1

Chapter 6. Dimensional Analysis and

Hydraulics Similarity
Learning Outcomes:
1. Make the use of the study of dimensions for better
understanding of flow phenomena,
2. Understand the law of similitude, prediction of the
performance of a prototype based on tests carried out
on models.
2
6.1 Dimensional Analysis
In dimensional analysis, from a general understanding of fluid phenomena, the
physical parameters that will influence the flow are first predicted, then these
parameters are grouped into dimensionless combinations which enable a better
understanding of the flow phenomena.
Dimensional analysis is particularly helpful in experimental work because it provides
a guide to those things that significantly influence the phenomena.
Physical quantities can be expressed in either the mass-length-time (MLT) system or
the force-length-time (FLT) system. This is because these two systems are
interrelated through Newton's second law, which states F = ma or
ma F =
[ ] [ ]
(

=
2
T
L
M F
[ ] [ ]
2
= MLT F
3
6.2 Concept of Dimensional Analysis
All theoretical equations that relate physical quantities must be dimensionally
homogeneous. That is, all the terms in an equation must have the same dimensions.
For example, each of the terms in Bernoulli's equation has the dimension of length.
g
V
z
p
H
2
2
+ + =

This principle is known as the principle of dimensional homogeneity. Dimensional

homogeneity is a valuable tool for checking equation derivations and engineering
calculations, and in deriving the forms of physical equations.
Dimensional analysis is a procedure that arranges all the variables involved into an
equation containing independent dimensionless groups. The benefits are:
i. More experimentations are avoided;
ii. Number of independent groups obtained is less than the number of variables.
4
6.3 Rayleigh Theorem
Consider the following problem:
Develop an equation for the speed V with which a pressure wave travels through a
fluid. The physical factors which probably influence the speed are compressibility E
v
,
density and the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
( ) , , E f V
v
=
(

=
T
L
V
The dimensions of these quantities in MLT system are:
(

=
2
LT
M
E
v
(

=
3
L
M

=
T
L
2

Adding or subtracting such quantities will not produce dimensionally homogeneous

equations. Therefore, multiplication and/or division should be carried out to balance
the dimensions. So,
c b a
v
KE V =
where K is a dimensionless constant.
5
Solve the exponents a, b, and c by substituting the dimensions,
(

=
T
L
V
(

=
2
LT
M
E
v
(

=
3
L
M

=
T
L
2

c b a
v
KE V =
c
b a
T
L
L
M
LT
M
T
L
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
=
2
3 2
To satisfy dimensional homogeneity, the exponents of each dimension must be
identical on both sides of the equation. Thus,
b a + = 0
For M:
c b a 2 3 1 + = For L:
c a = 2 1 For T:
Solving these three equations,
2
1
= a
2
1
= b 0 = c
Therefore,

v
E
K V =
*Rayleigh method has been superseded by the
Buckingham pi theorem.
6
6.4 Buckingham Pi Theorem
The pi theorem states that the total of n variables can be grouped into (n m)
independent dimensionless groups (pi), and may be expressed as f
1
(
1
,
2
, ... ,

nm
) = 0 or as
1
= f
2
(
2
,
3
, ... ,
nm
).
The steps are:
Step 1. Recognize the variables of influence, list and count the n variables.
Step 2. Choose a dimensional system (MLT or FLT) and list the dimensions of each
variable. Find m, the number of fundamental dimensions involved in all the
variables.
Consider that the physical factors that influence the drag force F
D
in
pipe are the density , the viscosity , the pipe diameter D, and the
velocity of flow V.
( ) 0 = , , V , D , F f
D
Therefore n = 5.
Using MLT system, the dimensions are, respectively
,
T
ML
2
, L
,
T
L
,
L
M
3
LT
M Number of basic dimensions
involved, m = 3
7
Step 3. Determine (n m) dimensionless groups.
In the example used, number of dimensional groups = (n m) = (5
3) = 2.
Therefore, we have (
1
,
2
) = 0
Step 4. From the list of dimensional variables, select the primary (repeating)
variables. These must contain all of the m fundamental dimensions, and
must not form a among themselves. It helps to choose primary variables
that relate to geometry, kinematics, and dynamics (flow without forces or
energy).
In the example used, , D, and V are chosen as the primary variables.
Then
D
c b a
F V D
1 1 1
1
=

2 2 2
2
c b a
V D =
8
Sistem F-L-T Sistem M-L-T
FLT
1
ML
2
T
3
Power P Kuasa P 31
FL ML
2
T
2
Torque T Torque T 30
FL ML
2
T
2
Energy E Tenaga E 29
FL ML
2
T
2
Work W Kerja W 28
FL
4
T
2
ML
2
T
1
Moment of momentum Momen momentum 27
FLT ML
2
T
1
Angular momentum Momentum sudut 26
FLT MLT
1
Momentum Momentum 25
FT ML
1
T
2
Modulus of elasticity E, K Modulus keanjalan E, K 24
FL
2
ML
1
T
2
Shear stress Tegasan ricih 23
FL
2
ML
1
T
2
Pressure p Tekanan p 22
FL
2
T ML
1
T
1
Dynamic viscosity Kelikatan dinamik 21
FL
3
ML
2
T
2
Specific weight Berat tentu 20
FL
4
T
2
ML
3
Density Ketumpatan 19
F MLT
2
Force F Daya F 18
Dynamic Quantities Kuantiti Dinamik D
T
1
T
1
Vorticity Vortisiti 17
L
2
T
1
L
2
T
1
Circulation Putaran 16
L
2
T
1
L
2
T
1
Stream function Fungsi arus 15
L
2
T
1
L
2
T
1
Kinematic viscosity Kelikatan kinematik 14
LT
2
LT
2
Gravity g Graviti g 13
L
3
T
1
L
3
T
1
Flow rate Q Kadar alir Q 12
T
2
T
2
Angular acceleration Pecutan sudut 11
LT
2
LT
2
Acceleration a Pecutan a 10
T
1
T
1
Rotational speed N Halaju putaran N 9
T
1
T
1
Angular velocity Halaju sudut 8
LT
1
LT
1
Linear velocity U, V Halaju linear U, V 7
Kinematic Quantities Kuantiti Kinematik C
L
4
L
4
Moment of inertia Momen inersia 6
L
3
L
3
Volume Isipadu 5
L
2
L
2
Area A Luas A 4
Geometric Quantities Kuantiti Geometrik B
T T Time t Masa t 3
L L Length L Panjang L 2
FL
1
T
2
M
Mass m Jisim m 1
Fundamental Quantities Kuantiti Asasi A
Dimensi (Dimension)
Quantity Kuantiti No.
9
Step 6. To satisfy the dimensional homogeneity, equate the exponents of each
dimension on both sides of each pi equation, and solve for the exponents
and the forms of the dimensionless groups. Since the s are
dimensionless, we can replace them with M
0
L
0
T
0
.

1
:
( )
|

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
=
2 3
0 0 0
1
1
1
T
ML
T
L
L
L
M
T L M
c
b
a
1 0
1
+ = a
For M:
1 3 0
1 1 1
+ + + = c b a
For L:
2 0
1
= c
For T:
Solving for a
1
, b
1
and c
1
, a
1
= 1, b
1
= 2, c
1
= 2. Therefore,
2 2
1
V D
F
D

2
:
( )
|

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
=
LT
M
T
L
L
L
M
T L M
c
b
a
2
2
2
3
0 0 0
1 0
1
+ = a
For M:
1 3 0
1 1 1
+ + = c b a
For L:
1 0
1
= c
For T:
Solving for a
2
, b
2
and c
2
, a
2
= 1, b
2
= 1, c
2
= 1. Therefore,
DV

=
2
10
Step 7. Rearrange the groups.
( )
2 1
=
|

\
|
=
DV V D
F
D

2 2
11
Example 6.1
Derive an expression for the flow rate per unit width q over the spillway shown in
Figure. The variables that affect q are the head H, the acceleration of gravity g and
the spillway height P.
Q
H
P
( ) P , g , H f q =
4 = n
Identify variables
Number variables
Using MLT system, the dimensions for variables:
T
L
2
( ) P , g , H f q =
L
2
T
L
L
2 = m Number of basic dimensions
2 2 4 = = m n Therefore number of dimensionless group
H , g Repeating variables:
q H g
b a
1 1
1
=
P H g
b a
2 2
2
=
Thus,
12

1
:
( )
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
=
T
L
L
T
L
T L
b
a
2
2
0 0 1
1
2 0
1 1
+ + = b a
For L:
1 2 0
1
= a
For T:
Solving for a
1
and b
1
, a
1
= 1/2 and b
1
= 3/2. Therefore,
3
1
gH
q
=

2
:
( ) L L
T
L
T L
b
a
2
2
2
0 0
|

\
|
=
1 0
2 2
+ + = b a
For L:
2
2 0 a =
For T:
Solving for a
2
and b
2
, a
2
= 0 and b
2
= 1. Therefore,
H
P
=
2
|

\
|
=
H
P
gH
q

3
|

\
|
=
H
P
gH q
3
13
6.5 Geometric Similarity
Geometric similarity - model and its prototype have identical shapes but differ only in size.
Length scale ratio
m
p
r
L
L
L =
Area scale ratio
2
2
2
m
p
r
L
L
L =
Volume scale ratio
3
3
3
m
p
r
L
L
L =
14
6.6 Kinematic Similarity
Kinematic similarity - similarity of geometry and time.
Velocity scale ratio
m
p
r
V
V
V = constant for kinematic similarity
r
r
r
V
L
T = Since time T is L/V, the time scale ratio is
r
r
r
r
r
L
V
T
L
a
2
2
= = The acceleration scale ratio is
15
6.7 Dynamic Similarity
Dynamic similarity - exists between geometrically and kinematically similar systems if the
ratios of all forces in the model and prototype are the same.
m
p
r
F
F
F =
16
6.8 Dimensionless Number
Reynolds number

VL
= Re
Froude number
gL
V
= Fr
Mach number
c
V
E
V
V
= =

Ma
Weber number
L
V

= We
Euler number
( ) p g
V

=
2
Eu
ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces
ratio of inertial forces to gravity forces
ratio of inertial forces to elastic forces
ratio of inertial forces to surface tension
ratio of inertial forces to pressure forces
17
Example 6.2
An underwater missile, diameter 2 m and length 10 m is tested in a water tunnel to
determine the forces acting on the real prototype. A 1 : 20 scale model is to be
used. If the maximum allowable speed of the prototype missile is 10 m/s, what
should be the speed of the water in the tunnel to achieve dynamic similarity?
For dynamic similarity, the Reynolds number of the model and prototype must be
equal
p m
Re Re =
p m
VL VL
|

\
|
= |

\
|

p
m
p
p
m
m
p
m
V
L
L
V

=
10 20 =
m
V
m/s 200 =
m
V
18
Example 6.3
A model aeroplane is built at 1/10 scale and is to be tested in a wind tunnel
operating at a pressure of 20 times atmospheric. The aeroplane will fly at 500 km/h.
At what speed should the wind tunnel operate to give dynamic similarity between the
model and prototype? If the drag measure on the model is 337.5 N, what will be the
drag on the plane? The resistance on a body moving through air is
The equation of state for an ideal gas is
km/h 250 =
m
V
nRT pV =
RT p =
RT
RT
p
p
p
m
p
m

=
p
m
p
p
p
p

=
20
p m
20 =
For dynamic similarity, the Reynolds number of the model and prototype must be equal
p m
Re Re =
p
m
p
p
m
m
p
m
V
L
L
V

=
500
1
10
20
1
=
m
V
2 2
L V R =
19
5 337
05 0
1
.
.
R
p
=
The ratio of forces
( )
( )
p
m
p
m
L V
L V
R
R
2 2
2 2

=
2 2
10
1
500
250
1
20
|

\
|
|

\
|
=
p
m
R
R
05 0.
R
R
p
m
=
N 6750 =
p
R
20
Example 6.4
A 1:50 model of a boat has a wave resistance of 0.02 N when operating in water at
1.0 m/s. Find the corresponding prototype wave resistance. Find also the
horsepower requirement for the prototype. What velocity does this test represent in
the prototype?
Gravity and inertia forces predominates, therefore Froude number is applicable.
m p
Fr Fr =
m p
gL
V
gL
V
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
m
m
p
p
L
V
L
V
2
2
=
m
p
m
p
L
L
V
V
=
2
2
r
m
p
L
V
V
=
2
2
21
1 50 =
p
V
m/s 07 7. V
p
=
2 2
2 2
m m
p p
m
p
V L
V L
F
F

= The ratio of wave resistance is given as

3
r
m
p
L
F
F
=
02 0 50
3
. F
p
=
N 2500 =
p
F
Wave resistance of prototype
Also,
m p
Fr Fr =
m p
gL
V
gL
V
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
m
m
p
p
V
L
L
V =
Power
p p p
V F P =
( )
550
fps
3048 0
1
07 7 lb 2248 0 2500
|

\
|

=
.
. .
hp 7 23. =