WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

THE TRAGEDIES
The Plays of Tragic Conception
Romeo and Juliet !"#!$!"#"%
so&rce' an Italian tale translate( into )erse as The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet
*y Arth&r +roo,e in !"-./ an( retol( in prose in Palace of Pleasure *y Willia0 Painter
in !"1.2
3&ite si0ilar in plot/ the0e/ an( (ra0atic en(ing to the story of Pyra0&s an( This*e/ tol(
*y 4)i( in his Metamorphoses.
characters'
the Montag&es' Lor( Montag&e2 La(y Montag&e2 Ro0eo/ his son2 +en)olio/ Ro0eo5s
co&sin2 ser)ants6
the Cap&lets' Lor( Cap&let2 La(y Cap&let2 7&liet/ their (a&ghter2 Ty*alt/ 7&liet5s co&sin2
Rosaline/ a niece of lor( Cap&let2 7&liet5s n&rse2 ser)ants6
the r&ling ho&se of 8erona' Prince Escal&s2 Co&nt Paris/ his ,ins0an an( 7&liet5s s&itor2
Merc&tio/ another ,ins0an of the prince an( frien( of Ro0eo6
9riar La&rence2 9riar 7ohn2 an apothecary6
Ro0eo an( 7&liet
Ro0eo' Ro0eo e:periences a lo)e of s&ch p&rity an( passion that he ,ills hi0self ;hen
he *elie)es that the o*<ect of his lo)e/ 7&liet/ has (ie(6 The po;er of Ro0eo5s lo)e/
ho;e)er/ often o*sc&res a clear )ision of Ro0eo5s character/ ;hich is far 0ore co0ple:6
At the *eginning of the play/ he appears as a great rea(er of lo)e poetry an( a yo&ng 0an
s0itten *y Rosaline5s char0s6 Rosaline/ of co&rse/ slips fro0 Ro0eo5s 0in( at the first
sight of 7&liet6 +&t 7&liet is no 0ere replace0ent6 Ro0eo5s lo)e for her is far (eeper/
0ore a&thentic an( &ni3&e than the clich=( lo)e he felt for Rosaline6 Ro0eo5s lo)e
0at&res o)er the co&rse of the play fro0 the shallo; (esire to *e in lo)e to a profo&n(
an( intense passion6
>et Ro0eo5s (eep capacity for lo)e is 0erely a part of his larger capacity for intense
feeling of all ,in(s/ in other ;or(s/ for his incapacity for 0o(eration6 Lo)e co0pels
hi0 to snea, into the gar(en of his ene0y5s (a&ghter/ ris,ing (eath si0ply to catch a
gli0pse of her6 Anger co0pels hi0 to ,ill his ;ife5s co&sin in a rec,less (&el to
a)enge his frien(5s (eath6 Despair co0pels hi0 to co00it s&ici(e &pon hearing of
7&liet5s (eath6 S&ch e:tre0e *eha)ior (o0inates Ro0eo5s character thro&gho&t the
play an( contri*&tes to the &lti0ate trage(y that *efalls the lo)ers6 Ha( Ro0eo
restraine( hi0self fro0 ,illing Ty*alt/ or ;aite( e)en one (ay *efore ,illing hi0self
after hearing the ne;s of 7&liet5s (eath/ 0atters 0ight ha)e en(e( happily6
A0ong his frien(s/ especially ;hile *antering ;ith Merc&tio/ Ro0eo sho;s gli0pses
of his social persona6 He is intelligent/ 3&ic,$;itte(/ fon( of )er*al <o&sting
partic&larly a*o&t se:%/ loyal/ an( &nafrai( of (anger6
Ro0eo an( 7&liet
7&liet' Ha)ing not 3&ite reache( her fo&rteenth *irth(ay/ 7&liet is of an age that stan(s on
the *or(er *et;een i00at&rity an( 0at&rity6 At the play5s *eginning/ she see0s 0erely
an o*e(ient/ na?)e chil(6 When La(y Cap&let 0entions Paris5s interest in 0arrying 7&liet/
7&liet (&tif&lly respon(s that she ;ill try to see if she can lo)e hi0/ a response that see0s
chil(ish in its o*e(ience an( in its i00at&re conception of lo)e6 Ho;e)er/ 7&liet alrea(y
gi)es gli0pses of her (eter0ination/ strength/ an( so*er$0in(e(ness fro0 her earliest
scenes/ ;hich offer a pre)ie; of the ;o0an she ;ill *eco0e6
7&liet5s first 0eeting ;ith Ro0eo propels her f&ll$force to;ar( a(&lthoo(6 Tho&gh
profo&n(ly in lo)e ;ith hi0/ 7&liet is a*le to see an( critici@e Ro0eo5s rash (ecisions
an( his ten(ency to ro0antici@e things6 After Ro0eo ,ills Ty*alt an( is *anishe(/
7&liet (oes not follo; hi0 *lin(ly6 She 0a,es a logical an( heartfelt (ecision that her
loyalty an( lo)e for Ro0eo 0&st *e her g&i(ing priorities6 Essentially/ 7&liet c&ts
herself loose fro0 her prior social 0ooringsAher B&rse/ her parents/ an( her social
position in 8eronaAin or(er to try to re&nite ;ith Ro0eo6 When she ;a,es in the
to0* to fin( Ro0eo (ea(/ she (oes not ,ill herself o&t of fe0inine ;ea,ness/ *&t
rather o&t of an intensity of lo)e/ <&st as Ro0eo (i(6 7&liet5s s&ici(e act&ally re3&ires
0ore ner)e than Ro0eo5s' ;hile he s;allo;s poison/ she sta*s herself thro&gh the
heart ;ith a (agger6
7&liet5s (e)elop0ent fro0 a ;i(e$eye( girl into a self$ass&re(/ loyal/ an( capa*le
;o0an is one of Sha,espeare5s early tri&0phs of characteri@ation6 It also 0ar,s one of
his 0ost confi(ent an( ro&n(e( treat0ents of a fe0ale character6
Ro0eo an( 7&liet
9riar La&rence' He is a ,in(hearte( cleric ;ho helps Ro0eo an( 7&liet thro&gho&t the
play6 He perfor0s their 0arriage an( gi)es generally goo( a()ice/ especially ;ith regar(
to the nee( for 0o(eration6 +&t 9riar La&rence is also the 0ost sche0ing an( political
character in the play' he 0arries Ro0eo an( 7&liet as part of a plan to en( the ci)il strife
in 8erona2 he spirits Ro0eo into 7&liet5s roo0 an( then o&t of 8erona2 he (e)ises the
plan to re&nite Ro0eo an( 7&liet thro&gh the (ecepti)e r&se of a sleeping potion that
see0s to arise fro0 al0ost 0ystic ,no;le(ge6 This 0ystical ,no;le(ge see0s o&t of
place for a Catholic friar2 ;hy (oes he ha)e s&ch ,no;le(ge/ an( ;hat co&l( s&ch
,no;le(ge 0eanC The ans;ers are not clear6 In a((ition/ tho&gh 9riar La&rence5s plans
see0 ;ell concei)e( an( ;ell intentione(/ they ser)e as the 0ain 0echanis0s thro&gh
;hich the fate( trage(y of the play occ&rs6 The 9riar is not only s&*<ect to the fate that
(o0inates the playAin 0any ;ays he *rings that fate a*o&t6
Merc&tio' With a lightning$3&ic, ;it an( a cle)er 0in(/ Merc&tio is one of Sha,espere5s
0ost 0e0ora*le characters6 Tho&gh he constantly p&ns/ <o,es/ an( teasesAso0eti0es in
f&n/ so0eti0es ;ith *itternessAMerc&tio is not a 0ere <ester or pran,ster6 With his ;il(
;or(s/ Merc&tio p&nct&res ro0antic senti0ents an( *lin( self$lo)e in the play6 He 0oc,s
at Ro0eo5s self$in(&lgence <&st as he ri(ic&les Ty*alt5s arrogance an( a(herence to
fashion6 The critic Stephen Green*latt (escri*es Merc&tio as a force ;ithin the play that
f&nctions to (eflate the possi*ility of ro0antic lo)e an( the po;er of tragic fate6 Dnli,e
the other characters ;ho *la0e their (eaths on fate/ Merc&tio (ies c&rsing all Montag&es
an( Cap&lets6 Merc&tio *elie)es that specific people are responsi*le for his (eath rather
than so0e e:ternal i0personal force6
Ro0eo an( 7&liet6
Themes and Motifs
Love is nat&rally the play5s (o0inant an( 0ost i0portant the0e6 The play foc&ses on
ro0antic lo)e/ specifically the intense passion that springs &p at first sight *et;een
Ro0eo an( 7&liet6 In Romeo and Juliet, lo)e is a )iolent/ ecstatic/ o)erpo;ering force
that s&perse(es all other )al&es/ loyalties/ an( e0otions6 In the co&rse of the play/ the
yo&ng lo)ers are (ri)en to (efy their entire social ;orl(' fa0ilies/ frien(s/ an( r&ler6
Sha,espeare is not intereste( in portraying a prettie($&p/ (ainty )ersion of lo)e/ the ,in(
that *a( poets ;rite a*o&t/ an( ;hose *a( poetry Ro0eo rea(s ;hile pining for Rosaline6
Lo)e in Romeo and Juliet is a *r&tal/ po;erf&l e0otion that capt&res in(i)i(&als an(
catap&lts the0 against their ;orl(/ an(/ at ti0es/ against the0sel)es6 The play (oes not
0a,e a specific 0oral state0ent a*o&t the relationships *et;een lo)e an( society/
religion/ an( fa0ily2 rather/ it portrays the chaos an( passion of *eing in lo)e/ co0*ining
i0ages of lo)e/ )iolence/ (eath/ religion/ an( fa0ily in an i0pressionistic r&sh lea(ing to
the play5s tragic concl&sion6
Love as a cause of violence' The the0es of (eath an( )iolence per0eate Ro0eo an(
7&liet/ an( they are al;ays connecte( to passion/ ;hether that passion is lo)e or hate6
Lo)e see0s to p&sh the lo)ers closer to lo)e an( )iolence2 they are plag&e( ;ith tho&ghts
of s&ici(e/ an( a ;illingness to e:perience it6 The lo)ers5 (o&*le s&ici(e is the highest/
0ost potent e:pression of lo)e that they can 0a,e6 It is only thro&gh (eath that they can
preser)e their lo)e/ an( their lo)e is so profo&n( that they are ;illing to en( their li)es in
its (efense6 In the play/ lo)e e0erges as an a0oral thing/ lea(ing as 0&ch to (estr&ction
as to happiness6 +&t in its e:tre0e passion/ the lo)e that Ro0eo an( 7&liet e:perience
also appears so e:3&isitely *ea&tif&l that fe; ;o&l( ;ant/ or *e a*le/ to resist its po;er6
Ro0eo an( 7&liet6
Themes and Motifs
the in(i)i(&al )ers&s society' M&ch of Romeo and Juliet in)ol)es the lo)ers5 str&ggles
against p&*lic an( social instit&tions that either e:plicitly or i0plicitly oppose the
e:istence of their lo)e6 S&ch str&ct&res range fro0 the concrete to the a*stract' fa0ilies
an( the place0ent of fa0ilial po;er in the father2 la; an( the (esire for p&*lic or(er2
religion2 an( the social i0portance place( on 0asc&line honor6 These instit&tions often
co0e into conflict ;ith each other6 The i0portance of honor/ for e:a0ple/ ti0e an( again
res&lts in *ra;ls that (ist&r* the p&*lic peace6 4ne co&l( see Romeo and Juliet as a *attle
*et;een the responsi*ilities an( actions (e0an(e( *y social instit&tions an( those
(e0an(e( *y the pri)ate (esires of the in(i)i(&al6 Ro0eo an( 7&liet5s appreciation of
night/ ;ith its (ar,ness an( pri)acy/ an( their ren&nciation of their na0es/ ;ith its
atten(ant loss of o*ligation/ 0a,e sense in the conte:t of in(i)i(&als ;ho ;ish to escape
the p&*lic ;orl(6 +&t the lo)ers cannot stop the night fro0 *eco0ing (ay6 An( Ro0eo
cannot cease *eing a Montag&e si0ply *eca&se he ;ants to2 the rest of the ;orl( ;ill not
let hi06 The lo)ers5 s&ici(es can *e &n(erstoo( as the &lti0ate night/ the &lti0ate
pri)acy6
the ine)ita*ility of fate' In its first a((ress to the a&(ience/ the Chor&s states that Ro0eo
an( 7&liet are Estar$crosse(FAthat is to say that fate a po;er often )este( in the
0o)e0ents of the stars% controls the06 This sense of fate per0eates the play/ an( not <&st
for the a&(ience6 The 0echanis0 of fate ;or,s in all of the e)ents s&rro&n(ing the lo)ers'
the fe&( *et;een their fa0ilies ;hich is ne)er e:plaine(%2 the horri*le series of
acci(ents that r&in 9riar La&rence5s see0ingly ;ell$intentione( plans at the en( of the
play2 an( the tragic ti0ing of Ro0eo5s s&ici(e an( 7&liet5s a;a,ening6 These e)ents are
not 0ere coinci(ences/ *&t rather 0anifestations of fate that help *ring a*o&t the
&na)oi(a*le o&tco0e of the yo&ng lo)ers5 (eaths6
Sha,espeare5s Secon( Perio( of Creation
a significant change in tone' the *rightness an( s&nshine of the earlier plays gi)e ;ay to
gloo0y serio&sness an( e)en *itterness/ ;hich see0 to affect e)en the co0e(ies see the
pro*le0 plays%6 Whether ca&se( *y personal (isappoint0ent or ill&strati)e for a 0ore
;i(ely$sprea( (epression/ ;hich see0s to ha)e affecte( the Eli@a*ethan society at the
t&rn of the cent&ry/ this change in tone has fo&n( its *est e:pression partic&larly in the
plays that gi)e the f&ll 0eas&re of Sha,espeare5s 0at&rity as a play;right/ na0ely the
trage(ies'
Hamlet 2
Othello2
King Lear2
Maceth2
Timon of !thens2
!ntony and "leopatra2
"oriolanus.
EIn the0/ the ;orl( is pict&re( as f&ll of e)il forces an( 0an as *eing either tho&ghtless/
in ;hich case he *lin(ly ans;ers the call of ele0entary passions G <ealo&sy/ a0*ition/
irrational lo)e G or 0e(itati)e/ an( then his 0e(itati)e t&rn of 0in( paraly@es his ;ill6F
Ga)rili&/ !#H1' .II$.I!% In partic&lar in his so$calle( Egreat trage(iesF Hamlet/
Othello/ King Lear an( Maceth%/ Sha,espeare has en(ea)o&re( to translate his enhance(
a;areness of the co0ple:ity of h&0an nat&re an( to contain Eso0ething of the larger
(i0ensions of life ;ithin the li0iting for0ality of artF Daiches/ !##!' .H!%6
Ha0let !-I!$!-I.%
circ&late( in the for0 of three separate te:ts'
the !-IJ )ersion/ also referre( to as the E*a( 3&arto/F Eapparently a gar*le(
reconstr&ction/ largely fro0 0e0ory/ of Sha,espeare5s play p&t together *y a player ;ho
(o&*le( the parts of Marcell&s an( the Secon( Player2F
the !-IK )ersion/ also referre( to as the Egoo( 3&arto/F representing Sha,espeare5s f&ll
te:t2
the !-.J )ersion incl&(e( in the 9irst 9olio/ Ea c&t acting )ersion/ ;ith ne)ertheless so0e
passages not in the !-IK 3&arto6F Daiches/ !##!' .-H%
so&rces' pro*a*ly the re)enge trage(y #r$Hamlet no longer a)aila*le no;a(ays%
attri*&te( to Tho0as Ky(2 the original story' tol(/ aro&n( !.II/ *y the Danish historian
Sa:o Gra00atic&s in his Latin Historia %anica/ an( then retol(/ ;ith only slight
alterations/ in a collection of tragic stories *y 9ranLois (e +elleforest6
Ha0let !-I!$!-I.%
ele0ents preser)e( fro0 the original story'
A0leth5s feigning 0a(ness so that the &s&rping &ncle ;o&l( regar( hi0 as a co0pletely
0in(less l&natic not ;orth ,illing2
agents sent *y the &s&rping &ncle to fin( o&t ;hether A0leth5s i(iocy is gen&ine' one of
these agents is a girl/ the original of 4phelia/ ;hile another/ pres&0a*ly one of A0leth5s
frien(s/ the original of Poloni&s6
the spy hi(ing in A0leth5s 0other5s roo0 to o)erhear a con)ersation *et;een 0other
an( son/ (isco)ere( an( ,ille( *y A0leth2
an atte0pt to ha)e A0leth p&t to (eath in Englan(2
A0leth achie)ing his re)enge/ slaying his ;ic,e( &ncle ;ith his o;n s;or(6
Senecan ele0ents incorporate( in the play pres&0a*ly *y Ky(%'
the ghost crying for re)enge EHa0let/ re)engeMF%2
the original 0&r(er (one secretly *y poisoning2
0a(ness Ha0let an( 4phelia%2
the final N0assacre5 the (eath of all the 0a<or characters/ the fencing 0atch/ an( the
poisone( rapier an( (rin,%2
the (e)ice of the play$;ithin$the$play6
What cannot *e/ ho;e)er/ (enie( is that Sha,espeare5s tas, ;as to re;or, the
0elo(ra0atic Senecan re)enge play #r$Hamlet an(/ th&s/ Eto i0pose a ne;/ tragic
0eaning on a tra(itional story/ *y his arrange0ent an( presentation of the action/ *y the
,in( of life an( 0oti)ation he ga)e to the characters/ an( *y the o)ertones of 0eaning
an( s&ggestion set &p *y his poetic han(ling of the characters5 lang&age6F Daiches/
!##!' .-1%
Ha0let !-I!$!-I.%
characters' the g&ar(s 9rancisco an( +ernar(o2 Marcell&s2 Horatio/ prince Ha0let5s
frien(2 ol( Ha0let5s ghost2 prince Ha0let2 Cla&(i&s/ his &ncle2 Gertr&(e/ yo&ng Ha0let5s
0other an( Cla&(i&s5s ;ife2 Poloni&s/ the royal co&nsellor2 Laertes/ Poloni&s5s son2
4phelia/ Poloni&s5s (a&ghter2 9ortin*ras/ prince of Bor;ay2 Rosencrant@ an(
G&il(enstern/ t;o of Ha0let5s frien(s fro0 Witten*erg2 a tro&pe of actors2 4sric6
Hamlet' a Be; Historicis0 Perspecti)e
Ha0let5s attit&(e to;ar(s his 0other5s 0arriage ;ith Cla&(i&s'
the marriage is unla&ful y 'cclesiastical canons (incest) * the tales of consanguinity '
a 0an 0ay not 0arry his 0other/ his father5s sister or his 0other5s sister/ his sister/ his
(a&ghter or the (a&ghter of his o;n son or (a&ghter2 to p&t it other;ise/ the ta*le of
consang&inity prohi*its 0arriages ;ith close *loo( ties/ in the generations in ;hich it
0ight pla&si*ly occ&r parent/ si*ling/ offspring/ an( gran(chil(%6
the marriage deprives Hamlet of his la&ful succession * the tale of affinity+ it reflects
&nions ;hich 0ight pro(&ce conflicting inheritance clai0s6 +y 0arrying Gertr&(e/
Cla&(i&s has ca&se( the alienation of Ha0let5s line E+&t no;/ 0y cousin Ha0let/ an(
0y son,%6
O 4f co&rse/ one 0ight say that this 0atter of s&ccession is/ in fact/ rather a0*ig&o&s/
gi)en the fact that/ accor(ing to the Scan(ina)ian syste0/ the Danish throne ;as an
electi)e one/ ;ith the royal co&ncil na0ing the ne:t ,ing2 therefore/ e)en after his
father5s (eath/ there ;as no act&al g&arantee that Ha0let an( not his &ncle 0ight *e
electe( to the throne6 +&t/ *y setting the action of the play in Den0ar,/ Sha,espeare
chooses to represent the 0atter of s&ccession as concei)e( in the English society/
accor(ing to ;hich Ha0let/ as his father5s only son/ is the rightf&l heir/ ;hich 0a,es
his &ncle a &s&rper6
Hamlet' a Be; Historicis0 Perspecti)e
parallelis0 *et;een certain characters an( p&*lic fig&res of the ti0e'
Ha0let5s fig&re see0s to ha)e *een inspire( *y that of the 'arl of 'sse-/ ;hose re*ellion
faile( an( *ro&ght a*o&t his e:ec&tion &n(er the charge of treason on 9e*r&ary ."th/
!-I!2
Poloni&s G *oring/ 0e((ling/ gi)en to ;ise ol( sentences an( tr&is0s/ 0aintaining an
ela*orate spying syste0 on *oth frien( an( foe G 0ight ha)e *een 0o(elle( after
Eli@a*eth5s treas&rer/ .illiam "ecil2
4ther characters correspon( to so0e stoc, characters of those (ays that co&l( *e easily
i(entifie( a0ong the aristocrats s&ch as' 4sric G the Eli@a*ethan (an(y2 Rosencrant@ an(
G&il(enstern G the o*se3&io&s co&rtiers2 Laertes an( 9ortin*ras G the 0en of fe; ;or(s/
*&t of great (ee(s2 Horatio G the Ro0an frien(2 4phelia G the ineffect&al co&rtly lo)e
heroine6 M&ir an( Schoen*a&0/ !#H-' !-1$!H#%
Hamlet' a Psychoanalytical Perspecti)e
EThe Pro*le0 of Ha0letF Sig0&n( 9re&(%
P
4e(ip&s co0ple: Q a chil(Rs &nconscio&s (esire for the e:cl&si)e lo)e of the parent of the
opposite se:6 This (esire incl&(es <ealo&sy to;ar( the parent of the sa0e se: an( the
&nconscio&s ;ish for that parentRs (eath6 See 4e(ip&s ;ho sle; his father La?&s an(
0arrie( his 0other 7ocasta%
Be)ertheless/ it is clear that an innate (esire to ,ill one5s father an( sleep ;ith one5s
0other r&ns contrary to the )ery fa*ric of the society6 The (ifference *et;een this
innate &rge an( the (e0an(s of the ci)ili@ation is then 0e(iate( *y repression an(
s&*li0ation6
I( G Ego GS&perego'
The i( is the unorganised, the dar/, inaccessile part of our personality that contains the
asic drives6 It is the great reservoir of the liido/ fro0 ;hich the ego see,s to
(isting&ish itself thro&gh )ario&s 0echanis0s of repression6 +eca&se of that
repression/ the i( see,s alternati)e e:pression for those i0p&lses that ;e consi(er e)il
or e:cessi)ely se:&al/ i0p&lses that ;e often felt as perfectly nat&ral at an earlier or
archaic stage an( ha)e since represse(6 The i( is go)erne( *y the pleasure$principle
and is oriented to&ards one0s internal instincts and passions6 9re&( also arg&es on
occasion that the i( represents the inheritance of the species/ ;hich is passe( on to &s
at *irth6
Hamlet' a Psychoanalytical Perspecti)e
9or 9re&(/ the ego is Sthe representati)e of the o&ter ;orl( to the i(6S In other ;or(s/ the
ego represents an( enforces the reality$principle ;hereas the id is concerne( only
;ith the pleasure$principle6 Whereas the ego is oriente( to;ar(s perceptions in the
real ;orl(/ the id is oriente( to;ar(s internal instincts2 ;hereas the ego is associate(
;ith reason an( sanity/ the id *elongs to the passions6 The ego/ ho;e)er/ is ne)er
a*le f&lly to (isting&ish itself fro0 the i(/ of ;hich the ego is/ in fact/ a part6 The ego
co&l( also *e sai( to *e a (efense against the s&perego an( its a*ility to (ri)e the
in(i)i(&al s&*<ect to;ar(s inaction or s&ici(e as a res&lt of crippling g&ilt6 9re&(
so0eti0es represents the ego as contin&ally str&ggling to (efen( itself fro0 three
(angers or 0asters' Sfro0 the e:ternal ;orl(/ fro0 the li*i(o of the i(/ an( fro0 the
se)erity of the s&per$ego6E
The super$ego is the fac&lty that see,s to police ;hat it (ee0s &naccepta*le (esires2 it
represents all moral restrictions an( is the Sa()ocate of a stri)ing to;ar(s
perfectionE6 4riginally/ the s&per$ego ha( the tas, of repressing the 4e(ip&s co0ple:
an(/ so/ is closely ca&ght &p in the psycho(ra0as of the i(2 it is/ in fact/ a reaction$
for0ation against the pri0iti)e o*<ect$choices of the i(/ specifically those connecte(
;ith the 4e(ip&s co0ple:6 The yo&ng heterose:&al 0ale (eals ;ith the 4e(ip&s
co0ple: *y i(entifying ;ith an( internali@ing the father an( his prohi*itions6 As ;e
gro; into a(&lthoo(/ )ario&s other in(i)i(&als or organi@ations ;ill ta,e o)er the
place of the father an( his prohi*itions the ch&rch/ the la;/ the police/ the
go)ern0ent%6 +eca&se of its connection to the i(/ the s&perego has the a*ility to
*eco0e e-cessively 0oral an( th&s lea( to (estr&cti)e effects6 The s&per$ego is
closely connecte( to the Sego i(eal6S See 9ell&ga/ ETer0s an( ConceptsF in
1ntroduction to Psychoanalysis/
http'TT;;;6cla6p&r(&e6e(&TenglishTtheoryTpsychoanalysisTpsychter0s6ht0l%
Hamlet' a Psychoanalytical Perspecti)e
Ha0let5s case' That Ha0let has f&n(a0ental &rges ;hich are not )isi*le in the co&rse of
the play is a tri*&te to the energy he has in)este( in repressing the06 An( he is s&ccessf&l
in repressing his <ealo&sy for his father an( attraction to his 0other &ntil Gertr&(e5s
re0arriage ;ith Cla&(i&s6 Dn(er the ne; circ&0stances/ repression of incest&o&s an(
parrici(al (ri)es 0&st *e carrie( o&t again/ *&t it is hin(ere( *y the Ghost5s in<&nction to
,ill Cla&(i&s/ that is/ to gi)e )ent to ;hat he is trying to hol( *ac,6 7&lia Kriste)a' The
s&ffering for the initial 0aternal loss Einco0plete or &ns&ccessf&l (etach0ent fro0 the
0otherF% is painf&lly re$li)e( U melancholy/ in 0o(ern ter0s 0aniac$(epressi)e
psychosis/ characteri@e(/ as it can *e seen thro&gho&t the play/ *y sy0pto0s of (e<ection/
ref&sal of foo(/ inso0nia/ cra@y *eha)io&r/ fits of (eliri&0/ an( finally ra)ing 0a(ness6
The original parental co&ple 4l( Ha0let $ Gertr&(e/ ;hich/ as a res&lt of an initially
s&ccessf&l repression of oe(ipal &rges/ ;as concei)e( as perfect/ p&re is replace( *y a
ne; one/ Cla&(i&s G Gertr&(e/ ;hich in the light of the ne;ly reacti)ate( co0ple:
appears sha0ef&l/ l&sty an( corr&pte('
EHo; ;eary/ stale VprostituteW/ flat Vto copulateW/ an( &nprofita*le
See0 Vto fornicate, &ith additional pun on 2seam2+ filthW to 0e all the &ses Vse-ual
en3oymentW of this ;orl(M
9ie onRt/ ah fie VdungW/ Rtis an &n;ee(e( gar(en V&omW
That gro;s Vecomes pregnantW to see( VsemenW/ things Vmale se-W ran, Vin heatW
an( gross Vle&dW in nat&re Vfemale se-W
Possess it Vse-uallyW 0erely V2merrily2, lecherouslyW6F Cr&nelle$8anrigh%
Hamlet' a Psychoanalytical Perspecti)e
Ha0let5s first solilo3&y <&:taposes the pre$oe(ipal an( the oe(ipal pattern/ the (ya( an(
the tria(/ the 0erger an( the en( of the 0erger6 Ta,ing f&rther the arg&0entation in
9re&(ian ter0s/ along 7&lia Kriste)a5s lines/ the concl&sion is that Ha0let5s 0elancholia
res&lts fro0 an inco0plete (etach0ent fro0 the 0other as 0&ch as fro0 grie)ing for a
(ea( father6
4*ser)ation' the E4restes co0ple:F G a 0ore appropriate 0o(el for the action in
Hamlet+ 44restes ,ille( his 0other Clyte0nestra an( her lo)er/ his father5s ,ins0an/
Aegisth&s6 The legen( of 4restes/ ;hich historically 0ar,s a t&rning point in the
social position of the 0other/ has far 0ore si0ilarity to the story of Ha0let than has
the story of 4e(ip&s6F G 9re(eric Wertha0/ 4"riti5ue of 6reud0s 1nterpretation of
Hamlet, %
Hamlet' a Psychoanalytical Perspecti)e
The f&nction of the Ghost' pre)enting s&ccessf&l repression of oe(ipal &rges $ Ethe place
for the pro<ection of the 0issing signifierF/ a 0essenger of the ELa; of the 9atherF in
Lacanian ter0s/ ;hich/ *y e(&cation/ has *een alrea(y assi0ilate( *y Ha0let2 a
constr&ction of Ha0let5s psyche/ 0eant to constantly *ring *ac,/ *y transference/ the
0e0ory of the father of the Sy0*olic it stan(s for/ in a conte:t in ;hich the I0aginary/
e0*o(ie( *y Gertr&(e/ see0s to *e re$gaining gro&n(6 EHa0let/ torn *et;een his (ea(
father an( his all$too present 0other is a 0an to (o&*le *&siness *o&n(6 The (&ty of
re0e0*ering the father ta,es hi0 along the paths of re)enge2 the necessity of (etaching
hi0self fro0 the 0other ta,es hi0 along that of Kriste)an N0atrici(e5/ the only
alternati)e to asy0*olia/ (epression an( self$(estr&ction6 S&ch co0ple0entary (e0an(s
are registere( in the play6 Coe:tensi)e ;ith the father5s N(rea( co00an(5 to a)enge hi0
is Ha0let5s rea(iness to a)enge hi0self on his 0otherF Cr&nelle$8anrigh%6
A ,ey 0o0ent in the play for the &n(erstan(ing of Ha0let5s relationship ;ith his 0other
an( his stri)ing for N0atrici(e5' the Closet Scene Act III/ Scene J% U the son crosses
into the enclos&re of his 0other5s pri)acy to enco&nter her as a se:&ali@e( o*<ect6
Repro)e( for his offensi)e *eha)io&r ;ith the fa0iliar thou of 0aternal scol(ing%/
Ha0let retaliates ;ith the 0ore grie)o&s offence against his (ecease( nat&ral father of
his 0other5s re0arriage to his *rother6 9or once/ his pre)io&sly )er*al assa&lt is ta,en to
the point of t&rning into )iolence an( he appears to *e on the )erge of ,illing Gertr&(e/ of
,illing off the 0other2 yet he fails6 He t&rns his )iolence to;ar(s the 0an *ehin( the
c&rtain/ pres&0a*ly the ,ing G in fact Poloni&s G/ t&rning 0atrici(al intents into pse&(o$
parrici(e6
Hamlet' a Psychoanalytical Perspecti)e
The E0o&setrapF The Murder of 7on8ago%' There is a pec&liar point ;here the story of
Gon@ago5s (eath (iffers fro0 4l( Ha0let5s6 The ,ing is ,ille(/ the ,iller 0arries the
3&een/ *&t he is not the &ncle/ he is the nephe;6 9ro0 the Kriste)an perspecti)e/ this
0ight *e the 0o0ent of artistic tri&0ph of the 0elancholiac6 The 0o&setrap Eena*les
hi0 to sec&re the Ns&*li0atory grasp of the lost Thing5 ;hich Kriste)a (escri*es/ to
create a Gertr&(e s;earing e)erlasting faith6F Cr&nelle$8anrigh%
Ha0let an( 4phelia' Ha0let5s se:&al repression lea(s to hostile/ 0isogynist *eha)io&r
regar(less of ;hether the ;o0an is percei)e( to *e )irt&o&s or lasci)io&s6 Ernest 7ones%
As long as Nthe 0other has not *een ,ille( off/5 any ;o0an ;ill only *e re<ecte( as an
erotic o*<ect/ Ethe 0elancholiac cannot cope ;ith Eros/F therefore he is a 0isogynist6
7&lia Kriste)a% e6g6 the B&nnery Scene%
4ther interpretations of 4phelia5s e)ol&tion as a character' 7ane Al(e0an $ 4phelia/ a
s;eet/ o*e(ient girl/ is easily (o0inate(T 0anip&late( *y the r&ling 0ale forces in her
life/ i6e6/ her cynical father/ her &npercepti)e *rother/ an( Ha0let ;ho pro<ects &pon her
Ethe g&iltF of fe0inine po;er threatening 0asc&line i(entity G first e0*o(ie( *y his
0other $/ *rea,ing/ *y its &ncontrolle( se:&ality/ the li0its of the patriarchal )al&es of
;o0anhoo(6 Triple )icti0i@ation U 0a(ness U s&ici(e (escri*e( *y Gertr&(e in Act
I8/ Scene H%' 4phelia ret&rns to Nher ele0ent/5 i6e6 ;ater/ to satisfy her grief6 See the
E4phelia co0ple:F in G6 +achelar(%
Hamlet' a Historicist Perspecti)e
.hy does Hamlet delay his revenge9
A)enger fig&res in the play'
the con)entional a)enger Q he (oes not loo, for <&stice/ *&t for personal satisfaction/
*ase( on passion6 Daring (a0nation/ he sin,s to the 0oral le)el of his )icti0 an( ha)ing
&s&rpe( hea)en5s right to p&nish/ is also con(e0ne( to (eath6 +olt/ !##I' !J$!K% U
Laertes
the a)enger ;ho gi)es &p re)enge Q 9ortin*ras6 He also has a slain father/ a fall in
fort&ne/ an(/ li,e Ha0let for instance/ an &ncle on the throne to conten( ;ith6 He is rea(y
to ta,e action an( regain his father5s lan(s fro0 Den0ar,6 >et/ ;hen he is recalle( to
or(er *y the la;/ he is o*e(ient/ gi)es &p ta,ing <&stice into his o;n han(s an( he ;ill *e
e)ent&ally re;ar(e( for that6
Ha0let an( his 0any N0as,s5
Hamlet' a Historicist Perspecti)e
Ha0let
the &na0*ig&o&sly Eli@a*ethan nole prince' E(&cate( at a ne; &ni)ersity Witten*erg%/
he li)es in a specific e:tant castle Elsinore% an( is a connoisse&r of 0o(ern plays an(
0o(ern fencing6 In this intellect&al 0ilie&/ ghosts are har( to *elie)e in6 A 0an of no*le
principles/ he passes *rilliantly the test of fi(elity G ;hile 0ost of the others at the co&rt/
here incl&(ing his o;n 0other/ fail it G re0aining faithf&l to the 0e0ory of his father
an(/ at the sa0e ti0e/ hi(ing his (iscontent ;ith their *eha)io&r6 Lo)e( *y his people/
especially *y his sol(iers/ he see,s their co0pany/ &n(erstan(s an( respects the06
the avenger' EAs a re)enger/ he ceases to *e a no*le prince an( *eco0es a sla)e6 It is a
role in ;hich he cannot ta,e e)en his tr&sty frien(s into his confi(ence6F +olt/ !##I' -"%
The ai0 of his re)enge sho&l( *e to p&nish a E0&r(er 0ost fo&lF *y an e3&ally fo&l one6
This aspect 0ight cast a ne; light on his (ecision not to ,ill Cla&(i&s ;hen he fin(s hi0
alone/ on his ,nees in prayer6 What/ for so0e psychoanalysts/ is a proof of Ha0let
ac,no;le(ging in Cla&(i&s the )ery e0*o(i0ent of his oe(ipal &rges he ,ille( his father
an( 0arrie( his 0other%/ 0ight appear/ fro0 a (ifferent perspecti)e/ a ref&sal to inflict
too goo( an en( for Cla&(i&s6
Hamlet' a Historicist Perspecti)e
the malcontent' passionate an( alienate(/ Nrelease(5 *y the Ghost6
When in pri)ate/ he 0ay freely e:press in solilo3&ies his inner tor0ent res&lting fro0 the
clash *et;een t;o co(es of )al&es' the 0orality of re)enge/ re0iniscent of a (ar,/
0e(ie)al past/ an( the (ictates of his o;n te0pera0ent as a Renaissance philosopher an(
Christian6 e6g6 ETo *e or not to *eXF $ Act III/ Scene !' The (ee( ;ith the E*are *o(,inF
that Ha0let conte0plates/ (irectly relate( to that so 0&ch ;ishe($for E3&iet&s/F is cast a
ne; light &pon ;ith reference to the Great Chain of +eing of the Eli@a*ethan ti0es6 The
fear of (eath 0ight pre)ent t;o ,in(s of inco0pati*le actions' self$(estr&ction or self$
assertion6 EY&iet&sF 0ay 0ean then pacification or the (ischarge of an o*ligation6
EDispassionately e:ploring the 0a@e of these i0plications/ the ironist is not loo,ing for
the right (irection6 Instea( he 3&estions the )ery )al&e of any sort of 0o)e0ent/ ;hile
accepting that i00o*ility too is painf&l6F +olt/ !##I' "!%
When in p&*lic/ Ha0let the 0alcontent chooses to ;ear the 0as, of the fool an(
conse3&ently a(apts his speech shifting fro0 the *lan, )erse/ 0ore appropriate for the
no*le prince/ to prose6 That ena*les hi0 to re<ect the society of Elsinore e)en ;hile
re0aining ;ithin it6 As a fool/ he 0ay not *e hel( responsi*le for ;hat he says/ *&t he
can &se his folly as a stal,ing$horse to e:pose the tr&th6 9&rther0ore/ E*eca&se of the
tra(itional association of his role ;ith the *a;(y/ the fool len(s itself ;ith facility to the
e:pression of 0isogynyF +olt/ !##I' H.%/ ;hich/ as pointe( o&t/ characteri@es the
0alcontent6 The E0o&setrapF G a cr&cial 0o0ent ;hen/ tho&gh in p&*lic/ he te0porarily
(rops his fool 0as,6
Hamlet' a Historicist Perspecti)e
Ha0let5s (eath G an a)enger and a no*le prince' 4nce he has accepte( his role as an
a)enger/ Ha0let regains his cal0 an( the rea(iness of the sol(ier to (ie6 He ret&rns to
Elsinore as the prince rea(y to perfor0 his allotte( tas,6 He (oes no longer feel he 0&st
so0eho; 0anip&late the e)ents6 He <&st ;atches o&t for the opport&nity ;hich/ sooner or
later/ is s&re to present itself6 He (ies an avenger/ *&t e)ent&ally re(ee0e( *y the rene;al
of conscience6
Hamlet' an Archetypal Approach
Hamlet an( the 4e(ip&s 0yth' the Sacrificial Scapegoat
Ha0let appears/ <&st li,e 4e(ip&s/ as a ha&nte( an( sacrificial fig&re chosen to sa)e his
co00&nity at the cost of his o;n life6
Rit&al patterns'
a royal s&fferer is associate( ;ith the (egra(ation of an entire social or(er6 Hence/ i0ages
of (isease/ e)il/ rottenness are rec&rrent to sy0*olise the o)er;hel0ing e)il6
the (estiny of the in(i)i(&al an( of the society are closely intert;ine(6
the s&ffering of the royal )icti0 is necessary *efore re(e0ption an( rene;al are
achie)e(6
Hamlet' an Archetypal Approach
The Myth of Di)ine Appoint0ent Q the *elief cherishe( *y the T&(or 0onarchs since
Henry 8II that the T&(ors ha( *een appointe( to *ring or(er an( happiness o&t of
political chaos an( ci)il strife6 Any atte0pt to *rea, the (i)ine appoint0ent sho&l( res&lt
into social an( political (isor(er6 see also Richard 111, Maceth an( King Lear% U
Cla&(i&s5s 0&r(er of his ,ingly *rother has s&*)erte( *oth the (i)inely or(aine( la;s of
nat&re an( the la;s of the social organis0 regar(ing ,ingly s&ccession an( has t&rne(
Den0ar, into a (isease( state6
P
i0agery patterns of sic,ness/ (isease/ corr&ption e6g6' Act I/ Scene I $ 9rancisco' E5tis
*itter col(/ T An( I a0 sic, at heart6F 2 the Ghost2 Act I/ Scene K $ Marcell&s'
ESo0ething is rotten in the state of Den0ar,6F/ etc6% Den0ar, e0erges th&s as a 0o(el
of nat&ral an( h&0an (egra(ation6
Hamlet' an Archetypal Approach
Cla&(i&s' Ethe serpent ;ho no; ;ears the cro;nF Act I/ Scene "% He *ears the pri0al
*loo($c&rse of Cain in the +i*lical 0yth6 The nat&ral cycle is interr&pte(/ the nation
threatene( *y ;ar an( chaos6 It is Ha0let5s tas, then to see, o&t the so&rce of the (isease
an( to eli0inate it so as to restore Den0ar, to its state of ;holeso0e *alance6 EThe ti0e
is o&t of <oint2 4 c&rse( spiteTThat e)er I ;as *orn to set it right6F Act I/ Scene "% U
Ha0let5s role is that of the Prince$Hero ;ho 0&st not only a)enge his father5s 0&r(er/
*&t also offer hi0self as the Royal Scapegoat6 He &n(erta,es the 0ission of a cathartic
agent an( accepts Laertes5s challenge to the (&el6
The *loo(y cli0a:' an essential co0ponent of the archetypal pattern of sacrifice G
atone0ent G catharsis that ;ill in)ol)e the (eath of all those ;ho ha)e *een infecte( *y
the e)il contagion' Cla&(i&s/ Gertr&(e/ Poloni&s/ Laertes/ Rosencrant@ an( G&il(enstern/
e)en 4phelia6 U Den0ar, G Nre*orn5 &n(er the ne; regi0e of the one ;ho (isa)o;e(
re)enge/ i6e6/ 9ortin*ras6
The 0otif of the Sacrificial Scapegoat is (o&*le( *y a long an( (iffic&lt spirit&al 3&est'
on the s&rface le)el/ it is (irecte( to sol)ing the ri((le of his father5s (eath/ on the (eeper
le)el/ it e:plores the la*yrinthine ;ays of h&0an 0ystery a((resse( in partic&lar in the
solilo3&ies%6
Hamlet' an Archetypal Approach
Borthrop 9rye G The !natomy of "riticism+ all narrati)es fall into one of the fo&r 0ythoi'
S&00er ro0ance%' the 0o)e0ent ;ithin the i(eal ;orl( of innocence' stories that
in)ol)e so0e type of search to;ar(s so0e ,in( of i0aginati)e gol(en age in ti0e or
space6 The *ra)e an( )irt&o&s heroes an( heroines o)erco0e )illaino&s threats to
e)ent&ally attain their goals6
A&t&0n trage(y%' the 0o)e0ent fro0 the i(eal ;orl( to the real one/ fro0 innocence to
e:perience' The protagonist or hero of a story/ &s&ally an i(ealist/ is gi)en choices on
;hich to act &pon *&t/ e)ent&ally chooses the path to his (e0ise or fall6
Winter ironyT satire%' the 0o)e0ent ;ithin the real ;orl(/ the ;orl( of e:perience' Irony
G the real ;orl( seen thro&gh a tragic lens characters 0ay try to *e heroic/ *&t they ne)er
achie)e heroic goals%6 Satire G the real ;orl( seen thro&gh a co0ic lens a ;orl( of
h&0an folly/ e:cess an( incongr&ity/ ;here h&0an frailty is 0oc,e( at ;ith *iting/
0erciless h&0o&r%6
Spring co0e(y%' the 0o)e0ent fro0 the ;orl( of e:perience to the ;orl( of innocence'
The hero ;ho 0&st *rea, an ar*itrary la; often pre)enting hi0Ther fro0 so0ething sThe
;ants or re3&ires6 The hero is part of a ne; society that see,s to refor0 the e:istent
society/ often con)erting others into <oining this ne; 0o)e0ent6
Hamlet' an Archetypal Approach
The K 0ythoi in Hamlet+
The summer phase is ironically re)erse( in the &nsacre( 0arriage an( tri&0ph of
Cla&(i&s6
The autumn phase G the archetype of trage(y itself G encloses the 0yth of the (ying go(/
of )iolent (eath an( isolation/ as ;ell as of the sacrifice of the hero6
The ne:t phase is dar/ness and &inter6 Ha&nte( *y the spectre of (efeat thro&gho&t the
play/ the hero ;ill tri&0ph only in (eath6
9inally/ the concl&sion of the trage(y is *rightene( *y the pro0ise of (a;n/ spring an(
re*irth &n(er 9ortin*ras/ follo;ing Ha0let5s (efeat of the forces of (ar,ness an( ;inter
thro&gh his sacrificial (eath6
Othello !-IJ%
first perfor0e( *y the King5s Men at the co&rt of King 7a0es I on Bo)e0*er !/ !-IK2
historical setting' the ;ars *et;een 8enice an( T&r,ey that rage( in the latter part of the
si:teenth cent&ry6 Cypr&s/ ;hich is the setting for 0ost of the action/ ;as a 8enetian
o&tpost attac,e( *y the T&r,s in !"HI an( con3&ere( the follo;ing year6 U so&rce'The
History of the Tur/s *y Richar( Knolles/ ;hich ;as p&*lishe( in Englan( in the a&t&0n
of !-IJ6
other so&rces' an Italian prose tale ;ritten in !"-" *y Gio)anni +attista Giral(i Cin@io
&s&ally referre( to as Cinthio% G a Moorish general is (ecei)e( *y his ensign into
*elie)ing that his ;ife is &nfaithf&l6
Othello !-IJ%
characters' 4thello/ the Moor2 Ro(erigo/ a 8enetian gentle0an2 Iago/ 4thello5s ensign2
Michael Cassio/ 4thello5s lie&tenant2 +ra*antio/ a 8enetian senator2 Des(e0ona/ his
(a&ghter2 the D&,e of 8enice2 Montano/ the go)ernor of Cypr&s2 E0ilia/ Iago5s ;ife2
+ianca/ Cassio5s 0istress2 Gratiano an( Lo(o)ico/ +ra*antio5s relati)es6

Othello !-IJ%6 Main characters
4thello'
the 3&estion of 4thello5s race' The ;or( Moor no; refers to the Isla0ic Ara*ic
inha*itants of Borth Africa ;ho con3&ere( Spain in the eighth cent&ry/ *&t the ter0 ;as
&se( rather *roa(ly in the Eli@a*ethan perio( an( ;as so0eti0es applie( to Africans
fro0 other regions6 4thello5s (ar,ness or *lac,ness is all&(e( to 0any ti0es in the play/
*&t Sha,espeare an( other Eli@a*ethans fre3&ently (escri*e( *r&nette or (ar,er than
a)erage E&ropeans as *lac,6 The opposition of *lac, an( ;hite i0agery that r&ns
thro&gho&t Othello is certainly a 0ar,er of (ifference *et;een 4thello an( his E&ropean
peers6
While Moor characters a*o&n( on the Eli@a*ethan an( 7aco*ean stage/ none are
gi)en so 0a<or or heroic a role as 4thello6 Perhaps the 0ost )i)i(ly stereotypical
*lac, character of the perio( is Aaron/ the )illain of Sha,espeare5s early play Titus
!ndronicus. Aaron is lechero&s/ c&nning/ an( )icio&s2 4thello/ *y contrast/ is a
no*le fig&re of great a&thority/ respecte( an( a(0ire( *y the (&,e an( senate of
8enice as ;ell as *y those ;ho ser)e hi0/ s&ch as Cassio/ Montano/ an( Lo(o)ico6
4nly Iago )oices an e:plicitly stereotypical )ie; of 4thello/ (epicting hi0 fro0
the *eginning as an ani0alistic/ *ar*aro&s/ foolish o&tsi(er6
Othello !-IJ%6 Main characters
4thello'
+eginning ;ith the opening lines of the play/ 4thello re0ains at a (istance fro0 0&ch
of the action that concerns an( affects hi06 Ro(erigo an( Iago refer a0*ig&o&sly to
a EheF or Ehi0F for 0&ch of the first scene6 When they *egin to specify ;ho0 they
are tal,ing a*o&t/ especially once they stan( *eneath +ra*antio5s ;in(o; Act I/
scene !%/ they (o so ;ith racial epithets/ not na0es e6g6 Ethe MoorF/ Ethe thic,$
lipsF/ Ean ol( *lac, ra0F/ an( Ea +ar*ary horseF%2 his na0e ;ill *e first 0entione(
only in Act I/ scene J6 Later/ 4thello5s ;ill *e the last of the three ships to arri)e at
Cypr&s in Act II/ scene !2 4thello ;ill stan( apart ;hile Cassio an( Iago s&ppose(ly
(isc&ss Des(e0ona in Act I8/ scene !2 an( 4thello ;ill ass&0e that Cassio is (ea(
;itho&t *eing present ;hen the fight ta,es place in Act 8/ scene !6 4thello5s stat&s
as an o&tsi(er 0ay *e the reason he is s&ch easy prey for Iago6
Altho&gh 4thello is a c&lt&ral an( racial o&tsi(er in 8enice/ his s,ill as a sol(ier an(
lea(er is ne)ertheless )al&a*le an( necessary to the state/ an( he is an integral part
of 8enetian ci)ic society6 The 8enetian go)ern0ent tr&sts 4thello eno&gh to p&t
hi0 in f&ll 0artial an( political co00an( of Cypr&s6 Those ;ho consi(er 4thello
their social an( ci)ic peer/ s&ch as Des(e0ona an( +ra*an@io/ ne)ertheless see0
(ra;n to hi0 *eca&se of his e:otic 3&alities6
4thello so0eti0es 0a,es a point of presenting hi0self as an o&tsi(er/ ;hether
*eca&se he recogni@es his e:otic appeal or *eca&se he is self$conscio&s of an(
(efensi)e a*o&t his (ifference fro0 other 8enetians6 While 4thello is ne)er r&(e in
his speech/ he (oes allo; his elo3&ence to s&ffer as he is p&t &n(er increasing strain
*y Iago5s plots6 In the final 0o0ents of the play/ 4thello regains his co0pos&re an(/
once again/ se(&ces *oth his onstage an( offstage a&(iences ;ith his ;or(s6 1t is the
tension et&een Othello0s victimi8ation at the hands of a foreign culture and his
o&n &illingness to torment himself that ma/es him a tragic figure rather than
simply 1ago0s ridiculous puppet.
Othello !-IJ%6 Main characters
Iago' The 0ost heino&s villain in Sha,espeare/ Iago is fascinating for his 0ost terri*le
characteristic' his &tter lac, of con)incing 0oti)ation for his actions6 In the first scene/ he
clai0s to *e angry at 4thello for ha)ing passe( hi0 o)er for the position of lie&tenant2 at
the en( of Act I/ scene J/ Iago says he thin,s 4thello 0ay ha)e slept ;ith his ;ife/
E0ilia6 Bone of these clai0s see0s to a(e3&ately e:plain Iago5s (eep hatre( of 4thello/
an( Iago5s lac, of 0oti)ationAor his ina*ility or &n;illingness to e:press his tr&e
0oti)ationA0a,es his actions all the 0ore terrifying6 He is ;illing to ta,e re)enge on
anyoneA4thello/ Des(e0ona/ Cassio/ Ro(erigo/ e)en E0iliaAat the slightest
pro)ocation an( en<oys the pain an( (a0age he ca&ses6 Iago is often f&nny/ especially in
his scenes ;ith the foolish Ro(erigo/ ;hich ser)e as a sho;case of Iago5s 0anip&lati)e
a*ilities6 He see0s al0ost to ;in, at the a&(ience as he re)els in his o;n s,ill6 It is
Iago5s talent for &n(erstan(ing an( 0anip&lating the (esires of those aro&n( hi0 that
0a,es hi0 *oth a po;erf&l an( a co0pelling fig&re6 Tho&gh the 0ost in)eterate liar/
Iago inspires all of the play5s characters the trait that is 0ost lethal to 4thello' tr&st6
Othello !-IJ%6 Main characters
Des(e0ona' Arg&0ents that see Des(e0ona as stereotypically ;ea, an( s&*0issi)e
ignore the con)iction an( a&thority of her first speech EMy no*le father/ T I (o percei)e
here a (i)i(e( (&tyF$ Act I/ scene J% an( her f&ry after 4thello stri,es her EI ha)e not
(eser)e( thisF G Act I8/ scene !%6 Des(e0ona is at ti0es a s&*0issi)e character/ 0ost
nota*ly in her ;illingness to ta,e cre(it for her o;n 0&r(er6 The play/ then/ (epicts
Des(e0ona contra(ictorily as a self$effacing/ faithf&l ;ife an( as a *ol(/ in(epen(ent
personality6 This contra(iction 0ay *e intentional/ 0eant to portray the ;ay Des(e0ona
herself feels after (efen(ing her choice of 0arriage to her father in Act I/ scene J/ an(
then al0ost i00e(iately *eing p&t in the position of (efen(ing her fi(elity to her
h&s*an(6 She *egins the play as an in(epen(ent person/ *&t 0i(;ay thro&gh she 0&st
str&ggle against all o((s to con)ince 4thello that she is not too in(epen(ent6 The 0anner
in ;hich Des(e0ona is 0&r(ere(As0othere( *y a pillo; in a *e( co)ere( in her
;e((ing sheetsAis sy0*olic' she is literally s&ffocate( *eneath the (e0an(s p&t on her
fi(elity6 Since her first lines/ Des(e0ona has see0e( capa*le of 0eeting or e)en rising
a*o)e those (e0an(s6 In the en(/ 4thello stifles the speech that 0a(e Des(e0ona so
po;erf&l6 Li,e the a&(ience/ Des(e0ona see0s a*le only to ;atch as her h&s*an( is
(ri)en insane ;ith <ealo&sy6 Tho&gh she 0aintains to the en( that she is Eg&iltless/F
Des(e0ona also forgi)es her h&s*an( Act 8/ scene .%6 Her forgi)eness of 4thello 0ay
help the a&(ience to forgi)e hi0 as ;ell6
Othello !-IJ%6 The0es6 Motifs6 Sy0*ols
The Inco0pati*ility of Military Herois0 Z Lo)e' 4thello is a sol(ier6 9ro0 the earliest
0o0ents in the play/ his career affects his 0arrie( life6 The 0ilitary also pro)i(es
4thello ;ith a 0eans to gain acceptance in the 8enetian society6 While the 8enetians in
the play are generally fearf&l of the prospect of 4thello5s social entrance into the ;hite
society thro&gh his 0arriage to Des(e0ona/ all 8enetians respect an( hono&r hi0 as a
sol(ier6 Mercenary Moors ;ere/ in fact/ co00onplace at the ti0e6
4thello pre(icates his s&ccess in lo)e on his s&ccess as a sol(ier/ ;ooing Des(e0ona
;ith tales of his 0ilitary tra)els an( *attles6 4nce the T&r,s are (ro;ne(A*y nat&ral
rather than 0ilitary 0ightA4thello is left ;itho&t anything to (o6 Bo longer ha)ing a
0eans of pro)ing his 0anhoo( or hono&r in a p&*lic setting s&ch as the co&rt or the
*attlefiel(/ 4thello *egins to feel &neasy ;ith his footing in a pri)ate setting/ the
*e(roo06 Iago capitali@es on this &neasiness6 Desperate to cling to the sec&rity of his
for0er i(entity as a sol(ier ;hile his c&rrent i(entity as a lo)er cr&0*les/ 4thello
*egins to conf&se the one ;ith the other6 E)en in his final speech/ 4thello (epen(s on
his i(entity as a sol(ier to glorify hi0self in the p&*lic5s 0e0ory/ an( to try to 0a,e
his a&(ience forget his an( Des(e0ona5s (isastro&s 0arital e:perience6
Othello !-IJ%6 The0es6 Motifs6 Sy0*ols
The Danger of Isolation' The action of Othello 0o)es fro0 the 0etropolis of 8enice to
the islan( of Cypr&s6 Protecte( *y 0ilitary fortifications as ;ell as *y the forces of
nat&re/ Cypr&s faces little threat fro0 e:ternal forces6 4nce 4thello/ Iago/ Des(e0ona/
E0ilia/ an( Ro(erigo ha)e co0e to Cypr&s/ they ha)e nothing to (o *&t prey &pon one
another6 Most pro0inently/ 4thello is )isi*ly isolate( fro0 the other characters *y his
physical stat&re an( the color of his s,in6 Iago is an e:pert at 0anip&lating the (istance
*et;een characters/ isolating his )icti0s so that they fall prey to their o;n o*sessions6 At
the sa0e ti0e/ Iago/ of necessity al;ays stan(ing apart/ falls prey to his o;n o*session
;ith re)enge6 The characters cannot *e islan(s/ the play see0s to say' self$isolation as an
act of self$preser)ation lea(s &lti0ately to self$(estr&ction6 S&ch self$isolation lea(s to
the (eaths of Ro(erigo/ Iago/ 4thello/ an( e)en E0ilia6
Sight an( +lin(ness' When Des(e0ona as,s to *e allo;e( to acco0pany 4thello to
Cypr&s/ she says that she Esa; 4thello5s )isage in his 0in(/ T An( to his hono&rs an( his
)aliant parts T Di( I 0y so&l an( fort&nes consecrateF Act I/ Scene J%6 4thello5s
*lac,ness/ his )isi*le (ifference fro0 e)eryone aro&n( hi0/ is of little i0portance to
Des(e0ona' she has the po;er to see hi0 for ;hat he is in a ;ay that e)en 4thello
hi0self cannot6 4thello/ tho&gh he (e0an(s Eoc&lar proofF Act III/ scene J%/ is
fre3&ently con)ince( *y things he (oes not see' he strips Cassio of his position as
lie&tenant *ase( on the story Iago tells2 he relies on Iago5s story of seeing Cassio ;ipe his
*ear( ;ith Des(e0ona5s han(,erchief Act III/ scene J%2 an( he *elie)es Cassio to *e
(ea( si0ply *eca&se he hears hi0 screa06 The action of the play (epen(s hea)ily on
characters not seeing things' 4thello acc&ses his ;ife altho&gh he ne)er sees her
infi(elity6
Othello !-IJ%6 The0es6 Motifs6 Sy0*ols
The Han(,erchief' The han(,erchief sy0*oli@es (ifferent things to (ifferent characters6
Since the han(,erchief ;as the first gift Des(e0ona recei)e( fro0 4thello/ she ,eeps it
a*o&t her constantly as a symol of Othello0s love6 Iago 0anip&lates the han(,erchief so
that 4thello co0es to see it as a symol of %esdemona herself:her faith and chastity6 +y
ta,ing possession of it/ he is a*le to con)ert it into e)i(ence of her infi(elity6 +&t the
han(,erchief5s i0portance to Iago an( Des(e0ona (eri)es fro0 its i0portance to 4thello
hi0self6 He tells Des(e0ona that it ;as ;o)en *y a .II$year$ol( si*yl/ or fe0ale
prophet/ &sing sil, fro0 sacre( ;or0s an( (ye e:tracte( fro0 the hearts of 0&00ifie(
)irgins6 4thello clai0s that his 0other &se( it to ,eep his father faithf&l to her/ so/ to hi0/
the han(,erchief represents marital fidelity6 The pattern of stra;*erries (ye( ;ith
)irgins5 *loo(% on a ;hite *ac,gro&n( strongly s&ggests the *loo(stains left on the sheets
on a )irgin5s ;e((ing night/ so the han(,erchief i0plicitly s&ggests a guarantee of
virginity as &ell as fidelity.
The EWillo;F Song' As she prepares for *e( in Act 8/ Des(e0ona sings a song a*o&t a
;o0an ;ho is *etraye( *y her lo)er6 She ;as ta&ght the song *y her 0other5s 0ai( ;ho
s&ffere( a 0isfort&ne si0ilar to that of the ;o0an in the song2 she e)en (ie( singing
EWillo;6F The song5s lyrics s&ggest that *oth 0en an( ;o0en are &nfaithf&l to one
another6 To Des(e0ona/ the song see0s to represent a melancholy and resigned
acceptance of her alienation from Othello0s affections/ an( singing it lea(s her to
3&estion E0ilia a*o&t the nat&re an( practice of infi(elity6
King Lear !-I"%
setting' 1th cent&ry +6C6 U >et/ the conflict *et;een parents an( chil(ren that it
foregro&n(s reflects an:ieties that ;o&l( ha)e *een close to ho0e for Sha,espeare5s
a&(ience6 E6g6'
a la;s&it that occ&rre( not long *efore King Lear ;as ;ritten/ in ;hich the el(est of
three sisters trie( to ha)e her el(erly father/ Sir +rian Annesley/ (eclare( insane so that
she co&l( ta,e control of his property6 Annesley5s yo&ngest (a&ghter/ Cor(ell/
s&ccessf&lly (efen(e( her father against her sister6
the case of Willia0 Allen/ a 0ayor of Lon(on ;ho ;as treate( )ery poorly *y his three
(a&ghters after (i)i(ing his ;ealth a0ong the06
the transfer of po;er fro0 Eli@a*eth I to 7a0es I/ ;hich occ&rre( in !-IJ6 Eli@a*eth ha(
pro(&ce( no 0ale heir/ an( the an:iety a*o&t ;ho her s&ccessor ;o&l( *e ;as f&ele( *y
fears that a (ynastic str&ggle along the lines of the fifteenth$cent&ry Wars of the Roses
0ight ens&e6
King Lear (e0onstrates ho; )&lnera*le parents an( no*le0en are to the (epre(ations of
&nscr&p&lo&s chil(ren an( th&s ho; fragile the fa*ric of Eli@a*ethan society act&ally ;as6
so&rces' Geoffrey of Mon0o&th History of the 'nglish Kings/ aro&n( !!KI% $ King Lear
spelle( SLeirS%/ (escri*e( as a pre$Christian ;arrior ,ing in ;hat is no; so&th;est
Englan( incl&(ing Corn;all%6 The story also appears else;here in ;orl( fol,lore e6g6
the Eastern E&ropean )ersion G ;area <n ucate%/ as ;ell as in Holinshe(/ ;ho a((s that
Cor(elia s&ccee(e( her father as 0onarch an( ;as (epose( *y the sons of her sisters6
King Lear !-I"%
characters' King Lear2 his three (a&ghters G Goneril/ Regan an( Cor(elia2 the King of
9rance2 the 9ool2 Earl of Kent2 Earl of Glo&cester2 his illegiti0ate son/ E(0&n(2 his
legiti0ate son/ E(garT EPoor To0F2 D&,e of Corn;all/ Regan5s h&s*an(; D&,e of
Al*any/ Goneril5s h&s*an(6
King Lear' His *asic fla; at the *eginning of the play is that he )al&es appearances a*o)e
reality6 He ;ants to *e treate( as a ,ing an( to en<oy the title/ *&t he (oes not ;ant to
f&lfill a ,ing5s o*ligations of go)erning for the goo( of his s&*<ects6 Si0ilarly/ his test of
his (a&ghters (e0onstrates that he )al&es a flattering p&*lic (isplay of lo)e o)er real
lo)e6 Lear is si0ply *lin( to the tr&th6 An i0portant 3&estion to as, is ;hether Lear
(e)elops as a characterA;hether he learns fro0 his 0ista,es an( *eco0es a *etter an(
0ore insightf&l h&0an *eing6 In so0e ;ays the ans;er is no' he (oesn5t co0pletely
reco)er his sanity an( e0erge as a *etter ,ing6 +&t his )al&es (o change o)er the co&rse
of the play6 As he reali@es his ;ea,ness an( insignificance in co0parison to the forces of
the nat&ral ;orl(/ he *eco0es a h&0*le an( caring in(i)i(&al6 He co0es to cherish
Cor(elia a*o)e e)erything else an( to place his o;n lo)e for Cor(elia a*o)e e)ery other
consi(eration/ to the point that he ;o&l( rather li)e in prison ;ith her than r&le as a ,ing
again6
Cor(elia' an e0*o(i0ent of (e)otion/ ,in(ness/ *ea&ty/ an( honesty contraste( ;ith
Goneril an( Regan/ ;ho are neither honest nor lo)ing/ an( ;ho 0anip&late their father
for their o;n en(s6 +y ref&sing to ta,e part in Lear5s lo)e test at the *eginning of the
play/ Cor(elia esta*lishes herself as a repository of )irt&e6 Tho&gh offstage thro&gho&t
0ost of the play/ she is ne)er far fro0 the a&(ience5s tho&ghts/ an( her *ea&ty is
)enera*ly (escri*e( in religio&s ter0s6 Cor(elia5s re&nion ;ith Lear on the coast/ at
Do)er/ 0ar,s the apparent restoration of or(er in the ,ing(o0 an( the tri&0ph of lo)e
an( forgi)eness o)er hatre( an( spite6 This fleeting 0o0ent of fa0ilial happiness 0a,es
the (e)astating finale of King Lear 0&ch 0ore cr&el/ as Cor(elia/ the personification of
,in(ness an( )irt&e/ *eco0es a literal sacrifice to the heartlessness of an apparently
&n<&st ;orl(6
King Lear !-I"%
Goneril an( Regan' largely in(isting&isha*le in their )illainy an( spite/ they are in(ee(
cle)er2 yet/ any sy0pathy that the a&(ience can 0&ster for the0 e)aporates 3&ic,ly/ first
;hen they t&rn their father o&t into the stor0 Act II% an( then ;hen they )icio&sly p&t
o&t Glo&cester5s eyes Act III%6 Goneril an( Regan are personifications of e)ilAthey
ha)e no conscience/ only appetite6 It is this gree(y a0*ition that ena*les the0 to cr&sh all
opposition an( 0a,e the0sel)es 0istresses of +ritain6 Dlti0ately/ ho;e)er/ this sa0e
appetite *rings a*o&t their &n(oing6 Their (esire for po;er is satisfie(/ *&t *oth har*or
se:&al (esire for E(0&n(/ ;hich (estroys their alliance an( e)ent&ally lea(s the0 to
(estroy each other6 E)il/ the play s&ggests/ ine)ita*ly t&rns in on itself6
E(0&n(' the 0ost co0ple: an( sy0pathetic of the play5s )illains6 He is a cons&00ate
sche0er/ a Machia)ellian character eager to sei@e any opport&nity an( ;illing to (o
anything to achie)e his goals6 Ho;e)er/ his a0*ition is interesting insofar as it reflects
not only a thirst for lan( an( po;er *&t also a (esire for the recognition (enie( to hi0 *y
his stat&s as a *astar(6 His serial treachery is not 0erely self$intereste(2 it is a conscio&s
re*ellion against the social or(er that has (enie( hi0 the sa0e stat&s as Glo&cester5s
legiti0ate son/ E(gar6 He is the &lti0ate self$0a(e 0an/ an( he is s&ch a col( an(
capa*le )illain that it is entertaining to ;atch hi0 ;or,/ 0&ch as the a&(ience can
appreciate the cle)er ;ic,e(ness of Iago in Othello6 4nly at the close of the play (oes
E(0&n( sho; a flic,er of ;ea,ness an( has a change of heart6
King Lear !-I"%
The 9ool' The 9ool has no po;er other than his lang&age6 He is attache( to Lear *y a
strong *on(/ altho&gh he ,no;s that honoring this *on( is physically (angero&s/ for he is
f&lly a;are of the conse3&ences of ;hat Lear is (oing in his (ealings ;ith his (a&ghters
an( his hea(strong r&sh a;ay fro0 the castle into the stor06 As a fool/ his role is to
pro)i(e a strea0 of ri((ling )er*al co00entary on the action/ to e:pose the tr&th &n(er
the ;or(s of others6 +&t his co00entary is c&rio&sly *itter an( sa(6 He ,no;s that his
;or(s are ineffecti)e2 they 0ay e:press i0portant tr&ths/ *&t they ;ill ne)er penetrate
LearRs conscio&sness or (o 0&ch to change the sit&ation as it &nfol(s6 At a ti0e ;hen the
r&ling facts of life are clashes of po;er 0ilitary an( nat&ral%/ the 9oolRs lang&age has no
significant effect on the action6 The professional 0anip&lator of lang&age co&nts for )ery
little ;hen so 0any others are t;isting ;or(s to s&it their o;n p&rposes6 9ace( ;ith the
(estr&cti)e collision of the ri)al gro&ps an( the ens&ing s&ffering an( chaos/ the 9ool
(oes ;hat he can to transfor0 the harshness of e)ents to so0e for0 of ling&istic play/ not
*eca&se he has any sol&tion to offer *&t si0ply *eca&se thatRs his ;ay of (ealing ;ith
s&ffering6 So long as one can tal, an( 0a,e <o,es e)en *itter ones% a*o&t e:perience/
one can/ to an e:tent/ en(&re that e:perience6 The sa(ness of the 9ool co0es fro0 his
a;areness of the ina(e3&acy of his lang&age to (o anything 0ore than hol( *ac, the
chaos 0o0entarily an( of the necessity of 0a,ing the atte0pt/ *eca&se to stop tal,ing
;o&l( *e to s&rren(er to the 0eaninglessness of the stor06 The 9ool5s (eath a((s to the
3&antity of nee(less s&ffering ;hich has e:ting&ishe( lo)e/ co00&nity/ an( possi*ilities
for *ea&ty an( 0eaning6 The 0&sic is o)er/ an( nothing rests *&t the silence of total
(estr&ction6
King Lear !-I"%6 The0es6 Motifs6 Sy0*ols
7&stice' King Lear is a *r&tal play/ fille( ;ith h&0an cr&elty an( a;f&l/ see0ingly
0eaningless (isasters6 The play5s s&ccession of terri*le e)ents raises an o*)io&s 3&estion
for the charactersAna0ely/ ;hether there is any possi*ility of <&stice in the ;orl(/ or
;hether the ;orl( is f&n(a0entally in(ifferent or e)en hostile to h&0an,in(6 In the en(/
;e are left ;ith only a terrifying &ncertaintyAaltho&gh the ;ic,e( (ie/ the goo( (ie
along ;ith the0/ c&l0inating in the a;f&l i0age of Lear cra(ling Cor(elia5s *o(y in his
ar0s6 There is goo(ness in the ;orl( of the play/ *&t there is also 0a(ness an( (eath/ an(
it is (iffic&lt to tell ;hich tri&0phs in the en(6
A&thority )ers&s Chaos' King Lear is a*o&t political a&thority as 0&ch as it is a*o&t
fa0ily (yna0ics6 Lear is not only a father *&t also a ,ing/ an( ;hen he gi)es a;ay his
a&thority to the &n;orthy an( e)il Goneril an( Regan/ he (eli)ers not only hi0self an(
his fa0ily *&t all of +ritain into chaos an( cr&elty6 As the t;o ;ic,e( sisters in(&lge
their appetite for po;er an( E(0&n( *egins his o;n ascension/ the ,ing(o0 (escen(s
into ci)il strife/ an( it *eco0es o*)io&s that Lear has (estroye( not only his o;n
a&thority *&t all a&thority in +ritain6 The sta*le/ hierarchal or(er that Lear initially
represents falls apart an( (isor(er eng&lfs the real06 The fail&re of a&thority in the face
of chaos rec&rs in Lear5s ;an(erings on the heath (&ring the stor06 Witnessing the
po;erf&l forces of the nat&ral ;orl(/ Lear co0es to &n(erstan( that he/ li,e the rest of
h&0an,in(/ is insignificant in the ;orl(6 This reali@ation pro)es 0&ch 0ore i0portant
than the reali@ation of his loss of political control/ as it co0pels hi0 to reprioriti@e his
)al&es an( *eco0e h&0*le an( caring6 With this ne;fo&n( &n(erstan(ing of hi0self/
Lear hopes to *e a*le to confront the chaos in the political real0 as ;ell6
King Lear !-I"%6 The0es6 Motifs6 Sy0*ols
The Stor0' As Lear ;an(ers a*o&t a (esolate heath in Act III/ a terri*le stor0/ strongly
*&t a0*ig&o&sly sy0*olic/ rages o)erhea(6 In part/ the stor0 echoes Lear5s inner t&r0oil
an( 0o&nting 0a(ness' it is a physical/ t&r*&lent nat&ral reflection of Lear5s internal
conf&sion6 At the sa0e ti0e/ the stor0 e0*o(ies the po;er of nat&re/ ;hich forces the
po;erless ,ing to recogni@e his o;n 0ortality an( h&0an frailty an( to c&lti)ate a sense
of h&0ility for the first ti0e6 The stor0 0ay also sy0*oli@e so0e ,in( of (i)ine <&stice/
as if nat&re itself is angry a*o&t the e)ents in the play6 9inally/ the stor0$engen(ere(
chaos also sy0*oli@es the political (isarray that has eng&lfe( Lear5s +ritain6
Ma(ness' Insanity occ&pies a central place in the play an( is associate( ;ith *oth
disorder an( hidden &isdom6 The 9ool/ ;ho offers Lear insight in the early sections of
the play/ offers his co&nsel in a see0ingly 0a( *a**le6 Later/ ;hen Lear hi0self goes
0a(/ the t&r0oil in his 0in( 0irrors the chaos that has (escen(e( &pon his ,ing(o06 At
the sa0e ti0e/ ho;e)er/ it also pro)i(es hi0 ;ith i0portant ;is(o0 *y re(&cing hi0 to
his *are h&0anity/ strippe( of all royal pretensions6 Lear th&s learns h&0ility6 He is
<oine( in his real 0a(ness *y E(gar5s feigne( insanity/ ;hich also contains n&ggets of
;is(o06 Mean;hile/ E(gar5s ti0e as a s&ppose(ly insane *eggar har(ens hi0 an(
prepares hi0 to (efeat E(0&n( at the close of the play6
+lin(ness' Glo&cester5s physical *lin(ness sy0*oli@es the 0etaphorical *lin(ness that
grips *oth Glo&cester an( the play5s other father fig&re/ Lear6 The parallels *et;een the
t;o 0en are clear' *oth ha)e loyal an( (isloyal chil(ren/ *oth are *lin( to the tr&th/ an(
*oth en( &p *anishing the loyal chil(ren an( 0a,ing the ;ic,e( ones% their heirs%6 4nly
;hen Glo&cester has lost the &se of his eyes an( Lear has gone 0a( (oes each reali@e his
tre0en(o&s error6 It is appropriate that the play *rings the0 together near Do)er in Act
I8 to co00iserate a*o&t ho; their *lin(ness to the tr&th a*o&t their chil(ren has cost
the0 (early6
King Lear !-I"%6 The0es6 Motifs6 Sy0*ols
Reconciliation' Dar,ness an( &nhappiness per)a(e King Lear, an( the (e)astating Act 8
represents one of the 0ost tragic en(ings in literat&re6 Be)ertheless/ the play presents the
central relationshipAthat *et;een Lear an( Cor(eliaAas a (ra0atic e0*o(i0ent of tr&e/
self$sacrificing lo)e6 Rather than (espising Lear for *anishing her/ Cor(elia re0ains
(e)ote(/ e)en fro0 afar/ an( e)ent&ally *rings an ar0y fro0 a foreign co&ntry to resc&e
hi0 fro0 his tor0entors6 Lear/ 0ean;hile/ learns a tre0en(o&sly cr&el lesson in h&0ility
an( e)ent&ally reaches the point ;here he can re&nite <oyf&lly ;ith Cor(elia an(
e:perience the *al0 of her forgi)ing lo)e6 Lear5s recognition of the error of his ;ays is
an ingre(ient )ital to reconciliation ;ith Cor(elia/ not *eca&se Cor(elia feels ;ronge( *y
hi0 *&t *eca&se he has &n(erstoo( the sincerity an( (epth of her lo)e for hi06 His
0at&ration ena*les hi0 to *ring Cor(elia *ac, into his goo( graces/ a testa0ent to lo)e5s
a*ility to flo&rish/ e)en if only fleetingly/ a0i( the horror an( chaos that eng&lf the rest
of the play6
Mac*eth !-I-%
historical conte:t' the reign of 7a0es I/ ;ho ha( *een 7a0es 8I of Scotlan( *efore he
s&ccee(e( to the English throne in !-IJ6 7a0es ;as a patron of Sha,espeare5s acting
co0pany/ an( of all the plays Sha,espeare ;rote &n(er 7a0es5s reign/ Maceth 0ost
clearly reflects the play;right5s close relationship ;ith the so)ereign6 In foc&sing on
Mac*eth/ a fig&re fro0 Scottish history/ Sha,espeare pai( ho0age to his ,ing5s Scottish
lineage6 A((itionally/ the ;itches5 prophecy that +an3&o ;ill fo&n( a line of ,ings is a
clear no( to 7a0es5s fa0ily5s clai0 to ha)e (escen(e( fro0 the historical +an3&o6 In a
larger sense/ the the0e of *a( )ers&s goo( ,ingship/ e0*o(ie( *y Mac*eth an( D&ncan/
respecti)ely/ ;o&l( ha)e resonate( at the royal co&rt/ ;here 7a0es ;as *&sy (e)eloping
his English )ersion of the theory of (i)ine right6
characters' King D&ncan2 his generals/ Mac*eth an( +an3&o2 the three ;itches2 La(y
Mac*eth2 D&ncan5s sons Malcol0 an( Donal*ain2 +an3&o5s son 9leance2 Mac(&ff6
Mac*eth !-I-%
Mac*eth' The initial i0pression is that Mac*eth is a *ra)e an( capa*le ;arrior6 His
interaction ;ith the ;itches re)eals/ ho;e)er/ that his physical co&rage is <oine( *y a
cons&0ing a0*ition an( a ten(ency to self$(o&*tAthe pre(iction that he ;ill *e ,ing
*rings hi0 <oy/ *&t it also creates inner t&r0oil6 These three attri*&tesA ravery,
amition, and self$dout Astr&ggle for 0astery of Mac*eth thro&gho&t the play6
Sha,espeare &ses Mac*eth to sho; the terri*le effects that a0*ition an( g&ilt can ha)e on
a 0an ;ho lac,s strength of character6 We 0ay classify Mac*eth as irre)oca*ly e)il/ *&t
his ;ea, character separates hi0 fro0 Sha,espeare5s great )illainsAIago in Othello,
Richar( III in Richard 111, E(0&n( in King LearA;ho are all strong eno&gh to con3&er
g&ilt an( self$(o&*t6 Mac*eth/ great ;arrior tho&gh he is/ is ill e3&ippe( for the psychic
conse3&ences of cri0e6
+efore he ,ills D&ncan/ Mac*eth is plag&e( *y ;orry an( al0ost a*orts the cri0e6
After the 0&r(er/ he fl&ct&ates *et;een fits of fe)ere( action/ in ;hich he plots a
series of 0&r(ers to sec&re his throne/ an( 0o0ents of terri*le g&ilt as ;hen
+an3&o5s ghost appears% an( a*sol&te pessi0is0 after his ;ife5s (eath/ ;hen he
see0s to s&cc&0* to (espair%6 These fl&ct&ations reflect the tragic tension ;ithin
Mac*eth' he is at once too a0*itio&s to allo; his conscience to stop hi0 fro0
0&r(ering his ;ay to the top an( too conscientio&s to *e happy ;ith hi0self as a
0&r(erer6 As things fall apart for hi0 at the en( of the play/ he see0s al0ost relie)e(
A;ith the English ar0y at his gates/ he can finally ret&rn to life as a ;arrior/ an( he
(isplays a ,in( of rec,less *ra)a(o as his ene0ies s&rro&n( hi0 an( (rag hi0 (o;n6
Dnli,e 0any of Sha,espeare5s other tragic heroes/ Mac*eth ne)er see0s to
conte0plate s&ici(e6 Instea(/ he goes (o;n fighting/ *ringing the play f&ll circle' it
*egins ;ith Mac*eth ;inning on the *attlefiel( an( en(s ;ith hi0 (ying in co0*at6
Mac*eth !-I-%
La(y Mac*eth' one of Sha,espeare5s 0ost fa0o&s an( frightening fe0ale characters6 She
is stronger/ 0ore r&thless/ an( 0ore a0*itio&s than her h&s*an(6 She see0s f&lly a;are
of this an( ,no;s that she ;ill ha)e to p&sh Mac*eth into co00itting 0&r(er6 At one
point/ she ;ishes that she ;ere not a ;o0an so that she co&l( (o it herself6 This the0e of
the relationship *et;een gender and po&er is ,ey to La(y Mac*eth5s character' her
h&s*an( i0plies that she is a 0asc&line so&l inha*iting a fe0ale *o(y/ ;hich see0s to
lin, masculinity to amition an( violence6 Li,e the ;itches/ La(y Mac*eth &ses female
0etho(s of achie)ing po;erAthat is/ manipulationAto f&rther her s&ppose(ly 0ale
a0*itions6 Wo0en/ the play i0plies/ can *e as a0*itio&s an( cr&el as 0en/ yet social
constraints (eny the0 the 0eans to p&rs&e these a0*itions on their o;n6 La(y Mac*eth
0anip&lates her h&s*an( ;ith re0ar,a*le effecti)eness/ o)erri(ing all his o*<ections2
;hen he hesitates to 0&r(er/ she repeate(ly 3&estions his 0anhoo( &ntil he feels that he
0&st co00it 0&r(er to pro)e hi0self6 La(y Mac*eth5s re0ar,a*le strength of ;ill
persists thro&gh the 0&r(er of the ,ingAit is she ;ho stea(ies her h&s*an(5s ner)es
i00e(iately after the cri0e has *een perpetrate(6 After;ar(/ ho;e)er/ she *egins a slo;
sli(e into 0a(nessA<&st as a0*ition affects her 0ore strongly than Mac*eth *efore the
cri0e/ so (oes g&ilt plag&e her 0ore strongly after;ar(6 +y the close of the play/ she has
*een re(&ce( to sleep;al,ing thro&gh the castle/ (esperately trying to ;ash a;ay an
in)isi*le *loo(stain6 Significantly/ she apparently% ,ills herself/ signaling her total
ina*ility to (eal ;ith the legacy of her cri0es6
Mac*eth !-I-%
the three ;itches' Referre( to as the E;eir( sistersF *y 0any of the charactersAthey l&r,
li,e (ar, tho&ghts an( &nconscio&s te0ptations to e)il6 In part/ the 0ischief they ca&se
ste0s fro0 their s&pernat&ral po;ers/ *&t 0ainly it is the res&lt of their &n(erstan(ing of
the ;ea,nesses of their specific interloc&torsAthey play &pon Mac*eth5s a0*ition li,e
p&ppeteers6 These ;itches e:ist as constant reminders of the potential for evil in the
human imagination6 They are inel&cta*ly part of the nat&ral ;orl(/ there to se(&ce
anyone ;ho/ li,e Mac*eth/ lets his i0agination flirt ;ith e)il possi*ilities6 They ha)e no
partic&lar a*o(e an( 0ight pop &p any;here/ 0o0entarily/ rea(y to incite an eternal
(esire for e)il in the h&0an i0agination/ the e)il ;hich arises fro0 a (esire to )iolate o&r
fello; h&0an *eings in or(er to shape the ;orl( to o&r o;n (eep e0otional nee(s6
The a&(ience is left to as, ;hether the ;itches are in(epen(ent agents toying ;ith
h&0an li)es/ or agents of fate/ ;hose prophecies are only reports of the ine)ita*le6 The
;itches *ear a stri,ing an( o*)io&sly intentional rese0*lance to the 9ates/ fe0ale
characters in *oth Borse an( Gree, 0ythology ;ho ;ea)e the fa*ric of h&0an li)es
an( then c&t the threa(s to en( the06 So0e of their prophecies see0 self$f&lfilling6 9or
e:a0ple/ it is (o&*tf&l that Mac*eth ;o&l( ha)e 0&r(ere( his ,ing ;itho&t the p&sh
gi)en *y the ;itches5 pre(ictions6 In other cases/ tho&gh/ their prophecies are <&st
re0ar,a*ly acc&rate rea(ings of the f&t&reAit is har( to see +irna0 Woo( co0ing to
D&nsinane as *eing self$f&lfilling in any ;ay6 The play offers no easy ans;ers6
Instea(/ Sha,espeare ,eeps the ;itches ;ell o&tsi(e the li0its of h&0an
co0prehension6 They e0*o(y an unreasoning, instinctive evil6
Sha,espeare has the ;itches spea, in rhy0ing co&plets their 0ost fa0o&s line is
pro*a*ly EDo&*le/ (o&*le/ toil an( tro&*le/ T 9ire *&rn an( ca&l(ron *&**leF in I86!6!IG
!!%/ ;hich separates the0 fro0 the other characters/ ;ho 0ostly spea, in *lan, )erse6
Mac*eth !-I-%
the corr&pting po;er of &nchec,e( a0*ition' The 0ain the0e of MacethAthe
(estr&ction ;ro&ght ;hen a0*ition goes &nchec,e( *y 0oral constraintsAfin(s its 0ost
po;erf&l e:pression in the play5s t;o 0ain characters' Mac*eth an( his ;ife6 In *oth
cases/ a0*itionAhelpe(/ of co&rse/ *y the 0align prophecies of the ;itchesAis ;hat
(ri)es the co&ple to e)er 0ore terri*le atrocities6 The pro*le0/ the play s&ggests/ is that
once one (eci(es to &se )iolence to f&rther one5s 3&est for po;er/ it is (iffic&lt to stop6
There are al;ays potential threats to the throneA+an3&o/ 9leance/ Mac(&ffAan( it is
al;ays te0pting to &se )iolent 0eans to (ispose of the06
the relationship *et;een cr&elty an( 0asc&linity' Characters in Maceth fre3&ently (;ell
on iss&es of gen(er6 La(y Mac*eth 0anip&lates her h&s*an( *y 3&estioning his 0anhoo(/
;ishes that she herself co&l( *e E&nse:e(/F an( (oes not contra(ict Mac*eth ;hen he
says that a ;o0an li,e her sho&l( gi)e *irth only to *oys6 In the sa0e 0anner that La(y
Mac*eth goa(s her h&s*an( on to 0&r(er/ Mac*eth pro)o,es the 0&r(erers he hires to
,ill +an3&o *y 3&estioning their 0anhoo(6 S&ch acts sho; that *oth Mac*eth an( La(y
Mac*eth e3&ate masculinity ;ith na,e( aggression/ an( ;hene)er they con)erse a*o&t
0anhoo(/ )iolence soon follo;s6 Their &n(erstan(ing of 0anhoo( allo;s the political
or(er (epicte( in the play to (escen( into chaos6
At the sa0e ti0e/ ho;e)er/ the a&(ience cannot help noticing that &omen are also
sources of violence and evil. The ;itches5 prophecies spar, Mac*eth5s a0*itions an(
then enco&rage his )iolent *eha)io&r2 La(y Mac*eth pro)i(es the *rains an( the ;ill
*ehin( her h&s*an(5s plotting2 an( the only (i)ine *eing to appear is Hecate/ the
go((ess of ;itchcraft6 Arg&a*ly/ Maceth traces the root of chaos an( e)il to ;o0en/
;hich has le( so0e critics to arg&e that this is Sha,espeare5s 0ost 0isogynistic play6
While the 0ale characters are <&st as )iolent an( prone to e)il as the ;o0en/ the
aggression of the fe0ale characters is 0ore stri,ing *eca&se it goes against pre)ailing
e:pectations of ho; ;o0en o&ght to *eha)e6 La(y Mac*eth5s *eha)io&r certainly
sho;s that ;o0en can *e as a0*itio&s an( cr&el as 0en6 Whether *eca&se of the
constraints of her society or *eca&se she is not fearless eno&gh to ,ill/ La(y Mac*eth
relies on (eception an( 0anip&lation rather than )iolence to achie)e her en(s6
Mac*eth !-I-%
the (ifference *et;een ,ingship an( tyranny' In the play/ D&ncan is al;ays referre( to as
a E,ing/F ;hile Mac*eth soon *eco0es ,no;n as the Etyrant6F The (ifference *et;een
the t;o types of r&lers see0s to *e e:presse( in a con)ersation that occ&rs in Act I8/
scene J/ ;hen Mac(&ff 0eets Malcol0 in Englan(6 In or(er to test Mac(&ff5s loyalty to
Scotlan(/ Malcol0 preten(s that he ;o&l( 0a,e an e)en ;orse ,ing than Mac*eth6 He
tells Mac(&ff of his reproacha*le 3&alitiesAa0ong the0 a thirst for personal po;er an(
a )iolent te0pera0ent/ *oth of ;hich see0 to characteri@e Mac*eth perfectly6 4n the
other han(/ Malcol0 says/ EThe ,ing$*eco0ing gracesT VareW <&stice/ )erity/ te0p5rance/
sta*leness/ T +o&nty/ perse)erance/ 0ercy/ Van(W lo;linessF I86J6#.G#J%6 The 0o(el
,ing/ then/ offers the ,ing(o0 an e0*o(i0ent of or(er an( <&stice/ *&t also co0fort an(
affection6 Dn(er hi0/ s&*<ects are re;ar(e( accor(ing to their 0erits/ as ;hen D&ncan
0a,es Mac*eth thane of Ca;(or after Mac*eth5s )ictory o)er the in)a(ers6 Most
i0portant/ the ,ing 0&st *e loyal to Scotlan( a*o)e his o;n interests6 Mac*eth/ *y
contrast/ *rings only chaos to Scotlan(Asy0*oli@e( *y the *a( ;eather an( *i@arre
s&pernat&ral e)entsAan( offers no real <&stice/ only a ha*it of capricio&sly 0&r(ering
those he sees as a threat6 As the e0*o(i0ent of tyranny/ he 0&st *e o)erco0e *y
Malcol0 so that Scotlan( can ha)e a tr&e ,ing once 0ore6