxide
Summary of
Calvin Cycle
Summary of
Calvin Cycle
When O
2
reacts with ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, the
products are 3-phosphoglycerate plus the 2-C
compound 2-phosphoglycolate.
This reaction is the basis for the name RuBP
Carboxylase/Oxygenase (RuBisCO).

OH
H
2
C
C H
C
O O
OPO
3
2

H
2
C
C
OPO
3
2
O

O
3-phospho- phosphoglycolate
glycerate
Photorespiration:
O
2
can compete with
CO
2
for binding to RuBisCO,
especially when [CO
2
] is low
& [O
2
] is high.
Photorespiration is a wasteful process, substantially
reducing efficiency of CO2 fixation, even at normal ambient
CO2
PHOTORESPIRATION
Definition 1:
An interference with carboxylation caused by
the deviant interaction of RUBISCO with oxygen
The aberrant use of oxygen by chloroplasts
A process that leads to only one 3PGA being
produced in the dark reaction in
chloroplasts
Definition 2:
O
2

O
2

O
2
O
2

O
2

O
2

Strategy for Preventing
Photorespiration
Fix CO
2
in an environment shielded from O
2

Use an enzyme that does not react with O
2

Avoid RUBISCO
PLAN
Strategy (cont.)
SOLUTION
CO
2
fixation occurs in Mesophyll cells
CO
2
fixing enzyme is not RUBISCO
PEP carboxylase will not react with O
2

RUBISCO never changed
Take
Home
Instead plant anatomy changed
CO
2
fixing enzyme is PEP carboxylase
phosphoenolpyruvate
Separation
in space (C4 cycle)
Vascular tissue
Malate
Bundle sheath cell
Mesophyll cell
surrounding
bundle sheath
CO
2

PEP (3C)
C3
CO
2

OAA (4C)
Pyruvate (C3)
ATP
ADP
sugar
CO
2
directly
RuBP recipient
RUBISCO open
O
2
can interfere
Photorespiration
likely
CO
2
indirectly
PEP recipient
RUBISCO shielded
O
2
cannot interfere
No photorespriation
C
3
vs C
4
Plants
A Lesson in Photoefficiency
C
3
C
4

C
3
and C
4
Plants
soybean
wheat
rice
sugar beet
alfalfa
spinach
tobacco
sunflower

corn
sorghum
sugar cane
millet
crab grass
Bermuda grass
pigweed
C
3

C
4

What did you Learn?
Photorespiration is to be avoided
RUBISCO is an oxidase/carboxylase
Oxygen cuts photoefficiency in half
C
3
and C
4
plants differ in anatomy
Mesophyll cells fix CO
2
to PEP
Bundle sheath cells have Calvin cycle
C
4
plants grow more ferociously
Separation
in time (CAM cycle)
Mesophyll
Malat
In the light
In the dark
CO
2

PEP (3C)
C3
CO
2

OAA (4C)
Pyruvate (C3)
ATP
ADP
sugar
Carbon dioxide is broken and fixed into
glucose or fructose molecules in the CALVIN
CYCLE!!!!
Glucose subunits can make cellulose or other
polysaccharides, such as fruit sugars.
The carbon skeleton in glucose also helps to
synthesize other important biochemical
compounds such as, lipids, amino acids, and
nucleic acids.
Overview of the Dark Reactions
Overview of Photosynthesis
Summary Diagram of Photosynthesis
It's not that
easy bein'
green but it
is essential for
life on earth!