Chemistry of polymers

Introduction
A polymer may be defined as a macromolecule formed by the chemical combination of identical units called
monomers. The process by which polymers are formed is known as polymerization. Which one occurs via
addition reaction or condensation reaction. The molecular weight of commercially important synthetic
polymers is of the order of several thousands of Daltons or higher. There are innumerable polymers used in
countless applications. Polymer chemistry is a very wide subject and innovations are continuously taking
place. The aim of this chapter is not to discuss the generalities of polymer chemistry but to instil in the minds
of readers some specific aspects of polymers used in the construction industry. These polymers include
epo!ies polyurethanes acrylics silicones polysulphides alkyds and polyesters.
Epoxies
"po!y resins are compounds with more than one ethylene o!ide group per molecule commonly referred to as
the epo!y group #$%epo!ides or o!irane. &uch resins are categorized as 'thermosetting' since they are capable
of 'curing' to form cross%linked networks. "po!y resins are of particular interest to the plastics industry because
of their polyfunctional character and their capacity to form addition products with a large number of
substances without generating decomposition products.
"po!y resins are not finished products but are reactive chemicals which are combined with other chemicals to
give systems capable of conversion to predetermined thermoset products. (anufacturers of epo!y resins and
hardeners do not supply finished compounds. &ome specialized firms perform the task of compounding for
several products.
"po!y resins vary from low%viscosity li)uids to high melting point solids. These variations are brought about
by changing the ratio of epichlorohydrin and bisphenol A used in their production. Almost all the epo!y
products used in the construction industry are based on li)uid epo!y resins. These are ambient cured systems
where cross%linking is achieved from self%polymerization by the addition of curing agent *hardener+.
&toichiometric ratios are necessary for epo!y curing agents.
&election of the proper curing agent for an application depends upon the viscosity of the mi!ture the mass of
the system and the temperature. ,t also depends upon the re)uirements of a cured system such as resistance to
chemicals temperature and electrical properties.

The history of epo!y resins begins in the early #-./s with the reported epo!idation of olefins. This techni)ue
was used only for the production of higher molecular weight mono%epo!y compounds. The technology was
further e!plored only after the &econd World War. Different contributions in the development of epo!ies are
outlined as follows *0ee and 1ivelle #-23 #-3$4 &herman et al, #-5$+.
#-$26 "isleb noted the reaction of epichlorohydrin with secondary amines and subse)uent dehydrogenation
with caustic.
#-$36 &chrade cited the first commercial attempt to prepare resins from epichlorohydrin.
#-7.6 8lumer described a composition which could be used in the manufacture
of coatings based on phenol aldehyde compounds reacted with epichlorohydrin.
#-776 &chlack described a low molecular weight diglycidyl ether produced by the reaction from one mole of
bisphenol A and ten moles of epichlorohydrin in a caustic medium.
&tallman reported production of diglycidyl amines from ammonia and epichlorohydrin.
#-796 :roll and ;earne obtained a variety of diepo!ides from chlorinated alcohols.
#-726 <aston produced a low%melting amber%coloured resin which was then reacted with phthalic anhydride to
produce a thermoset compound.
#-736 =nsuccessful attempts in "urope to employ epo!y resins in dental applications continued until #-7-
#-7-6 :reenlee e!plored the epichlorohydrin%bisphenol A synthesis route for the production of new resins
*without caustic%sensitive ester linkages+ for coatings.
#-976 8asic materials were patented as curing agents but the applications were limited to dentistry.
#-9>6 <iba 0td filed the first patent applications for epo!y adhesives.
#-926 <iba's products were offered commercially.
#->26 =nion <arbide developed cyclo%aliphatic epo!ies via peracetic acid synthesis.
#-2.6 ?oppers <o. contributed o%cresol epo!idised novolacs.
#-2.s6 "mphasis shifted to improving the )uality of resins.
#-3.6 <onsiderable research and development by <iba%:eigy on hydantoins resulted in
commercialization of resins based on this heterocyclic moiety.
#-326 &hell <hemical <o. introduced hydrogenated bisphenol A materials as ultraviolet *=@+ weatherable
systems to compete with polyurethanes.
Aesearch is still ongoing in the )uest for innovative technologies.
Commercial epoxy resins
A) Bisphenol A resins. The most widely used epo!y resins are diglycidyl ethers of bisphenol A *D:"8A+.
These are produced by the reaction of bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin in the presence of sodium
hydro!ide *Bigure $.#+. The bisphenol moiety offers outstanding properties such as toughness rigidity
and good high%temperature performance. <hemical resistance is provided by ether linkages4 adhesive and
reactive properties are imparted by the hydro!yl and epo!y groups.
0i)uid undiluted bisphenol A based epo!y resins have average values of n less than ..$ and viscosities
ranging from appro!imately 3...%#> ... <P at $>.<.
A uni)ue characteristic of bisphenol A epo!y resins is that as the number of repeating groups in the epo!y
chain is increased the number of hydro!yl groups also increases while maintaining an "po!ide
functionality of two. &ome hydro!yl functionality is essential to the performance of li)uid epo!y resins.
The concentration of the hydro!yl group influences reactivity viscosity pigment wetting filler setting
and thi!otropic.
Aesins having n values less than # are viscous li)uids. The higher n value resins particularly those with a
molecular weight above 7... are normally used in solution and find their application in heat%cured
systems. ,n such resins the concentration of epo!y is low. They are cured with materials that react with
hydro!yl groups along their backbone.
8+ Synthesis of DGEBA. As mentioned above bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin are the main raw
materials in the manufacture of D:"8A epo!y resins. Two moles of epichlorohydrin are theoretically
re)uired for each mole of bisphenol A.
;owever this ratio gives less than #.C yield practically. Therefore e!cess of epichlorohydrin is used by
doubling or tripling the amount to achieve greater than -.C yields. The process involves the following
stages *0ee and 1ivelle #-3$+6
#. The re)uired )uantities of epichlorohydrin and bisphenol A are charged into the reactor and mi!ed
thoroughly by an agitator4
$. The above solution is heated at --D<%#.$D< in the presence of 9.C sodium hydro!ide solution for
about 31A h4
7. during the reaction process water is distilled as an azeotrope with epichlorohydrin4 the latter is
returned to the reaction mi!ture after the separation of water4
9. after #> min *at the reaction temperature+ water is removed and residual epichlorohydrin is recovered
by distillation first at #>/.< and then at $./.< and $ mm ;g pressure4
>. toluene or methylethyl ketone *?umar and ?umar #-5$4 0ee and 1ivelle #-3$+ is added in order to
separate the sodium chloride formed during the reaction followed by filtration and distillation to remove
the solvent. The resins obtained from this process give a yield of -.%->C. The molecular weight of the
resulting resins will depend upon the ratio of epichlorohydrin to bisphenol A employed. The greater the
)uality of "pichlorohydrin the lower the molecular weight of the resulting resins.
<ommercial epo!y resins predominately D:"8A are available in several molecular weight ranges and
some are composed of a mi!ture of more than one type of epo!y resin *e.g. blends of bisphenol A and
bisphenol B based resins+4 additionally they may contain modifiers and diluents.
Table 2.1 Physical properties of several commercial li)uid epo!y resins
"po!ide
e)uivalent @iscosity Density <olour number 8isphenol
weight *mPas at $>D<+a *gmEmlEat $.D<+b *:ardener+ type
#5. 5>.. F#>.. #.#2 GH $ A
#52%#-. ##...%#9... #.#3 GH 7 A
#3$%#5> 2>..%5... #.#3 GH 7 AEB blend
#5. 3... F#>.. #.#3 GH$ AEB blend
#-$ #2 ... F7... #.#3 GH$ A
<+ Bisphenol F based epoxy resins. ,nstead of reacting bisphenol A with epichlorohydrin to form a li)uid resin a
similar reaction can be conducted with bisphenol B *Bigure $.$+. 8isphenol B is composed of a mi!ture of isomers %
ortho-ortho, ortho-para and para-para linkages % whereas bisphenol A is composed mainly of para-para linkages. ,f
n is less than about ..$ the resins are called bisphenol B epo!ides. ,f n is higher they are referred to as epo!y phenol
novolac *"P1+ resins *;elfad #--2+.
The repeat unit of bisphenol B epo!y resins *Bigure $.7+ or epo!y novolac resin does not significantly increase the
epo!y e)uivalent weight although viscosity and functionality do increase *;elfad #--2+. 8isphenol B epo!y resins
provide similar chemical resistance to that of bisphenol A based epo!ies. ;owever there is some improvement to
acid resistance in the former depending on the curing agent used. With bisphenol B epo!y resins it is possible to
have higher filler levels and faster bubble release because of their relatively low viscosity *Bigure $.9+
D) Bisphenol A/bisphenol F epoxy resin blends. ,t is possible to use blends of bisphenol A and B to achieve
superior properties. (any such combinations are commercially available. &uch blends significantly reduce the
crystallization tendency which may occur with bisphenol A based epo!y resins when they are subjected to
temperature cycling. &uch blends also facilitate filler loading and processability.
roperties of uncured epoxy resins
!iscosity. The viscosity of epo!y resins depends on temperature and molecular weight. An increase in
temperature reduces the viscosity. The presence of high molecular weight species increases the viscosity.
Epoxide equivalent weight. The epo!ide *or epo!y+ e)uivalent weight *""W+ is defined as the weight in
grammes of resin containing one gramme e)uivalent of epo!y. The 'epo!y value' represents the fractional
number of epo!y groups contained in #.. g resin. Division of the epo!y value by #.. g gives the epo!ide
e)uivalent. The ""W is commonly determined by addition of hydrogen halide to the epo!y group *Bigure $.2+.
The difference between the amount of acid added and the amount unconsumed determined by titration with a
standard base is converted to the epo!ide e)uivalent *0ee and 1ivelle #-3$+. <omplete procedures of
determining the ""W are given elsewhere *0ee and 1ivelle #-23+. The ""W is the most important
characteristic of bisphenol A epo!y resin.
,t is e)ual to half the molecular weight4 for e!ample if the ""W is #3. the molecular weight is 79..
"ydroxyl e#ui$alent. The hydro!yl e)uivalent is the weight of epo!y resin containing one e)uivalent of hydro!yl
group. ,t is important in calculating average molecular weights. ,t is determined by various methods *0ee and
1ivelle #-23+ such as esterification with acids reaction with lithium aluminium hydride reaction with acetyl
chloride and near%infra%red spectroscopy.
Iodine number. The iodine number is the number of milligrammes of iodine absorbed by one gramme of the
compound. ,t is a measure of the unsaturation of the epo!y molecule.
Color. The color of epo!y resins is normally e!pressed in :ardener color units :ardener #%> are pale straw colors
:ardener >%#$ are significantly yellow :ardener #$ I are darker colored *but translucent+.
%tructure. The structure of the resin is a determining factor for the physical and chemical properties. The
number and location of the reactive sites determines the functionality and the cross%linking density.
Curin& a&ents 'hardeners(
<uring agents or hardeners are chemically active compounds which convert epo!y resins into hard infusible
thermoset. They promote the cross%linking reaction either by polyaddition or by ;omopolymerisation. The
curing reaction occurs without the formation of any by%product.
,n polyaddition cross%linking occurs by means of chain e!tension. The majority of ambient%cured construction
products are based on this type of reaction where in situ polymerization occurs after the epo!y resin base and
the curing agent are mi!ed. The curing agent causes the epo!ide or hydro!yl groups to react.
A wide range of curing agents are available to cure li)uid epo!y resins under ambient conditions. ;owever
relative humidities up to #..C and temperatures below /.< may be encountered on building sites. ,t is
unusual for a single curing agent type to provide optimum characteristics in all respects4 therefore selection is
made according to the priorities of the application and the performance re)uirements. 8esides affecting the
viscosity and reactivity of the formulation curing agents determine both the types of chemical bonds formed
and the degree of cross%linking. These in turn affect the chemical resistance electrical properties and heat
resistance of the cured formulation.
Aliphatic polyamines. These are low%viscosity materials with high reactivity and fast cure at ambient
temperatures.
Polyamine%cured epo!y systems have reasonable colour and colour retention improved physical properties and
good chemical resistance.
They are however moisture sensitive relatively to!ic and have poor resistance to organic acids. "!amples of
this class are diethylene triamine *D"TA+ and triethylene tetramine *T"TA+.
Aliphatic amines are used principally in civil engineering applications such as in patch repair systems
adhesives floorings high solid coatings and grouts.
Cycloaliphatic amines. Possess an amine functionality located on a carbon atom ring and contain no
unsaturation.
Table $.$ <uring agent types6 typical properties and applications. &ource6 Air Products
*<hemicals+ pic <layton (anchester =?
roduct &roup
Aliphatic amines
<ycloaliphatic amines
Aromatic Amine
Amidoamines
&olid Adducts
Polyamides
Water%dispersable
rincipal properties
Wide range of products with
differing properties4 high
reactivity fast cure at ambient
tempera%tures4 relatively moisture%
insensitive4 reasonable colour and
colour retention4 good chemical
resistance particularly to solvents.
<ure at low temperatures under
damp conditions4 good film
properties *e.g. e!cellent gloss+4
e!cellent colour and colour
stability4 good adhesion and very
good chemical resistance4 range of
cure times and pot%lives
Product range with variable potlife
and curing cycle4 cure under high
humidity and low temperature4
high gloss bloom%free films with
e!cellent chemical resistance4
dark colour
Aange of amidoamines of differing
reactivities4 low viscosity4 e!hibit
very good adhesion particularly to
concrete4 good cure under humid
conditions4 generally poor
chemical resistance
,solated amine products in
particular offer advantages such as
low colour low free amine content
and low irritation potential4 they
also provide non%yellowing
bloom%free films with good
chemical and solvent resistance.
Polyamides offer ambient cure
low to!icity good fle!ibility and
toughness with high viscosity
long pot%life and good water and
corrosion resistance4 polyamide
adducts provide good
compatibility *without induction
period+ and better cure under
adverse conditions than do
standard polyamides.
0ow viscosity4 low odour4 non%
flammable4 easy to clean4 good
adhesion especially to damp
concrete4 good abrasion resistance
rincipal applications
<ivil engineering e.g. patch
repair systems flooring
adhesives4 high solids coatings4
certain grades used as cost or
performance alternatives to
cycloaliphatics4 accelerators for
other amine curing agents
&olvent%free and solventless
coatings self%levelling and
screed floors4 tile grouts4
adhesives
&olvent%free coatings e.g. for
edible%oil beer and wine
tanks and chemical and oil
tanks4 epo!y coal tar coatings4
chemical%resistant flooring
<ivil engineering *concrete
bonding crack injection screed
floors etc.+ coatings *as modifiers
to cycloaliphatic andEor aliphatic
curing agents4 adhesives+
Amine adducts solventbased
Two%pack coatings e.g.
Primers finishes and coal tar
epo!y coatings
Polyamides6 solvent%based
two%pack coatings e.g.
primers and finishes4 epo!y
coal tar coatings adhesives
putties and sealants
Primarily concrete coatings
e.g. food factories showrooms
laboratories hospitals nuclear
power stations breweries
etc.4 adhesives
Amidoamines. They are low%viscosity amber%coloured fluids. They are formed by the reaction of a monobasic
carbo!ylic acid *<#2%<#-+ with an aliphatic amine for e!ample D"TA or T"TA *Bigure $.#.+. With these
substances cure is achieved by the amine functionality present but not by the amide group. The free primary and
secondary amine groups are the reactive sites.
The advantages of amidoamines are reduced volatility convenient mi! ratios good fle!ibility and toughness.
The disadvantages are poor performance at elevated temperatures and less chemical resistance compared
with other amines. Water resistance may be unsatisfactory for long%term structural applications
(ajor construction applications include adhesives concrete bonding compounds crack injections and screed
floors. They are also finding use as modifiers to cycloaliphatic and aliphatic amine curing agents
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Big. $.#. &ynthesis of an Amidoamine
Polyamides are formed by the condensation reaction of polyamines with dimeric fatty acids. They are
available from a number of suppliers in a large variety of viscosities and molecular weights.
(any products are available in the form of adducts which provide good compatibility with epo!y resins without
the need for an induction period and give a better cure under adverse conditions compared with standard
polyamides. Polyamide curing agents offer a number of desirable features as follows *Dow <hemical <ompany
undated b+6 low to!icity4 good fle!ibility and toughness4 good adhesion4 moisture resistance4 convenient mi!ing
ratios.
They are used mainly as curing agents for solvent%based coatings epo!y coal tar coatings putties adhesives and
solvents. Polyamide%cured epo!y coatings have the drawback of being somewhat softer and less chemically
resistant than other coatings.
Ketone-blocked polyamines. These curing agents are comple!es of primary aliphatic polyamines with
ketone solvents *Bigure $.##+. They are also called 'ketimines'. When mi!ed with the D:"8A they provide
long pot lives *up to 5 h+ at room temperature. The curing reaction occurs by the dissociation of the comple! by
atmospheric moisture in which the ketone evaporates and the primary amines provide cure. ?etimines are
employed as curing agents in coatings containing #..C solids.
Ketone Diethylene triamine (DETA); Ketone-blocked polyamine; (Ketimine)
oly sulphides are used as curing agents for epo!ies in the presence of tertiary amines which accelerate
the cure4 such cured systems e!hibit good fle!ibility and tensile strength at ambient temperature. ,n a real
sense they are fle!ibilizers for epo!y systems.
&pecific applications are for the crack injection system *for moving cracks+ and coatings.
Water-dispersible urin! a!ents. With these curing agents it is possible to have a water%soluble compound
in an epo!y system to obtain ma!imum possible resistance to corrosion and humidity. &ome curing agents
from this category emulsify li)uid epo!y resins in water making the entire system dilutable with water.
"o#opoly#erisation occurs in the presence of 0ewis acids or tertiary amines. ,t may be either cationic or
anionic. This reaction does not have any significance for ambient%cured multicomponent
epo!y products for use in construction.
Calculation of mixing ratios of epoxy resins and amine curing agents
Bor amine curing agents which are recommended for use in stoichiometric )uantities with epo!y resins the
following guidelines apply6
#. ,f an active hydrogen e)uivalent weight is )uoted for the amine then the parts by weight *pbw+ of amine
per #.. pbw resin is given as the active hydrogen e)uivalent weight multiplied by #.. and divided by the
epo!ide e)uivalent weight of the resin.
$. ,f the molecular weight of the amine is )uoted calculate the active hydrogen e)uivalent weight as the
molecular weight of the amine divided by the number of active hydrogens then proceed as in point #.
7. ,f a )uantity per gramme mole of epo!y resin is )uoted the pbw of amine per #.. pbw resin is the
)uantity per gramme mole multiplied by #.. and divided by the epo!ide e)uivalent weight of the resin.
9. ,f a ratio with another epo!y resin is )uoted for e!ample if resin 8 is #.. pbw and the hardener is 2.
pbw the pbw of hardener per #.. pbw of epo!y resin A is the )uantity per #.. pbw of resin 8 *in
pbw+ multiplied by the epo!ide content of resin A *in molEkg+ divided by the epo!ide content of resin 8 *in
molEkg+. ;ence if resin A has an epo!ide content of 7.$ molEkg and resin 8 has an epo!ide content of >.9
molEkg then the weight of hardener per #.. pbw of resin A is K*2/ ! 7.$+E>.9L pbw % 7>.2 pbw.
Additi$es for epoxy formulations
Pure epo!y resins so%called basic resins are unsuited to building applications because of their high
viscosity. (odifications are necessary to achieve the re)uired viscosity wet ability carbonate resistance
curing rate cost reduction and numerous other properties. ;owever the modifiers must be chosen so as not
to impair the other valuable attributes of the epo!y resins. Bor e!ample volatile solvents are unsuitable for
thick coatings because any solvent retained in the cured system will reduce the mechanical and thermal
properties and the corrosion resistance. The specific property needs for a particular application may be
tailored to each system to ma!imize the remarkable potential of epo!y resins.
lastici)ers and flexibili)ers. Plasticizers are long%chain molecules placed into the structure which
remain unreacted after cure whereas fle!ibilizers are long%chain elements placed into the epo!y system
which do react during cure. The purpose of employing a fle!ibilizers or plasticizers is to provide resilience
and toughness to a rigid system in order to improve the thermal shock and impact resistance and to increase
fle!ibility. Dibutyl phthalate is a commonly used plasticizer. ;owever in #--9 it was reclassified as to!ic
to humans with possible risks of impairing fertility and harming the unborn child. A search for alternative
sources of plasticizer to dibutyl phthalate is in progress and a friendly material is e!pected in the near
future.
"!amples of other plasticizers are an adduct of tetrahydrofurfural alcohol and ethylene o!ide and the
reaction products of ethylene glycol either with organic acids or with anhydrides. Polyols and natural and
synthetic rubbers are e!amples of fle!ibilizers.
*esinous modifiers. "po!y resins have the ability to interact with other resins to form heteropolymers.
These are also known as plastic alloys. ,mproved properties can be achieved with modified systems which
are otherwise not possible with a single resin4 for e!ample epo!ies can form plastic alloys with poly*vinyl
formal+ to improve the impact resistance and peel strength of adhesive formulations.
"po!y resins form alloys with a number of other resins such as polysulphides polyurethanes
fluorocarbons silicones furfural resins and acrylic resins.
Pigments. The colorants for epo!ies can be classed into dyes and pigments. The materials may be either
organic or inorganic the organic materials being preferred for their brightness and strength.

The best pigment to achieve a given colour will depend on the type of curing system employed and the
environmental conditions to which the cured system will be e!posed.
Billers are added in epo!y formulations to obtain the desired properties in a system. Additionally they
reduce the cost of formulations.
The amount of filler by weight that can be incorporated into an epo!y resin will depend on the filler's
particle size density and oil absorption properties. Within each family of filler there are products that
impart different properties because of varying coarseness impurity level and method of preparation.
<ommonly used fillers for epo!y systems are calcium carbonate micas silica clays powered metals
talc wood flour aluminum silicate etc. The properties imparted by fillers to an epo!y system are given
in Table $.9
The effect of addition of fillers to epo!y formulations is to6
improve thi!otropy4
increase the pot%life and lower the e!otherm4
reduce the tensile and fle!ural strength4
reduce the shrinkage4
improve the compressive strength4
increase the surface hardness4
increase the thermal conductivity in the case of fibrous metallic fillers4
lower the coefficient of thermal e!pansion4
increase the thermal shock and impact resistance4
increase or decrease in chemical resistance4 etc.
$eati%e diluents. ,n epo!y resin chemistry the term 'reactive diluent' refers to compounds which
participate in the cross%linking reaction between resin and hardener and become chemically linked into the
cured system. This includes only those compounds which have a lower molecular weight than the epo!y
resin itself possess a lower viscosity contain at least one epo!ide group per molecule and which are
completely compatible with epo!y resins.
Table $.9 &ome properties imparted by fillers to an epo!y system
Biller Property
<alcium <arbonate <alcium &ilicatePowdered Aluminium
<opper
Alumina Blint Powder <arborundum &ilica (olybdenum
8isulphide
<hopped :lass
(ica &ilica Powdered or flaked :lass
(etallic Biller or Alumina
<olloidal &ilica 8entonite <lay
,mproved Thermal <onductivity
,mproved (achinability
,mproved Abrasion Aesistance
,mproved ,mpact &trength
,mproved "lectrical <onductivity
,mproved Thi!otropic Aesponse
,n addition good reactive diluents will have favorable physiological properties low vapour pressure a very
good thinning effect and little influence on the thermal mechanical and electrical properties of the epo!y in
the cured state. ,n most cases reactive diluents are monoglycidyl diglycidyl or polyglycidyl ethers
glycidyl esters with an aromatic or aliphatic structure or epo!idised unsaturated compounds.
Aeactive diluents having a low vapour pressure and high 0D>. value should be employed. ,n all cases as a
general precaution skin contact with reactive diluents should be avoided. ,n the building sector the linear
coefficient of e!pansion % which varies according to the reactive diluent used % can be important. A general
classification of reactive diluents is given in Table $.>.
+onoepoxy reacti$e diluents contain single epo!y functionality without reactive sites. They reduce the
functionality of the system and its cross%linking density. They are thus regarded as 'chain stoppers'. They
are generally employed to improve the wetting ability of the systems *Bigure $.#$+
Diepo&y and poly epo&y reati%e diluents. Diepo!y or polyepo!y reactive diluents are incorporated in
order to preserve physical properties at elevated temperatures. These diluents will not reduce system
functionality and in some cases will result in an increase in system crosslinking density. They can be used
in higher concentrations than can the monoepo!y diluents to obtain the desired reduction in viscosity. &ome
e!amples are shown in Bigure $.#7.
Table $.> Aeactive diluents for epo!ies by functionality and nature
+onofunctional, aromatic6 cresyl%glycidyl ether4 P%tertiary butylphenyl glycidyl ether4
+onofunctional, aliphatic6 ethyl he!yl%glycidyl ether 0ong%chain aliphatic glycidyl ethers
-ifunctional, aliphatic6 butane diol%diglycidyl ether cylohe!ane dimethanol diglycidyl ether he!ane%diol diglycidyl ether
polyo!ypropylene diglycidyl ether4
Trifunctional, aliphatic6 polyo!ypropylene triglycidyl ether
.on/epoxy/containin& reacti$e diluents. The reactive non%epo!y diluents consist of co%curing agents
unsaturated molecules active hydrogen%containing molecules materials that are capable of promoting
transesterification with available hydro!yl groups and materials capable of reacting with the curing
agent. They influence the cross%linking density and system functionality and in general effect other
properties. "!amples of such diluents are tertiary amines short%chain polyols "%caprolactum and
lactones.
.on/reacti$e diluents. These diluents are low%viscosity materials which do not have any reactive sites
and thus do not react with the epo!y systems. These diluents generally impart fle!ibility and improve
the impact resistance giving better thermal mechanical shock resistance.
;owever there is a sacrifice in physical strength chemical resistance and high%temperature
performance. Addition of 7. parts non%reactive diluent to #.. parts epo!y resin usually does not affect
the physical properties of the system. <ommonly used non%reactive diluents are nonyl phenol
furfuryl alcohol and dibutyl phthalate.
%ol$ents are employed to ensure good application properties. <ommonly used solvents are alcohols
aromatic naphthas esters glycol ethers ketones toluene and !ylene. ;igh molecular weight solvents
are not suitable for epo!y systems as they become entrapped in the film and affect the properties. Also
solvents are not used which react with the curing agents4 for e!ample ester solvents have a tendency to
react with amine and inhibit the resin curing process.
Accelerators for epoxy systems shorten the gel time increase the curing rate and they are employed based on the
curing agent.
Acidic accelerators are used with amines amido amines and polyamides. The mechanism of acceleration is the
donation of a hydrogen to the o!ygen on the epo!y ring causing ring opening. Accelerators with a high level of
acidity increase the rate of reaction. ;owever e!tremely acidic accelerators can e!tend pot%life by the protonation
of the basic amine curing agent forming an amine salt. "!amples of acidic accelerators are nonyl phenol
resorcinol triphenyl phosphite salicyclic acid lactic acid toluene and p%sulphonic acid.
Basic accelerators are used with acidic curing agents such as anhydrides novolac or dicyandiamide. They
function by attacking the anhydride ring causing the ring to open and promote bonding to the epo!y ring.
<ommonly used basic accelerators are tertiary amines and imadazoles.
*etarders. &pecial solvents have a retarding effect on the curing reaction. A large number of ketones
especially acetone increase the pot%life via the formation of ketimines. &trong slow%boiling solvents such as
tetrahydrofuram and dimethyl formamide are also effective in slowing the reaction.
0ltra$iolet stabili)ers for epoxies. The function of ultraviolet *=@+ stabilizers is to retard light%induced
polymer degradation which is caused by electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. <ommonly used
=@ stabilizers for epo!y systems are given in Table $.2.
/nly chemical names along with chemical abstracts services *<A&+ registry numbers are mentioned4
commercially they are known by trade names.
Table 2.1 =ltraviolet stabilisers for epo!y systems with the chemical abstracts service *<A&+
registry number
<ompound <A& registry number
$9%dihydro!ybenzophenone *#7#%>2%2+
$$%dihydro!y%99'%dimetho!y benzophenone *#7#%>9%9+
$%*$'hydro!y%>%methylphenyl+ benzotriazole *$99.%$$%9+
$%K$'%hydro!y%7'>'*diamyl+phenylL benzotriazole *$>-37%>>%#+
ethyl%$%cyano%77%diphenyl acrylate *>$7$%--%>+
$%ethylhe!yl%$%cyano%77%diphenyl acrylate *2#-3%7.%9+
Gavlon Industries coatings resin use mainly on the epoxy system is:
A = CAS # 269!"6#"! $poxy Curing Agents
% = CAS # 6&'(!"2#"( )olyamide Curing agent
C = CAS # 2!6&"2"# $poxy *esin
+ = CAS # 2!6&"#&"6 $poxy *esin
+ = CAS # (,,"2#"2 -eopentyl Glycol +iglicydil $ther .2,2'-(2,2-Dimethyl-1,3
propanediyl)bi (o!ymethylene) bio!irane or
1,3-bi(2,3-Epo!ypropo!y)-2,2-dimethylpropane"#
A;"W H Active ;ydrogen ")uivalent Weight
""W H "po!y ")uivalent Weight
phr H per hundred epo!y resin
Calculation of mixing ratios of epoxy resins and amine curing agents
a) Bor -5#>%9>9$B< Actual formulation
Pounds of <uring agent 8lend
A;"W -5#>%9>9$B< Part AH
M <uring Agent A I M <uring Agent 8 INN M <uring Agent ON.
")uiv. wt of A ")uiv. Wt. of 8 ")uiv. Wt. of O
79>
A;"W -5#>%9>9$B< Part AH H ##2.73#-
#>.E#9. I #->E#.7

Bor "po!y componet *8ase+
Pounds of "po!y Aesin 8lend
""W -5#>%9>9$B< Part 8H
M "po!y Aesin A I M "po!y resint 8 INN M "po!y Aesin ON.
")uiv. wt of A ")uiv. Wt. of 8 ")uiv. Wt. of O
>3-.$#
""W -5#>%9>9$B< Part 8H H #->.>--7
-7.$#E>.. I 75$E#5- I #.9E#75
phrtheorical H KA;"WE""WLP#.. H *##2.73#- E #->.>--7+P#.. H >-.9-9
phrreal H KA;"WE""WLP#.. H *79>E>3-.$#+P#.. H >-.>29
"fficiency of Aeaction H theoricalErealP#.. H *>-.9-9E>-.>29+P#.. H --.55$>C
<onclusion6
As we can see -5#>%9>9$B< system has only ..##3>C material unreacted because it has
insignificantly less curing agent to improve hardness.
b) Bor -5#>%9>9$ 1"W formulation Kno 1,3-bi(2,3-Epo!ypropo!y)-2,2-dimethylpropane"
Pounds of <uring agent 8lend
A;"W -5#>%9>9$ Part AH
M <uring Agent A I M <uring Agent 8 INN M <uring Agent ON.
")uiv. wt of A ")uiv. Wt. of 8 ")uiv. Wt. of O
7.#.5.
A;"W -5#>%9>9$ Part AH H #$5.>2-9
$#9.5.E#9. I 53E#.7

Bor "po!y componet *8ase+
Pounds of "po!y Aesin 8lend
""W -5#>%9>9$ Part 8H
M "po!y Aesin A I M "po!y resint 8 INN M "po!y Aesin ON.
")uiv. wt of A ")uiv. Wt. of 8 ")uiv. Wt. of O
>>>.>.
""W -5#>%9>9$ Part 8H H $$7.-523
#7-.>.E>.. I 9#2E#5-
phrtheorical H KA;"WE""WLP#.. H *#$5.>2-9 E $$7.-523+P#.. H >3.7--5
phrreal H KA;"WE""WLP#.. H *7.#.5.E>>>.>.+P#.. H >9.7$-9
"fficiency of Aeaction H theoricalErealP#.. H *>9.7$-9E>3.7--5+P#.. H -9.2>.-C
<onclusion6
,n this A!*-5#>%9>9$ system+ has even less amount of curing agent *>.79-#C+ to improve
fle!ibility and curing time without affecting hardness and chemical resistane.