Introducing Systemic Functional Grammar

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Functionalism refers to an approach to language with reference to roles or
functions played by language (or rather functions given by human beings to language in
their lives as social beings). An application of functional approach (also known
functional linguistics) to language results in functional grammar. The notion of
functional approach to language (or Functional Grammar) in this book is interpreted as
covering three related meanings, namely functional in terms of human needs, functional
with reference to use of language and functional in terms of linguistic constituent
relations.
Firstly, functional approach to the study of language is based on the principle that
language is structured in response to the needs of people as social beings. anguage in
use or text, which is everything that is said, written, or signaled, forms in conte!t that is
specifically often referred to as social conte!t. "n this way language evolves in line with
human needs for language in their social settings. "n other words, this implies that the
structure of language in use or rather the structure of te!t is motivated and determined by
needs of the society where the language is used. "n this sense, if a tiger is available in a
society and members of the society need to identify and describe the animal, the language
spoken by the members of the society will have a word for tiger. #imilarly, the need of
the society to identify various kinds of food made from rice, such as "ndonesians with the
staple food of rice, results in numerous le!ical items related to the food in "ndonesian
communities. "n "ndonesian more than fifty words are used to indicate foods from rice,
such as pulut $sticky glutinous rice%, lontong $condensed soft boiled rice packed in
banana leaf%, tapai $fermented rice%, lemang $sticky rice cooked in coconut milk in the
tube of bamboo%, etc, whereas &nglish has the only word rice. The availability of words
meaning tiger and indicating various types of food from rice are physical rather than
social conte!ts. "n functional tradition, particularly in systemic functional grammar the
conte!t is taken to be social rather than physical one. Thus, in this book the conte!t is
meant, (unless otherwise stated) the social conte!t.
#econdly, functional approach maintains a concept that human beings use
language in order to fulfill three functions in their lives, which are known as the
metafunctions, namely (') to represent, (() to e!change and ()) to organi*e e!perience.
Technically these metafunctions are termed as ideational, interpersonal and textual
functions respectively. The ideational metafunction divides into experiential function,
where language is used to describe e!perience and logical function, where language is
used to relate (units of) e!perience. As function e+uals meaning it is said that language
conveys four kinds of meaning, namely experiential, logical, interpersonal and textual
meanings. Thus, the grammar of language centers on and is described with reference the
four metafunctions or meanings. This implies that the grammar or rather le!icogrammar
of one language is constituted by the e!periential, logical, interpersonal and te!tual
(le!ico)grammar.
Thirdly, functional approach implies that each element or unit of language in any
level is e!plained by reference to its function in the total linguistic system. "n this sense,
clauses, phrases, words, morphemes, and so on are interpreted as functional with respect
to the whole. "n other words, a unit does something or functions in a bigger unit above it
in which it is an element, and finally the function of each unit is eventually determined by
the function of language use.
Grammar is based on a certain value, assumption, view or belief. There is no
grammar that is free from value. The theory of grammar or grammatics varies in terms
of school of linguistics. The underlying theories have resulted in various kinds of
grammar such as traditional grammar, universal grammar, word grammar, stratificational
grammar, and transformational grammar as developed by ,homsky, to name only a few.
-owever, all kinds of grammar are grouped into two categories. logical-philosophical or
known as the formal grammar and ethnographic-descriptive or known as the functional
grammar. #ystemic Functional Grammar (#FG) belongs to the ethnographic-
descriptive group. The main differences between the two kinds of grammar are
summari*ed in Table ' below.
Tale 1 !ogical"#hilosophical and $thnographic-Descriptive %pproach
No& %spect !ogical-- #hilosophical $thnographic"
Descriptive
'. /rientation form0meaning
formal
meaning0form
functional
( Assumption language as form language as resources
) anguage is closely
related to
mind, neurology, and
psychology
social phenomena,
sociology and social
conte!ts
1 Grammar is
considered related
to
logic, sentence anthropology, te!t
2 3ethod of Analysis scientific, no social conte!t,
ideali*ed data
semiotics, social conte!t,
natural language data
4 5roponents 3odistae, 6loomfield,
,homsky, 5ike
-7elmslev, 3atesius, Firth,
-alliday, 3artin, 8
9 3ainly developed in :#A &urope
"n #FG theory, the use of language is conte!tually dependent. This is to say that a
te!t forms in conte!ts and is therefore determined, motivated, or shaped by the conte!t.
/n the other hand, the te!t itself determines or shapes its conte!ts. This is technically
understood as the te!t construes conte!t. Thus, there is a construal relation between the
te!t and its conte!t. "n systemic theory the conte!t consists of conte!t of situation
'register(, culture 'genre( and ideolog).
A te!t is a semantic unit. "t is not a grammatical unit. "n addition, it forms in an
interaction between the addresser and the addressee. -owever, it is reali*ed by grammar
or le!icogrammar. As a semantic unit, a te!t may be reali*ed by a sound, word, phrase,
clause, sentence or paragraph. "n other words a te!t may be a sound, word, phrase,
clause, clause comple! or sentence or the whole draft of a book. ;hatever a unit of
language may be, as long as it e!presses meaning in its conte!t it is considered as a te!t.
(
1 *ound
A sound is a te!t when the sound makes sense in its conte!t. The sound <hai= Hi
uttered by someone in the conte!t where s>he meets a friend is a te!t since the e!pression
means a greeting. #imilarly the sounds <m= M ..m and <= Er..er are te!ts since they
convey meanings as indicated in the following conversations. "n conversation (') the <m=
means $?es, " am following what you are saying% and in (() the sound means $" am
doubtful%
(')
A. " went to the *oo. Then " met his brother. After that " took a short walk around the
town
6. M..m..m
(()
A. &r..er..
6. ?es, sir what can " do for you@
+ ,ord
A word is a te!t or discourse as long as it conveys meaning in its conte!t. "n the
conversation below the te!t or discourse is reali*ed by word in which two friends greet
each other.
())
A. -ello
6. -i
- #hrase and sentences
5hrases and sentences represent a te!t or discourse as shown in the following (1).
(1)
Frank . -ello. 3ay " speak to Alice, please@
Alice . #peaking
Frank . -i, Alice. This is Frank. ;ould you like to go to a movie tonight@
Alice . Thank, "%d love to....
.& #aragraph
A paragraph constitutes a te!t or discourse as presented in (2).
(2)
Gold, a precious stone, is pri*ed for two important characteristics. First of all gold has a
lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion (chemical damage). Therefore, it is suitable
for 7ewelry, coins and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will
remain beautiful forever. For e!ample, a 3acedonian coin remains as untarnished
(unchanged in color) today as the day it was minted twenty centuries ago. Another
important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years,
it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent use of gold is in
astronauts% suits. Astronauts wear goldAplated heat shields for protections outside the
spaceship. "n conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty, but also for its utility.
)
"n terms of its medium, te!t may be spoken or written. A spoken te!t is one
which is reali*ed through the medium of sounds, such as conversations or songs. A
written te!t is one which is reali*ed by script or letters, such as a letter or document.
-owever, a spoken or written te!t has le!iogrammatical aspects due to the effect of the
medium. "n other words the spokenness or writtenness of the te!t is attributed not only to
the medium but also to the le!icogrammatical characteristics.
A te!t is reali*ed in le!icogrammar. "ts reali*ation in le!icogrammar is natural in
the sense that a te!t is determined by the conte!t of situation which further divides into
the field, which is what the use of language is about, tenor, which refers to participants
(and their relations) in the use of language or interaction, and mode which is the medium
or manner of the use of language. As an element of conte!t, genre refers to staged, goalA
oriented social activities. Genre is culturally bound in the sense that social structure
determines potential combination of field, tenor and mode. "n addition a genre also
determines stages of social interaction. "deology, a very abstract element of social
conte!t, refers to a social construct that says what one should and>or should not do.
This book is prepared for Functional Grammar lecture at the &nglish Bepartment
Faculty of anguages and Arts (F6#) the #tate :niversity of 3edan. The theory behind
the description of grammar in this book is that of #ystemic Functional inguistics (#F).
-owever, this is not to say that this book is an account of systemic functional linguistics.
#pecifically, this book is focused on the syntagmatic (not that of paradigmatic) aspects of
#F.
"n terms of current educational trend in "ndonesia, the book is designed on the
basis of competencyAbased curriculum (known as kurikulum berbasis kompetensi or C6C
for short). After covering the materials in this book it is e!pected that the students gain
the competence of analy*ing te!ts related to their potential professions or occupations
and e!pertise after the completion of their studies, such as ability to analy*e editorial
te!ts of newspapers, te!ts of advertisements, te!ts of business contracts, politicians%
doctrines and te!ts of the court. This very broad competency is elaborated in each
chapter of the book.
This book is designed to be used by the lecturer and the students for a period of
'1 session class meetings each lasting for 'DD minutes which is known as ( #C# ((
credits) in "ndonesian higher education system. For practical use each chapter of the
book divides into sections of /rientation, Analysis, Troubleshooting, &!ercises, Eeview
F ,onte!tuali*ation and Further Eeading.
'1( O/ective presents general and specific instructional ob7ectives e!pected to be
achieved in one unit of lesson or chapter of the book. The ob7ective is based on
the competency e!pected of the students after completing the books. #pecifically,
the competency is based on the potential professions and e!pertise of the students.
The competencyAbased ob7ective serves as a guide for the students to see how far
they have achieved what is e!pected of them. This is also a basis for the lecturer
to evaluate the students% achievement.
1
'+( Orientation is a section where a theory or theories are presented. This is the core
of presentation in each chapter. "n addition, in this part descriptions of a linguistic
units or arguments are presented.
'-( %nal)sis gives details of how a theory or theories are applied in analy*ing a
linguistic unit. Garious ways or analysis a linguistic unit is detailed.
'.( Trouleshooting is a section where a problem of analysis is solved. Boubts or
uncertainties on theories are tried to be solved by which the students are e!pected
to have a clear and firm understanding of the theory presented in /rientation.
'0( $xercise part gives a room for the students>readers to practice the theory already
presented to them. This e!ercise is intended to develop, enhance, and broaden
theory, principles or understanding staged in each chapter. The e!ercises are
systematically staged in the sense that the e!ercises are graded on the basis of
their difficulty from the least to the most difficult e!ercise.
'1( Revie2 3 Contextuali4ation contains the summary of the theory in each chapter.
The part of the theory is viewed with the whole framework of the theory. This is
related to the #F theory. This section is also meant to anticipate the ne!t
chapters e!cept for the last chapter. Thus, this part discusses the main theory in
conte!t.
'5( 6urther Reading is a final section in each chapter where a list of references is
given by which the students or readers can broaden and read more information on
the topic covered in each chapter.
2
Chapter +
TR%N*ITI7IT89 C!%U*$ %* R$#R$*$NT%TION
1 O/ectives
a :eneral Instructional O/ective
After completing this chapter you are e!pected to be competent to apply the theories
of transitivity accurately in te!t analysis in terms of e!periential function of language.
*pecific Instructional O/ectives
After studying the materials in this chapter you are e!pected to be competent to
analy*e te!ts of daily activities. #pecifically you are e!pected to be competent
') to identify processes in the te!ts
() to classify processes into their types
)) to analy*e te!ts using labels of transitivity
1) to distinguish the same form of process in different conte!ts of use.
+ Orientation
/ne of the functions of language is to construe or represent e!perience.
Eeali*ation of language as e!perience is seen in a clause. This is because a clause is
considered as a unit of e!perience, which is constituted by three elements, namely
process, participant(s) and circumstance. A process refers to activity done which is
e+uivalent to verb in traditional terminology. 5articipants are persons or things, which
are involved in a process. A circumstance indicates situations or surroundings in which
the process occurs. The notion of circumstance is e+uivalent to adverbs in traditional
terminology. "n the clause The man bought a book yesterday, bought is the process, both
the man and a book are the participants and yesterday is the circumstance. &ach of the
three elements is subdivided in the following sections.
a #rocess
5rocesses are specifically categori*ed into si! types namely material, mental,
relational, behavioral, verbal and e!istential processes. The categories of process are
based on semantic or syntactic criteria or both. As the processes are numerous only a few
e!amples are given as representatives in the following subsections.
1( ;aterial #rocess
#emantically material processes indicate activities or events, which happen in the
outside world of human beings. "n other words, material process occurs outside human
beings. This process refers to physical e!perience of human beings. #yntactically the
unmarked tense associated to material process is the present continuous tense. This is to
say that material processes are normally acceptable in the present continuous tense. The
verbs run, buy, and write in the clauses the boy is running, my son bought a new car last
year, and she has written a letter are material processes.
+( ;ental #rocess
3ental processes refer to verbs indicating perception, cognition, affection and
desire. #emantically a mental process involves sense, which is inside the human or
4
conscious being. 3ental process is related to psychological matters. #yntactically the
unmarked tense associated with this type of process is the simple present tense. "n
addition, the participant that is related to the sense must be a conscious or human being.
"t is a re+uirement of this process that one of the participants must be human or
considered as human being (as in the case of literature). To e!emplify, the verbs know,
like and hear are mental in the clauses I know his name, do you like the new car? and The
witness heard her oice. Further, a mental process has potential to pro7ect another clause
initiated by thatAclause (see ,hapter 4).
Another feature of mental process is biAdirectional. This is to say that the participants
in the clauses are reversible. To e!emplify, in a mental clause I like the story, the reverse
is the story pleases me, with the mental process like is parallel to please. Thus, the
human participant as the doer of the mental process may be reversed to whom the mental
process is addressed to by the other participant that is typically thing. The clause with the
human participant as the doer of the mental process is known as the clause of $like% type,
whereas the reverse is called the $please% type. The $like% and $please% types clause of
mental process are e!emplified in (4) with the processes of like, notice, en!oy, beliee,
"ear, admire, "orget, and resent as the $like% type and the mental processes of please,
strike, delight, convince, frighten, impress, escape, and annoy as the $please% type.
(4)
The $like% type The $please% type
#he likes the story. The story pleases her
" noticed the announcement. The announcement struck me
;e en7oy the dance. The dance delights us
The man believes the story. The story convinces the man
6enny fears his absence. -is absence frightens 6enny
They admire the beautiful scenery. The beautiful scenery impresses them
" forget the meeting. The meeting escapes me
The people resented the visitors. The visitors annoyed the people.
-( Relational #rocess
Eelational process construes being and relation among entities through identification,
attribution and possession. The process occurs out side and inside human being and
typically indicates identification, attribution and possession. #yntactically the process
belongs to the HcopulaI construction. The common verbs belonging to this type are #E
(is, am, are, was, were, have been, etc.), become, seem, cost, weigh, etc. The verbs in the
clauses My son is a doctor, The car was in my garage, and The pro"essor seemed
unhappy, she has got a car are relational.
.( 7eral #rocess
Gerbal processes show activities related to information. #pecifically, the process includes
that of saying, commanding, asking, and offering. #yntactically the process can pro7ect
another clause. The verbs say, tell, ask, to name only a few, in clauses $he said %Good
morning&, My uncle told me a story about his trip to #ali and He asked me where I put
the book are verbal.
9
0( <ehavioral #rocess
6ehavioral processes construe human physiological behaviors. #yntactically a
behavioral process shares characteristics of mental, verbal and material process.
-owever, the process differs with the three types in some respects. ike a mental process
the participant is endowed with human consciousness. :nlike mental and verbal
processes and thus similar to the material one the behavioral process is associated to the
present continuous tense. "n addition, a behavioral process can not pro7ect a clause. The
verbs of smile, watch, listen in the clauses $he is smiling at me, 'e watched the man in
the park and I am listening to (ohn speaking are behavioral.
1( $xistential #rocess
&!istential processes share features of relational process in the sense that the
common verb is #E (is, am, are, was, were, have been, etc.) and other verbs such as go,
come, toil. #yntactically the process is preceded by there. The verb #e and toil in the
clauses There was a cat under the tree and )long this waterway toiled a string o" wol"ish
dogs are e!istential.
Table ( summari*es the main characteristics of the si! types of process. The
categories of 5rocess spread in a spectrum as shown in Figure '. This spectrum firstly
specifies the 5rocesses into the primar) categories covering material, mental and
relational 5rocesses and secondly, between the material and mental, between the mental
and the relational and between the relational and material emerges the secondar)
categor) respectively covering the behavioural, verbal and e!istential 5rocesses.
3aterial
3ental
Eelational
6ehavioural
&!istential
Gerbal
6igure 1 *pectrum of the #rocesses
J
#articipants
1( #articipant I and II
The core or nucleus of an e!perience in a clause is the process. As the nucleus the
process controls the participants. #pecifically it is found that a process has an ability to
bind or attract the participants. The capacity of a process to attract or tie participant is
known as valency. Bue to the potential of the process to bind the participants, it is
determined that the participants are labeled according to the process types.
5rocesses are classified in terms of the valency. A process which has a capacity to
bind, tie or attract one participant such as in )li slept is called monovalent. Further,
processes which bind two and three participants such as shown in the clauses )li hit the
cat and )li sent his son a letter are respectively called ivalent and trivalent. A process
may bind no participant at all such as in the clause It rained, hailed, snowed, dri**led
where rained, hailed, snowed, dri**led attract no participant are called avalent. The
valency of a process is indicated in Figure (.
6igure + 7alenc) of #rocess
For practical purpose, the participants divide into one that does the activity
(5articipant ") and one that the process is done or addressed to (5articipant ""). To
e!emplify, the labels for participants in the material process are )ctor (participant ") and
Goal (5articipant ""). Thus, in the clause My son bought a new car, my son is Actor and
a new car is Goal. ;ith reference to the process types the labels for participants are
summari*ed in the following Table ).
K
Tale + Characteristics of #rocess
No& #rocess
T)pe
*emantic 6eatures *)ntactic 6eatures
' 3aterial out side human being, physical the unmarked form. GL"MG
run, do, work, write8
( 3ental inside human being,
psychological, one participant
must be human, reversible
cognition
affection
perception
desire
the unmarked form. not in
GL"MG form,
pro7ecting (that) clause
biAdirectional or reversible (with
the $like% and $please% type)
know, reali*e, remember...
like, loe, hate+
see, "eel, hear+
want, wish, intend, wander8
) Eelational outside and inside human being
identification
attribution
possession
the syntactic structures.
M N 6& N M
M N 6& N ABO
M N 6& N ABG
#E ,is, are, was..- become,
sound, look, play, cost, hae, get
own, posses, weigh+
1 6ehavioural physiological unmarked with one participant
only
sleep, smile, die, bow, cough8
2 Gerbal indicating information and
verbal activities
pro7ecting (that) clause8
say, tell, ask, order, instruct
4 &!istential indicating e!istence There N 6& N M8
There N G 8
There is a car in the garage
There came a man
+( #articipant III
The participant functions previously described are directly related to the process.
-owever, there are other participant functions which have preposition as intermediary. "n
addition, there is another function which is specific to one type of process. The other
participant functions are categori*ed as 6eneficiary, Eange and Target.
a( <eneficiar)
6eneficiary is a participant to whom>which or for whom>which the process is said
to give benefit. The participant functions may occur with material, verbal and
occasionally in relational processes.
"n a material process the beneficiary may be either Eecipient or ,lient with the
Eecipient being a function that goods F services are given to and the ,lient being a
function that goods F services are done for. ,orrespondingly, the Eecipient typically
occurs with preposition to and the ,lient with for& -owever, in reality the preposition
may be clearly stated or implicitly understood by its occurrence. "n the clauses -e sent a
'D
letter to his brother, his brother is the Eecipient whereas in He painted a picture "or (ohn,
(ohn is the ,lient.
Tale - #rocess and #articipants
T)pes of #rocess #articipant I #articipant II
3aterial Actor Goal
3ental #enser 5henomenon
Eelational
(a) "dentification Token Galue
(b) Attribution ,arrier Attribute
(c) 5ossession 5ossessor 5ossessed
6ehavioral 6ehaver AA
Gerbal #ayer Gerbiage
&!istential AA &!istent
"n verbal process the 6eneficiary refers to a participant being addressed.
#pecifically this role is referred to as the Eeceiver. Thus in the clauses .ona told his son
,a story-, .ona said to his son and .ona asked his son ,a /uestion-, his son is the
Eeceiver.
"n the relational process the 6eneficiary is not specified. Thus, in the clauses )nn
made him a good wi"e and The car cost him a lot o" money, him is the 6eneficiary.
( Range
The Eange is the participant that is still a part of the process and specifies the
range or scope of the process. "n the clause she sang a song, the song is the Eange since
without which the clause is still acceptable. The acceptability of the clause is seen when
a song is omitted and the clause is grammatically correct and acceptable. The Eange
divides into two, namely one in which the Eange is the part of 5rocess and the other one
in which the 5rocess is the part of the Eange. The Eange may occur in material,
behavioral, mental and verbal process.
'1( Range as part of #rocess
"n a clause where the Eange is the part of 5rocess, the Eange is deletable leaving
the clause grammatically correct. The following e!amples show the Eange (being
italici*ed) in different process types.
(9a)
A #he sang a song (material)
A Oohn played the piano (material)
A #he smiled a nice smile (behavioral)
A #he en7oyed the pleasure (mental)
A 3y brother described the apartment (verbal)
'+( #rocess as part of the Range
''
;hen a process is the part of a Eange, the 5rocess is deletable and transferred into
the Eange. "n this situation, the 5rocess takes the form of the 5articipant. "n the
following e!amples, the Eange is italici*ed with the corresponding 5rocess in the clause.
(9b)
-e took a bath (material) -e bathed
,an " have a look at the photo (mental)@ ,an " look at the photo@
They held a discussion (verbal) They discussed
-e made a speech (verbal) -e spoke
;e had break"ast at 9 (3aterial) ;e breakfasted.
;e had a talk (verbal). ;e talked
c( Target
The Target is the participant function in verbal process. Apart from #ayer,
Gerbiage and Eeceiver, a participant functions as the Target, which is the 5articipant to
whom>which the verbal process is directed or addressed. "n the following clauses, the
Target is italici*ed.
(J)
The man praised me.
The lady insulted my bother.
The officer abused some o" the documents.
'e were critici*ed by the viewers.
;e flattered the naughty boys.
c Circumstances
,ircumstances are general across process types (precisely because they are less
centrally involved in the process than participants). "n the clause My son bought a car
yesterday, yesterday is the circumstance. #pecifically, circumstances divide into nine
types. &ach of which may also be delicately subdivided. "n the following e!amples, the
circumstances with e!amples are presented in a table.
'(
Tale . Circumstances
T)pes of
Circumstance
*ucategories #roe $xamples of Reali4ation
'. &!tent temporal for how long@ for three hours
every three hours
spatial how far@ for si! miles
(. ocation temporal when@ in #eptember
before tea
spatial where in the market
in 5aris
here
). 3anner A how +uickly
as fast as possible
1. ,ause A why because of you
for better results
2. ,ontingency A in what
circumstances@
in the event of rain
in spite of the rain
in the absence of proof
4. Accompaniment A together with@ with(out) his friends
instead of them
9. Eole A what as@ as a concerned parent
(smashed) into pieces
J. 3atter A what about@ about this
with reference to that
K. Angel A says who@ according to the #horter
/!ford
- %nal)sis
;ith reference to the types and labels of process, participants and circumstances a
clause is analy*ed into its components. The analyses of a few clauses are presented
below.
(K)
3y daughter bought a new car yesterday
Actor 5rocess. 3aterial Goal ,ircumstance. ocation. temporal
The boy loves his mother very much
#enser 5rocess. 3ental 5henomenon ,ircumstance. manner
The old lady told a interesting story last week
#ayer 5rocess. Gerbal Gerbiage ,ircumstance. ocation. temporal
The manis a doctor
,arrier 5rocess. Eelational Attribute
')
There was a car in the car park
5rocess. &!istential &!istent ,ircumstance. ocation. space
. Trouleshooting
a& ;aterial or non-material clause=
An important test for distinguishing a material process among the other types of
process is to check the unmarked tense selection used to represent present time. "s it the
simple present or the present continuous tense@ /f the three main types only material
clauses favor the present continuous.
('D)
Eight now Oane is digging the garden 3aterial process
At the moment Oane likes arty films 3ental process
Eight now Oane has no energy Eelational process
& ;aterial or relational=
A process can function as a relational or a material process. A process is
relational when it indicates relation in space not movement in space. The verb go may be
relational or material depending on conte!t as shown in the following.
('')
The idea of relativity goes back to Mewton and Galileo (relational0relation in space)
The man goes back home (material0movement in space)
c Relational process 2ith identification or attriution=
A relational process with identification is reversible whereas one with attribution
is not reversible. Thus, the pairs of Token0Galue is for reversible relational clause
whereas ,arrierA0Attribute is irreversible
('()
The man is the doctor (reversibleA identification)
Token 5rocess. Eelational Galue
The man is a doctor (irreversible0attributive)
,arrier 5rocess. Eelational Attribute

d& :ap in interrogative clauses
"n interrogative clauses analysis, particularly the 5rocess, is interrupted by the gap. "n
such a situation the analysis of 5rocess is separated by another clausal element as
indicated in the following e!amples.
('))
Bid you go to the party@
5rocess. Actor 3aterial ,ircumstance. ocation. spatial
'1
;here did you park the car@
,ircumstance. ocation. spatial 5rocess. Actor 3aterial Goal
0 $xercises
$xercise 19 Biscriminating the process types. abel the following processes in the
clauses as relational, verbal, material, mental, behavioral or e!istential.
For e!ample.
" met the man material
#he is my sister relational
'. #he is a very tall woman. ' 8
(. The man built a new house. ( 8
). There can be no e!cuse for your absence. ) 8
1. #he made a mistake. 1 8
2. Are you going out@ 2 8
4. #he told me a story. 4 8
9. They will be here tomorrow. 9 8
J. ;e went to Oakarta last week J 8
K. #he smiled a nice smile. K 8
'D. The three cats were sleeping in the room 'D 8
$xercise +. Biscriminating circumstance types. abel the underlined circumstance in the
following clauses.
For e!ample.
Oohn slept in the car ocation. space
-e lay with open eyes 3anner
'. Are you going out ' 8
(. ?ou can come with me ( 8
). "t seemed odd to him ) 8
1. -e laughed in spite of himself 1 8
2. -e played a trick for a laugh 2 8
4. The man was born in "taly in 'K2J 4 8, 8
9. "t will rain according to the weather watch 9 8
J. ;here did she go@ J 8
K. ;hen did his uncle arrive@ K 8
'D. -ow often do you go to the party@ 'D 8
'2
$xercises -9 Analy*e the following te!ts into clauses. Then analy*e the te!t with
reference to their process, participant and circumstance types by using
appropriate labels.
After the flash floods, desert streams from upland areas carry heavy loads of silt, sand
and rock from fragments. As they reach the flatter area of desert basins, they slow down
and their waters may soak +uickly into the basin floor. Then the streams drop their loadsP
first they drop the heaviest material Athe stones, then they drop the sand and finally their
drop the silt. #oon their own deposits choke these shortAlived streams and they spread
their load in all directions. After some time, fan or conAshaped deposits of gravel, sand
and clay are formed around each valley or canyon outlet. These are called alluvial fans.
1 Revie2 3 Contextuali4ation
anguage is structured in accordance to its functions in human life. There are
three functions of language in human life. ideational, interpersonal and te!tual functions.
"deational function divides into the e!periential and logical functions. These are known
as metafunctions. This chapter treats the e!periential function that is the use of as
representation of e!perience. As a representation of e!perience language is
grammatically structured in a configuration known as transitivity. This is coded a unit of
e!perience known as clause. A clause is constituted by three elements. process,
participant(s) and circumstance. The process is the core of e!perience in that it
determines the participants. The key role of participant lies in the degree of involvement
in the process. 5articipants are actually centrally involved in the process by bringing it
about, being affected by it, benefiting from it whereas circumstances are associated
with(or attendant) rather than involved. /n this basis, the participants are labeled with
reference to the process types whereas circumstances are all across process types.
-owever, language is also used as an e!change of e!perience that is language is used
human beings use language to e!change their e!perience. This is known as the
interpersonal meaning which is coded in the 3ood. The 3ood of clause in the following
chapter.
5 6urther Reading
For further information and discussions on transitivity readers are advised to read the
following references.
&ggins, #. 'KK1. )n Introduction to $ystemic Functional 0inguistics. ondon.
5inter (,hapter J)
Gerot, . F 5. ;ignell 'KK1. Making $ense o" Functional Grammar. #ydney.
Gerd #tabler (,hapter ))
-alliday, 3.A.C. (DD1. )n Introduction to Functional Grammar. Third edition
ondon. &dward Arnold (,hapter 2)
'4
Chapter -
*#$$C> 6UNCTION* %ND ;OOD*9 C!%U*$ %* $?C>%N:$
1 O/ectives
After completing this chapter you are e!pected to be competent to accurately analy*e
te!ts of daily activities and academics in terms of interpersonal meaning systems.
After studying the material sin this chapter you are e!pected to be able.
') to identify speech function,
() to identify types of 3ood in te!ts
)) to label elements of clauses with reference to 3ood systems
1) to match speech functions with 3ood systems
2) to distinguish different functions of the same element of clause in the 3ood
systems.
+ Orientation
anguage is simultaneously used as representation, e!change and organi*ation of
e!perience (-alliday 'KK1. 4JP ;ilson F #perber 'KK). 'A)). As social beings, human
kinds can not live isolatedP they need to interact with others in order to fulfill their needs.
The use of language to interact is said to perform interpersonal function.
The interpersonal function is reali*ed at two levels namely at the level of
(discourse) semantics and le!icogrammar which is termed 3ood. At the level of
semantics human being perform two roles namely G"G"MG and B&3AMB"MG. The
commodity e!changed may be either "MF/E3AT"/M or G//B# F #&EG",&#. ;hen the
roles and commodities are cross classified, four specific activities or speech functions
are derived as summari*ed in the Table 2.
Tale 0 *peech 6unctions
RO!$* CO;;ODIT8
"MF/E3AT"/M G//B F #&EG",&#
G"G"MG
statement offer
B&3AMB"MG
+uestion command
The term speech function is used in this book rather than the speech act since the
latter is related to formal interpretation. #peech function is more oriented to functional
interpretation, specifically systemic functional one. ;hen the roles and commodity are
intersected or cross classified with reference to systemic functional linguistic theories, as
developed by -alliday ('KK1), 3atthiessen ('KK)) and other systemicists, four speech
functions are resulted as summari*ed in ('1)
('1)
(a) <giving>information= Q statement
'9
(b) <demand>information= Q +uestion
(c) <give>goods F services= Q offer
(d) <demand>goods F services= Q command
The four speech functions are semantic in nature. They find their reali*ations in
3ood which is an aspect of interpersonal meaning at the level of le!icogrammar
(-alliday 'KK)). "n their unmarked or congruent representations the speech functions of
statement, /uestion and command are reali*ed by declaratie, interrogatie and
imperatie 3oods. -owever, the speech function of offer does not have an unmarked
representation of 3oodP rather it is potentially coded by any one of the three 3oods. "n
&nglish the unmarked reali*ations of the speech functions are summari*ed in the
following figure.
#5&&,- F:M,T"/M
statement offer
+uestion command
declarative
interrogative imperative
/
3//B
Q $reali*ed by%
Eeali*ation of speech function
in 3oods
6igure - Reali4ations of *peech 6unctions in ;ood
"n &nglish a statement may be either positive or negative such as He came to the
o""ice yesterday and He did not come to the o""ice yesterday. These are coded by positive
and negative declarative mood respectively. A +uestion may be either information
+uestion (whA+uestion) or yes>no +uestion such as 'here did you go last week? and 1id
you go to the moie? respectively. ike a statement, an imperative may be positive or
negative as in 2pen the door3 or 4lease don5t smoke hereR. An offer may be coded by a
statement such as 0et me take the book "or you.
'J
The four speech functions are initiated by the speaker. "n real interaction, the
interlocutor i.e. the addressee in his>her turn also responds to the speech functions
produced by the speaker i.e. the addresser. "n other words, a speech function by an
addresser is responded by the addressee. 3artin ('KK(. 24) holds that when the initiation
and response as orientation of both the interlocutors are taken into account, other four
speech functions are derived, thus making eight speech functions. The derivations of
speech functions are summari*ed in a system network as represented in the following
figure.
Eoles
,ommodity
/rientation
Give
Bemand
"nformation
Goods F #ervices
"nitiating
Eesponding
&
!
c
h
a
n
g
e

&
!
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
e
6igure . *)stem Net2or@ of *peech 6unctions
;ith reference to the figure, systemically eight speech functions are derived as
follows.
('2)
(') <give>information>initiating= Q statement (#)
(() <give>information>responding= Q acknowledge statement (A#)
()) <demand>information>initiating= Q +uestion (S)
(1) <demand>information>responding= Q response statement to +uestion (E#S)
(2) <give>goods F services>initiating= Q offer (/)
'K
(4) <give>goods F services>responding= Q acknowledge offer (A/)
(9) <demand>goods F services>initiating= Q command (,)
(J) <demand>goods F services>responding= Q response offer to command (E/,)
#peech functions may be coded in congruent or incongruent representations. As
stated earlier, statement, +uestion and command may be congruently coded by
declarative, interrogative and imperative moods respectively. "t is not uncommon to find
that a statement is coded by the interrogative 3ood as seen in the following conversation
which involves two friends in which they e!change their e!perience related to their
children. As shown in the analysis below 6%s 1id he? is an A# speech function which is
typically coded by a declarative mood. -owever, in the conversation the A# is coded by
an interrogative mood which is a marked reali*ation. A speech function may be coded by
an elliptical mood or minor. 6y minor is meant an e!pression which has no process or
verb. ;hen the speech functions are analy*ed and their reali*ations in le!icogrammar
are found the following descriptions are derived.
('4)
CON7$R*%TION *#$$C>
6UNCTION ;OOD
A. 3y son passed the entrance test@ # Beclarative
6. Bid he@ A# "nterrogative
A. ?es # &lliptical Bec.
" am very happy # Beclarative
A. ,ongratulation to your son. A# 3inor
-ow is your daughter@ S "nterrogative
6. #he is fine. E#S Beclarative
#he is doing her #panish # Beclarative
A. Bid she go to 3e!ico@ S "nterrogative
6. Mo. E#S &lliptical Bec.
6ut she will be attending a course in #pain
this #ummer. # Beclarative
A. Good. A# 3inor
"n its function as an e!change of e!perience or interpersonal function, a clause is
constituted by five structural elements, namely *u/ect, 6inite, #redicator,
Complement and %d/unct. #ub7ect and Finite form 3//B whereas 5redicator,
,omplement and Ad7unct constitute E&#"B:&. Thus, a clause divides into two main
parts. 3//B and E&#"B:&. 3//B marks a clause as declarative, interrogative and
imperative which are respectively reali*ation of the speech functions of statement,
+uestion and command. The elements of clause in terms of interpersonal function are
elaborated as the following.
#:6O&,T is something (person or thing) which is argued about. The #ub7ect functions as
the resting point of the argument (-alliday (DD1. ,hapter 1). The notion of #ub7ect in
functional grammar is to some e!tent e+uivalent to the term #ub7ect in traditional
(D
grammar. -owever, the function of #ub7ect indicates the resting point o" the message in
the clause. "n the clause The man bought a new car, the #ub7ect is the man.
F"M"T& is defined as verbal operator that is an aspect of verbal phrase which, together
with #ub7ect, makes something arguable. "n The man bought a new car, the Finite is did.
#imilarly, in (ane sells books the Finite is does. #pecifically, the split of Finite from verb
or verb phrase is shown as the following, where the Finite is italici*ed.
('9)
- bought Q did L buy
- sells Q does L sell
- has done Q has L done
- write Q do L write
5E&B",AT/E is the verb phrase minus Finite. "n The man bought a new car, the
5redicator is buy. #imilarly, in (ane sells books, the 5redicator is sell. The predicators
are italici*ed in the following verb phrases.
('J)
came Q did L come
will come Q will L come
has written Q has L written
will have done Q will L hae done
As indicated in the e!amples, the 5redicator and Finite are easily represented in an
e+uation as GQFL5, where G, F and F respectively stands for Gerb, Finite and 5redicator.
This e+uation implies that FQGA5 and 5QGAF.
,/35&3&MT is an element of clause which is potential to become the #ub7ect. The
notion of ,omplement is e+uivalent to the term /b7ect in traditional grammar. "n The
man bought a new book, a new book is the ,omplement. -owever, not all elements of
clause functioning as the ,omplement can be changed to #ub7ect and the ,omplement is
not fully similar to the notion of /b7ect in traditional terminology as shown in the clause
(ohn is a doctor where a doctor functions as the ,omplement in systemic functional
grammar.
ABO:M,T is an element of the clause which is not potential to be promoted to be the
#ub7ect. The notion of Ad7unct is e+uivalent to adverb in traditional grammar. "n the
clause He came to my house yesterday, to my house and yesterday "unction as the
)d!unct.
The #ub7ect and Finite are two main structural elements which operate a
mechanism whereby the 3ood is determined. "n other words, #ub7ect and Finite
determine and mark the types of 3ood of a clause. "n the conversation below A and 6
7ust repeat she and did as the #ub7ect and Finite respectively to change and move from
one 3ood to another.
('
The interrelations among the elements of clause to 3//B and E&#"B:& are
summari*ed in Table 4.
Tale 1 ;OOD and R$*IDU$ elements
#ub7ect
; O O D
Finite
5redicator
R $ * I D U $
,omplement
Ad7unct
"n &nglish the 3ood is coded by the elements of #ub7ect and Finite. The two
elements are turned to and fro as in the following conversation where the conversant
manipulates only the #ub7ect she and Finite did.
('K)
A. Oane came to my office yesterday.
6. 1id she?
A. ?es, she did
6. $he didn5t
A. $he did
6. $he did not
A. $he did for sure
6. $he didn5t for God%s sake
As e!emplified in the conversation a Beclarative 3ood is coded by both the
#ub7ect and Finite with that order. This is systemically coded as #ub7ect Finite, where
means $followed by%. Further, the 3ood of interrogative divides into two categories,
namely polar interrogative with the structure of F"M"T& #:6O&,T and whAinterrogative
with structure ;-A F"M"T& #:6O&,T. The polar interrogative is also known as yes>no
interrogative (since the response re+uired is ether ye or no) and the whA+uestion is also
called content or information +uestion. The ;hA words include what, who, where, when,
which, whose, why and how. A system network for the 3ood in &nglish is presented in
Figure 2.
((
5olar
6igure 0 *)stem Net2or@ of ;ood&
The following table summari*es 3ood with their reali*ations by the two
structural elements of #ub7ect and Finite.
Tale 5 The Coding of ;ood
;ood Coding
Beclarative #ub7ect Finite
"nterrogative Finite #ub7ect
5olar "mperative (#ub7ect) Finite 5redicator
;(h)A"nterrogative ;(h)A Finite (#ub7ect)
- %nal)sis
A clause as representation of e!change is analy*ed in terms of the structural
elements of interpersonal meaning. "n other words, a clause is analy*able with respect to
the functions of #ub7ect, Finite, 5redicator, ,omplement and Ad7unct. The following
analyses are meant to e!emplify the 3ood analysis.
((D) 3y son bought a new car last week.
3y son did buy a new car yesterday
#ub7ect Finite 5redicator ,omplement Ad7unct
3 / / B E & # " B : &
((') The secretary has sent the letter to ondon.
The secretary has sent the letter to ondon
#ub7ect Finite 5redicator ,omplement Ad7unct
3 / / B E & # " B : &
((() ast week the man came to my house.
ast week the man did come to my house
Ad7unct #ub7ect Finite 5redicator Ad7unct
E & A 3 / / B # " B : &
()
"ndicative
"mperative
Beclarative
"nterrogative
;hA
3//B
(()) ;ill they be coming to the party ne!t week@
;ill they be coming to the party ne!t week@
Finite #ub7ect 5redicator Ad7unct Ad7unct
3 / / B E & # " B : &
,lauses of ('), (() and ()) are in Beclarative 3ood. This is marked by the fact that the
3ood is coded by the structural elements of #ub7ect Finite. "n different way, clause (1)
is in "nterrogative 3ood which is reali*ed by the structural elements of Finite #ub7ect.
;hen the Transitivity and 3ood analyses are mapped on to a clause a double
configuration is conflated on the same element of the clause as shown in the following.
((1) 3y daughter bought a new car yesterday.
3y daughter bought a new car last week
Actor 5rocess. 3aterial Goal ,ircumstance.. ocation.. temporal
#ub7ect did buy ,omplement Ad7unct
Finite 5redicator
3 / / B E & # " B : &
. Trouleshooting
&very $ma7or% &nglish clause will embody a choice from the 3ood system. #uch
choices are also inherent in elliptical clauses, where one or all parts of 3ood or Eesidue
may be absent. For e!ample in the following clause by 6 the Eesidue is elided.
((2)
A. Bid you get a letter today@
6. Mo, " didn%t <8= &lliptical Beclarative
There are two kinds of clause where the choice of 3ood is not employed, namely
the $nonAfinite% and minor clause.
a The Anon-finiteB clauses&
The nonAfinite clause is characteri*ed by the absence of Finite. -owever, the Eesidue
or #ub7ect may be present as shown in the following e!amples.
- to send his son an e!press letter to ondon
- without telling us his name
- her having entered the property
;inor clauses
3inor clauses are e!pressions such as oh, yuk, hi, yummy, thanks, wow. They are called
$minor% clauses because they are not open to any of the ma7or systems of Transitivity,
3ood and Theme. The really serve an interpersonal function such as greeting,
acknowledgement, surprise, etc.
The 3ood system does not apply in the two kinds of clause.
(1
c& :ap in the anal)sis
;hen the element of a clause is separated from another in a category, a gap results such
as one in the following e!ample. The analysis is done as the following.
((4a)
?esterday we went to the beach with a friend.
?esterday we did go to the beach with a friend
Ad7unct #ub7ect Finite 5redicator Ad7unct Ad7unct
E & #A 3//B " B : &
Another alternative configuration is also used to indicate the gap, as shown in
((4b)
((4b)
0 $xercises
$xercise 1. 5racticing 3ood agnation. ,onstruct a related clause in the appropriate
mood to complete the paradigm. For e!ample
"s he a doctor polar interrogative
-e is a doctor declarative
6e a doctor imperative
'. Bid you go to the market polar interrogative
88888888888 declarative
88888888888 imperative
(. 8888888888 polar interrogative
The old girl drives it declarative
). 8888888888 polar interrogative
88888888888. declarative
,ome for a drink, #haron imperative
1. ;ill " bring home a few chips@ polar interrogative
(2
?esterday we did go to the beach with a friend
Ad7unct #ub7ect
Finite
5redicator
Ad7unct Ad7unct

E & # " B : &
3//B
8888888888888 declarative
888888888888.. imperative
2. 88888888888. polar interrogative
3y son bought a new car declarative
4. 88888888888.. polar interrogative
#he will be visiting us ne!t month declarative
8888888888888. imperative
9. ;hen did he go to the party@ whAinterrogative
8888888888888.. imperative
K. ;here were you born@ whAinterrogative
8888888888888.. imperative
K. ;hy did they send the luggage@ whAinterrogative
8888888888888.. imperative
'D -ow did he go enter the house@ whAinterrogative
8888888888888.. imperative
$xercise +9 Analy*ing clauses. Analy*e the following clauses into its elements of
#ub7ect, Finite, 5redicator, ,omplement and Ad7unct. Group the elements belonging to
3//B and E&#"B:& respectively as shown in the following e!ample.
((9) #he ran very +uickly to the station
#he did run very +uickly to the station
#ub7ect Finite 5redicator Ad7unct Ad7unct
3//B E&#"B:&
'. #he was usually seen by someone.
(. Oohn, did you see the man@
). "n general she stopped in some fashionable streets.
1. Frankly, she%d hardly visited some of the sights.
2. ;here did they go at the weekends@
4. 6en did not buy the book.
9. ;hy did they sell the new house@
J. ;e will leave soon.
K. 3y professor has moved to another city.
'D. 3y son graduated from the university.
(4
$xercise -9 Analy*e the interpersonal structure of each clause in the following written
te!t.
"t is essential for the well being of the ?outh of Australia that we adopt a less tolerant
attitude to violence in television. "t has been known for some time that young children
can be disturbed by the violence scenes presented by television scene. Mo apparent effort
however has been made by either the producers of children%s programs or the
programmers of children%s programs to take this into account. one only has to look at the
e!traordinary popular cartoon HTeenage 3utant Min7a TurtlesI.
$xercise .. Analy*e the following conversation with reference to speech function and
3ood
A. Bid you attend the party yesterday@
6. ;hat@
A. Bid you go to the party
6. ?es
A. -ow do you like@
6. /h, it%s really great.
3//B is an interpersonal reali*ation at the clause rank. 3//B covers the
elements of #ub7ect and Finite by which a clause is coded as either declarative,
interrogative or imperative. ,ongruently, declarative, interrogative and imperative code
the speech functions of statement , +uestion and command respectively.
5 6urther Reading
For further information and discussions on 3ood in &nglish readers are advised to read
the following references.
5inter (,hapter 9)
Gerd #tabler (,hapter ()
-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KK1. )n Introduction to Functional Grammar. ondon.
&dward Arnold (,hapter 1)
Chapter .
;OD%!IT8
(9
1& O/ective
a& :eneral Instructional O/ective
After completing this chapter you are e!pected to be competent to analy*e te!t in
terms of systems of modality.
& *pecific Instructional O/ectives
After studying this chapter completely, you are e!pected to be able
') to identify modality in te!ts
() to classify types of modality
)) to determine values of modality
1) to specify orientations in modality
+ Orientation
a Definition
3odality is defined as a personal 7udgment on, opinion, $flavor% or $seasoning% to
an e!periential content or a speech function by the addresser. The use of language
involves not only presenting content, i. e. linguistic content or e!changing of e!perience
in speech functions which is coded in 3ood, but also conveying of sub7ective
consideration on the content of the clause. "n other words, modality refers to opinion or
7udgment of the speaker on the content and speech function of the clause. Any use of
language is potential for the use of modality.
& %rea of ;odalit)
3odality refers to meaning which lies between positive and negative polar of the
3ood. The area contains consideration, perspective, attitude or personal 7udgment of the
addresser to the information or good F services being e!changed in interaction. There
are four kinds of basic speech functions as stated before. statement, +uestion, offer and
command. &ach of the four types may come either in positive or negative polar as shown
in Figure J below. 3odality, hence lies between the two sides of positive and negative
polar.
#he went (L) #he did not go()
GoR (L) Bo not goR ()
6igure 1 %rea of ;odalit)
Thus, between she went out and she did not go out, selections such as she may
come, she will come, she certainly will come, she de"initely will come, which are clauses
with modality may occur. 3odality is typically coded by modals such as will, must, can,
and should. They modify the process or predicator. -owever, modality may be reali*ed
in metaphor. "n addition, modality can be described with reference to a number of
criteria such as type, value and orientation.
c T)pes ;odalit)
(J
Area of 3odality
"n terms of its type, modality firstly divides into (') modali4ation, which is the
speaker%s 7udgment to proposition (information commodity. statement and +uestion) and
(() modulation, which is a sub7ective consideration to proposal (goods and services
commodity. offer and command). 3odality lies between or in between the positive and
negative polar of the proposition, namely between $she does% and $she doesn%t% and that of
modulation, namely between $do% and $don%t%. "n further intricacy, modali4ation (which
is epistemic modality in the philosophy of language) divides into (a) proailit) and (b)
usualit). 5robability lies between $yes% and $no%, which is $may be% and usuality which
includes both $yes% and $no% i. e. $sometimes%. "n the same manner, modulation (which is
deontic modality in the philosophy of language) divides into (a) oligation, which is $is
wanted% to carry out a command addressed to the second person and (b) inclination,
namely $want to% to do an offer, typically carried out by the first person.
d 7alue of ;odalit)
"n terms of its value, that is the level or degree of its probability of e!ecution or its
distance to the positive or negative polar, the various types of modality. probability,
usuality, obligation and inclination divide into one with either (-)igh, (3)edium or ()ow
value. A modality of - value is near the positive polar, which is the most probable one to
be e!ecuted, whereas that of is near the negative polar, which is the least probable
modality to be done. A modality of 3 is intermediate or middle in the continuum, which
lies between the two poles. Table J presents modality and the values.
Tale C ;odalit) and the 7alues
Galue
5ositive 5olar
;odali4ation ;odulation
is do
5robability :suality /bligation "nclination
-igh certain must be always re+uired must do determined
3edium probably will be usually supposed will do keen
ow possibly may be sometimes allowed may do willing
is not do not
Megative 5olar
3odality as presented in the table above are meanings which may be coded in
various linguistic units. The meanings are samples of modality, which are prospective in
nature. This is to say that a meaning may be coded by more than one linguistic units. To
e!emplify, the meaning of $certain%, which is modali*ation of - can be coded by modal
he must be in the room, it 6& ad7ective thatAclause it is certain that he is in the
room, there 6& noun thatAclause there is a certainty that he is there, etc.
e Reali4ations of ;odalit)
3odality can be reali*ed by various kinds of linguistic units, such as modals (such
as must, will, can, may, hae to), Adverb, the constructions of 6& GAen, (#)ub7ect
(K
Ad7ective, it 6& Ad7ective thatAclause, it 6& Moun thatAclause, there 6&
Moun thatAclause. To e!emplify, modality is represented in the following te!ts.
1( ;odal
#he will come to my house.
The man may come to my house tonight.
They can finish the work in one day.
+( %dver
4robably, she comes to my house (Adverb).
$ometimes she comes to my house (Adverb).
6ertainly he did the work.
-( * %d/ective
I am keen to do the 7ob.
$he is certain to do the 7ob.
" am willing to do the work.
.( <$ 7-en
?ou are re/uired to do the 7ob ().
" am determined to do the 7ob (6& GAen).
?ou are supposed to find a good solution.
0( it <$ %d/ective that-clause
It is certain that she comes to my house.
It is probable that she comes to my house.
"t is likely that they come late.
1( it <$ Noun that-clause
It is a must that she comes
It is a determination that " come here.
"t is a confirmation that the leave for #ingapore tomorrow.
5( there <$ Noun that-clause&
There is a possibility that she comes here.
There is a willingness o" her to come here.
There is a probability that the petition gains public interests.
f Coverage of ;odalit)
3odality covers meaning areas of probability, usuality, obligation and inclination.
This is a vast area, which is developing as language changes across times. "n this vast
area of meaning, modality covers the meanings of causalit), appearance and hedging
(-odge F Cress 'KJJ. '(), Fairclough 'KK(. '2K).
)D
Causalit) is related to obligation since its meaning area involves compelling one
to carry out an activity. The meanings in causality of let, ma@e and force or compel are
respectively modality of , 3 and - values, as shown in the following e!amples.
;e let her go ()
;e make her go (3).
;e "orced the enemy to surrender (-).
%ppearance is associated to probability since the meaning involves how visible
an activity is to be conducted. The meaning of expecting, seeming and appearing are
respectively probability of , 3 and - values. To e!emplify, the following te!ts are
presented.
;e e7pected him to come ().
#he seemed to come (3).
#he appeared to come (-).
-edging indicates doubt. Thus, it is related to probability. The use of +uestion
tag (with raising intonation) is probability of value whereas that with falling intonation
is probability of - value. "n between the two poles the e!pression of a kind of, sort of are
considered as probability of 3 values. The following te!ts indicates the use of hedging.
?ou came to the party, didn%t you@ (rising intonation)
?ou are sort of went to the party
?ou went to party, don%t you (with falling intonation).
g Orientation in ;odalit)
;ith respect to its orientation of meaning, modality may be either sub7ective or
ob7ective. "n addition, modality may also be either e!plicit or implicit.
A sub7ective modality is one where the personal 7udgment is e!pressed by the first
person whereas an ob7ective modality is one where the personal opinion is e!pressed by
the third person or by using impersonal it. The clauses of I must go now and she has to
go now or it is a must "or her to go now are respectively sub7ective and ob7ective
modality. ;hereas in a sub7ective modality, the opinion is e!pressed in modals by the
first person, in ob7ective modality the personal 7udgment were as if e!pressed by the third
person. "n other words, the modality looks as if it were coded not by the speaker.
&!plicit modality is one which is clearly represented by the speaker by using
modals such as in the clauses I must sign the petition, we are re/uired to go now, she is
supposed to hae come earlier. /n the other hand, implicit modality is one which is
directly coded in modals but in other reali*ations. ,ommon e!pressions used to code
implicit modality are I think, I beliee, I doubt, I am doubt"ul, I am worried, there is a
worry, there is a con"idence. The e!pressions I think, I beliee, I doubt, etc are all related
to modali*ation. This is indicated by the fact that in the clause comple! of I think the
man came soon, the clause I think is not a separate clause since it can be replaced by
probably. This is shown by the fact that when the clause of I think )li came late is
tagged, the +uestion tag is didn5t he? not don5t I. This indicates that " think is inherently
coded in the clause Ali came late as the probability.
)'
- %nal)sis
3odality is an aspect of interpersonal meaning. Therefore, in analy*ing a te!t for
modality the analysis is simultaneously done with the analysis of interpersonal function.
The analysis of modality specifies the type, value and orientation. To e!emplify a clause
)li always comes late to school is analy*ed as in the following configuration.
((J)
Ali always does come late to school
#ub7ect 3odality.
3odali*ation.
:suality.
-igh
Finite 5redicator Ad7unct Ad7unct
3//B E&#"B:&
. Trouleshooting
3odality divides into probability, usuality, obligation and inclination. "n its
delicate classification, modality includes causality, appearance and. inguistic forms
reali*ing modality varies.
"n the actual use of language there may be more than the use of modality as in it
appears that we are re+uired to go now. "n the clause, two types of modality are used,
namely appearance and obligation. "f more than one type of modality occurs in a te!t,
they are all described.
3odality may be coded in another clause. Thus, a clause comple! which is coded
by more than two clauses such as I think the man came here, the clause I think is
modality. This is 7ustified by the fact that when the clause is tagged, the +uestion tag is
didn5t he? rather than don5t I?. This kind of reali*ation is called metaphor. /ther
metaphorical representations of modality includes I think, I beliee, I doubt, I am sure, I
suspect, I assume, I reckon, etc. The fundamental element of the metaphorical
representation is that it is coded by the first person " and the process, which is typically
mental, such as believe, think, suspect, etc.
0& $xercises
$xercise 1
Determine the t)pe of underlined ;odalit) i& e 2hether it is proailit), usualit),
oligation or inclination&
(') ?ou must go now 8
(() ?ou are e!pected to attend the meeting.
()) 5erhaps, she will come soon. 8
(1) " am willing to tell you something. 8
(2) -is parents will leave for Cuala umpur tomorrow. 8
)(
(4) "t seems that cyclone will strike the country side,. 8
(9) The train always comes late. . 8
(J) ,ertainly, my parents like the novel. 8
(K) " have been determined to accompany her.
('D) #he made her parents sad of her misconducts. 8
& $xercise +
Determine the t)pe and value of the underlined modalit)&
(') " intend to sell the house. 8
(() Ali always comes late . 8
()) " think he has gone to #urabaya. 8
(1) 5robably, he is re+uired to fill up the form. 8
(2) All citi*ens of "ndonesia must pay ta!es. 8
(4) ;e e!pected a prompt reply of the manager. 8
(9) " must do the work now. 8
(J) et the small boys play on the sand beach. 8
(K) Befinitely he came, didn%t he@ 8
('D) ;e intend to sell the old house. 8
c $xercise -
%nal)4e the follo2ing text into clauses& Identif) modalit) in the text and then
anal)4e the text for modalit)&
As a citi*en of "ndonesia, 6enny was re+uired to be available on military service.
-e himself was keen to be a soldier in the prestigious regiment. Therefore, when the
university re+uired him to 7oin the reserved armed forces, he was happy to 7oin it. H"
must serve for my countyI he thought. -owever, his parents wanted him to become a
doctor. This caused a problem in his life. Finally 6enny decided that he would 7oin the
army.
1& Revie2 3 Contextuali4ation
))
anguage is used to e!change e!perience. "n e!changing e!perience the speaker
may give his>her personal 7udgment. This personal 7udgment is called modality.
3odality divide into probability, usuality, obligation and inclination. &ach of the three
types can be further divided into three in terms of value, namely 3odality of -igh,
3edium and ow.
5& 6urther Readings
Fowler, E. 'KK'. 0anguage in the 8ews 1iscourse and Ideology in the 4ress. ondon.
Eoutledge.
Givon, T. 'KK1. H"rrealis and the sub7unctiveI. $tudies in 0anguage 1C. ((42A))9)
-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KK1. )n Introduction to Functional Grammar. ondon. &dward
Arnold. (,hapter 1, 'D)
;iddowson, -. G. 'KK). HEepresentation in 5roseI. "n #inclair, O. 3 and G. Fowler
(eds) Techni/ues o" 1escription9 $poken and 'ritten
1iscourse. ondon. Eoutledge, '1)A'2).
)1
Chapter 0
T>$;$ %ND R>$;$9 C!%U*$ %* ;$**%:$
1 O/ectives
After completing this chapter you are e!pected to competent to analy*e te!ts in terms of
interpersonal meaning systems accurately
After studying the materials in this chapter you are e!pected to be able.
') to identify the Theme and Eheme in a clause
() to label elements of clause with reference to Theme and Eheme systems
)) to analy*e comple! themes in te!ts
+ Orientation
anguage is used to organi*e human e!perience. This is to say that language is
concerned with the organi*ation of information within individual clauses and, through
this, with the organi*ation of the larger te!t. "n order to do this language has e+uipment
as to how e!perience is organi*ed by using Theme and Eheme at the clause rank. &very
clause is organi*ed as a message related to the unfolding of te!t.
a Theme and Rheme
Theme is the starting point o" the message or the point o" departure o" the
message. "n the unfolding of the te!t the Theme, in its turn becomes, the local conte!t or
background of the clause. Thus, Theme is the starting point of the message, point of
departure or local conte!t of the clause as a piece of te!t. The Theme is functionally
occupied by the first element of the transitivity system of clause. "n &nglish and in other
languages the choice of the first element in the clause is very crucial since it is the first
element that determines the ne!t choice. :nlike applying the probability theory to
selecting a number of stones randomly out of a can with e+ual probability value for each
stone, the probability theory does not work completely true in the use of language since a
selection of word has an effect on to the ne!t selection. To e!emplify, in a hypothetical
language with ten words (lake, cat, sky, o", and, a, the, hae, lea", dry) one who selects
the word lake will be bound to choose dry since it is the combination of the lake dries
that makes sense. "n this way, the selection of the first element or Theme in a clause is
decisive to the ne!t succession of words in the clause.
Eheme is the rest of the message of the clause after the Theme. Thus, the Eheme
is where the clause moves after the point of departure.
The principle to determine where the Theme begins and stops is that everything
up to and including the first $topical% element of the clause will count as the Theme.
"n &nglish and many other languages such as "ndonesia, 3andarin a clause is comprised
of Theme and Eheme. Theme is reali*ed (e!pressed, signaled) by position. That is the
initial element of a clause is called Theme whereas the Eheme is element(s) that
)2
follow(s). "n other languages such as 6atak, Tagalog "n the clause :our reporter
repeatedly interrupted her replies the Theme is your reporter whereas the Eheme is
repeatedly interrupted her replies. "n different ways when the clause changes in the order
of its elements the Theme and Eheme also change as shown the following.
Tale D Theme and Rheme
T-&3& E-&3&
?our reporter repeatedly interrupted her replies.
-er replies were repeatedly interrupted by your reporter.
Eepeatedly your reporter interrupted her replies
Unmar@ed and ;ar@ed Theme
The Theme is coded by the first element of the transitivity system. This implies
that an element of the clause may occupy more than one function. Thus, an element of
the clause may function as the Actor, #ub7ect and Theme simultaneously. The status of
the Theme i. e. whether it is unmarked or 3arked is associated to the 3ood. This
specifies that in every kind of 3ood there is unmarked Theme
"n the clause of declarative 3ood where a Theme simultaneously functions as the
#ub7ect the Theme is called unmarked. "n different way, when the Theme is not conflated
with or mapped on to the #ub7ect the Theme is marked.
"n a clause of imperative 3ood the unmarked Theme is the 5rocess or verb. "n
polar imperative the unmarked Theme is indicated by the Finite and #ub7ect. "n
interrogative 3ood, the unmarked Theme is completed with the ;hA element. Thus, the
status of Theme in &nglish is associated to the 3ood system. The following clauses
show the unmarked and marked Theme in association with the 3ood
Tale 1E Unmar@ed Theme
3aria picked up a flower yesterday.
/pen the door now.
Bid you open the door 7ust now@
;ho open the door slowly@
;here did they go last week@
Tale 11 ;ar@ed Theme
?esterday 3aria picked up a flower
Mow open the door.
Oust now did you open the door@
#lowly who open the door@
ast week where did they go@
c ;ultiple Theme
The Theme in a simple sentence may be simple or multiple. A simple Theme is
coded by one element of the clause, that is a 5rocess, 5articipant or ,ircumstance. This
simple Theme is also called topical theme. -owever, it should be noted that where the
)4
Theme is simple the term topical is not stated in the analysis. The multiple Theme is
comprised of Topical, "nterpersonal and Te!tual one.
1( Topical Theme
Topical Theme, as stated earlier, is coded by the first element of the Transitivity
system. Topical Theme are underlined in the following clauses.
((K)
" love the smell of 7asmine.
#omeday you%ll understand the matter.
Eepeatedly she asked me the news
ast year they went to "taly.
3y elder sister was placed in the new branch office in Cuala umpur.
+( Interpersonal Theme
"nterpersonal Theme covers one or more of the elements of (') Finite, typically
reali*ed by an au!iliary verb, (() a ;hAelement, signaling that an $answer% is re+uired
from the addressee, ()) Gocative, identifying the addressee in the e!change and (1) an
Ad7unct, typically coded by an adverb.
Finite indicates that a response is e!pected from the addressee. The "nterpersonal
Theme of Finite are underlined in the following clauses.
()D)
#hould they be doing that@
Bid you meet my sister at the party@
Bon%t touch thatR
Bo come tomorrowR
;hAelements include the +uestion words such as where, when, what, why, which,
whose, how. "n the following clauses the whAelements functioning as the Theme are
underlined.
()')
;hy can%t you come over tonight@
;here did he stay@
-ow did he come up@
;hen did they go to the beach@
Gocative indicates (the names of) persons of whom information is asked. "n the
following clauses the vocatives are underlined.
()(a)
Oohn, did you go to the market yesterday@
#on, you must be careful so as not to disturb the insect.
Angelie, gold is very precious.
)9
Mot all vocatives thematic. As shown in ()(b) Oohn and folks are vocativesP however,
they are not Themes since they appears at the end of the clause. "n this situation they are
parts of the Eheme.
()(b)
Bid you go to the movie, Oohn@
Are we leaving now, folks@
Ad7uncts commonly function as the theme. Typically, the theme is reali*ed by an
adverb which may provide the speaker%s comment, assessment or attitude towards the
message. "n the following clauses the underlined adverbs are themes of the clauses.
()(b)
#adly, it doesn%t look like a good place.
5erhaps women make good vets.
/ften he came late at night.
5robably they will do the 7ob tomorrow.
-( Textual Theme
The element of te!tual theme includes (') con7unctions, (() relatives, ())
con7unctives and (1) continuatives.
#tructural con7unctions link two clauses in a coordination relation or dependency
on another. ,on7unctions such as and, but, so, whether, when, while, etc. in the following
clauses are themes.
())a)
(" went there) and she returned home.
(" don%t know) whether he left for Cisaran.
(-e came) when " was reading a newspaper.
(" was ill) so " could not attend the meeting.
Eelatives relate a dependent clause to another clause. The underlined relatives are
themes in the following clauses.
())b)
(;e heard 5rofessor #mith%s lecture,) which was a great disappointment.
(Mews of the bombing threat alarmed the visitors,) who were listening to the music.
(-e was born in Cisaran,) which was a city in the eastern coast of #umatra.
,on7unctives provide a cohesive link back to previous discourse. "n the following
clauses the con7unctive themes are underlined.
())c)
Furthermore, this alternative is too costly.
"n addition, the news may shock his mother.
As a matter of fact, he is the doctor we%re looking for.
)J
As the conse+uences, the man was arrested by the police.
,ontinuatives indicate a relationship previous discourse. The underlined parts of
clauses in the following are themes.
())d)
;ell, there was a little bit of misunderstanding in this matter.
/h, " like that fruit.
#o, "%d better go now.
Thus, they left me shivering in the rain.
A multiple Theme is typically reali*ed by an obligatory element of Topical Theme
and optional elements of either one of the Te!tual or "nterpersonal Theme. ;hen the
three elements are present, the order of occurrence is Te!tual, "nterpersonal and Topical
Theme or T"To for short. Thus, when a clause with a multiple theme such as 'ell, (ohn
did you loe the girl? is analy*ed the analysis looks like the following.
())e)
;ell Oohn did you love the girl@
,ontinuative Gocative Finite
Topical
E-&3&
Te!tual "nterpersonal
T-&3&
Tale 1+ T)pes of Theme
"n terms of its markedness a Theme may be unmarked or marked. ;ith reference
to its simplicity the Theme may be simple or multiple. ;hen the markedness and
3arkedness
:nmarked
3arked
#implicity
#imple 3ultiple
:nmarked #imple
3arked #imple
:nmarked 3ultiple
3arked 3ultiple
)K
simplicity of the Theme are intersected four types of Theme are resulted as summari*ed
in Table '(. The cross classification of the criteria of simplicity and markedness gives
four types of Theme as indicated in ())f) with their e!amples in ())g)
())f)
- :nmarked #imple Theme (:#T)
- 3arked #imple Theme (3#T)
- :nmarked 3ultiple Theme (:3T)
- 3arked 3ultiple Theme (33T)
())g)
<en saw a lion yesterday (:#T)
8esterda) 6en saw a lion (3#T)
and she left the room (:3T)
so )esterda) they left the room (33T)
- %nal)sis
"n the analysis of Theme and Eheme of a clause one should first determine a
clause boundary. Then an analysis is conducted with reference to the theme and rheme
principle. An e!emplification is provided below.
;ell Oohn, in this case we must concentrate on the police%s investigation
well Oohn in this case we must concentrate on the police% investigation
,on7unctive Gocative
Topical
E-&3&
T-&3&
. Trouleshooting
a Textual or Interpersonal
1( 8es and No
:es or no may function either as an interpersonal or te!tual theme. ?es or no function as
an interpersonal theme in response to a yes>no interrogative. -owever, yes and no
function as te!tual theme (like oh, well, now and okay) when they signal continuation of
messages as given in the following e!amples
A. Bid you go the beach yesterday@
6. ?es, " did
:es is "nterpersonal Theme
A. -e is going to ondon ne!t week.
6. ?es, he is
:es is Te!tual Theme
1D
+( %d/uncts
An ad7unct occupying initial position in a clause may function as an interpersonal
or te!tual theme. ;hen an ad7unct functions as an interpersonal theme it typically adds
$flavor% or not separated from the combination of #ub7ect Finite. "n different ways an
ad7unct functions a te!tual theme when it tends to connect or link a clause with another.
"n the following e!amples evidently is an interpersonal theme whereas in fact is a te!tual
one.
&vidently, no body was found in the room. (eidently is an interpersonal theme)
"n fact, no body was found in the room. (in "act is a te!tual theme)
The following list summari*es ad7uncts typically function as interpersonal and
te!tual themes.
Tale 1- Textual and Interpersonal Themes
Textual Themes Interpersonal Theme
in fact evidently
anyway broadly speaking
at least obviously
in conclusion provisionally
in brief briefly
Interpersonal or Topical
1( Time $xpression
Time e!pression such as sometimes, o"ten, neer, always, seldom, hardly, etc.
function as interpersonal themes. -owever, e!pressions such as on $undays, last week,
yesterday, etc. are topical themes. To test whether an e!pression of time is topical theme,
predicated theme can be used (It is+). "n the following e!amples, usually is an
interpersonal theme whereas on $undays is a topical one.
:sually he comes late to the office. (usually is an interpersonal theme)
T"t is usually that he comes late to the office.
/n #undays we used to go to the beach. (on $undays is a topical theme)
"t is on #undays that we used to go to the beach)
+( Fuestion ,ords
Suestion words such as where, why, when, how, who are both interpersonal and topical
themes. This is because the +uestion words function both in the interpersonal and
e!periential structures of the clause.
;ho discovered the continent of America@ (who is both interpersonal and topical theme).
1'
c Textual or Topical
1( Relative #ronoun
Eelative items such as who, whom, which, whose function as both te!tual and
topical theme. This is because the relative pronouns function in the transitivity structure
and as the linking element.
3y son met a doctor >> who operated on the patient. (who is both a topical and te!tual
theme).
+( Reference Item
Eeference item such as this is a topical theme. "t is often mistakenly viewed as a
te!tual theme since it functions as a linking element. Thus, in the following te!t this is a
topical theme.
For many years women have been neglected. This has resulted in a number of problems.
This has resulted in a number of problems. (this is a topical theme).
-( Temporal $xpressions
;hen a temporal e!pression functions as a te!tual linker combining two clauses
the temporal e!pression is te!tual theme. -owever, when it specifies a time setting of the
clause it is topical. "n the following clauses "irst is te!tual whereas during his li"etime is
topical.
First " put my hand on his shoulder ("irst is te!tual)
1uring his li"e he hardly made any charity. (during his li"e is te!tual).
The following table summari*es te!tual and topical themes.
Tale 1.9 Textual and Topical Themes
Textual Themes Topical Theme
previously before breakfast
afterwards after many trials tribulations
finally by the end of the race
in conclusion provisionally
briefly
0 $xercises
$xercises 1. "dentifying the theme (te!tual, interpersonal and topical). "dentify the theme
in the following clauses. &!amples are given after the clauses for your guide.
'. 3ay be you call them $bullshit%.
(. 5erhaps he won%t notice you, Oohn.
). Frank, it was fantastic.
1. Bid " ever say that@
2. -ow old are you@
4. 6ut surely you can see the difference between -arold Eobbins and the other two@
1(
9. ;e really should talk about you and Benny, my dear.
J. Then why did it try to bite me@
K. #o after breakfast they went round to see 6ill.
'D. Actually, in criticism sentiment has no place.
T-&3& E-&3&
Te!tual "nterpersonal Topical
3ay be A you call them $bullshit%.
Bon%t you call them $bullshit%@
;ell did you see him@
$xercise +& Analy*e the following e!pository te!t. "ndicate where the topical theme is
unmarked or marked. An e!ample is given for your guide.
Topical
3arked :nmarked
3ay be did A you call them $bullshit%
;ell A yesterday A he came late
'. Although the :nited #tates participate heavily in ;orld ;ar ",
(. the nature of that participation was fundamentally different from what it became in
;orld ;ar "".
). The earlier conflict was a oneAocean war for the Mavy and a oneAtheatre war for the
ArmyP
1. the latter was a twoAocean war for the Mavy and one of the five ma7or theatres for the
Army.
2. "n both wars a vital responsibility of the Mavy was escortAofAconvoy and antiA
submarine work,
4. but in the 'K'9A'K'J conflict it never clashed with the enemy on the surfaceP
9. whilst between 'K1' and 'K12 it fought some twenty ma7or and countless minor
engagements with the Oavanese Mavy.
J. American soldiers who engaged in ;orld ;ar " were taken overseas in transports
K. and landed on docks or in protected harbors.
'D. "n ;orld ;ar "" the art of amphibious warfare had to revived and developed,
''. since assault troops were forced to fight their way ashore.
'(. Airpowers, in the earlier conflict, were still inchoate and almost negligibleP
'). "n the latter it was a determining factor.
'1. "n ;orld ;ar " the battleship still reigned +ueen of the sea,
'2. as she had in changing forms, since the age of Brake.
'4. and battle ine fought with tactics inherited from the age of sailP
'9. 6ut in ;orld ;ar "" the capital naval force was the airAcraft carrier task group,
'J. for which completely new tactics had to be devised.
1)
/ne of the metafunctions is that language functions to organi*e e!perience. -ere,
a clause is regarded as a unit of message in which it is coded the beginning of starting
point of the message and a part that follows it. Thus, a message consists of two elements.
Theme which is the shared knowledge between the addresser and addressee and the
Eheme, which is the rest of the message. "n trueAlife conversation the Theme is comple!
in the sense that it is comprised of other elements such as te!tual, interpersonal and
topical Theme. "t is understood that the Theme starts from the very beginning of a clause
and includes the first element of the transitivity system. The order of a comple! Theme
follows. te!tual, interpersonal and topical0in that order.
5 6urther Reading
For further information and discussions on Theme and Eheme in &nglish readers are
advised to read the following references.
5inter (,hapter 9)
Gerd #tabler (,hapter )
&dward Arnold (,hapter ) )
3artin, O. E. , ,. 3. ". 3. 3atthiessen F ,. 5ainter 'KK2. 1eploying Functional
Grammar9 a workbook "or Halliday5s Introduction to
Functional Grammar. #ydney :niversity (:npublished)
(,hapter ()
11
Chapter 1
!O:IC%! ;$%NIN:
1 O/ectives
After completing this chapter you are e!pected to be competent to analy*e clause
comple!es terms logical meaning.
After studying the materials in this chapter you are e!pected to be able.
') to identify interdependent relation between or among clauses in te!ts
() to classify logicalAsemantic relations between or among clauses in te!ts
)) to analy*e clause comple!es in terms of logical meanings
+ Orientation
A clause can combine with another or further ones. This combination forms a
comple! known as a clause complex. The logical meaning is devoted to the clause
comple!. Thus, logical function occurs in a clause comple!. "n the previous chapters
analyses were conducted to a single clause in terms of e!periential, interpersonal and
te!tual meanings. These analyses are known as multivariate anal)ses. An analysis of
logical meaning is known as univariate anal)sis since it applies only to a clause
comple! from one point of view. A univariate analysis is done with respect to two
criteria of ta!is and logicosemantic relations.
a& Taxis
Ta!is refers to the interdependency relations between or among clauses forming a
clause comple!. "n its relation to another or other clauses, a clause may have a dependent
or independent status. An independent status indicates that a clause or clauses can stand
individually when separated such as both the clauses My son buys "ruit and His wi"e
grows rice in the clause comple! o" My son buys "ruit and his wi"e grows rice. This
independent status is termed as parataxis. Thus a paratactic relation is one in which the
clauses as in a clause comple! can stand individually. "n traditional terminology such a
relation is commonly known as coordinating relation.
:nlike parata!is, in a relation of hypota!is, one clause can stand by itself whereas
the other has to be dependent on the clause. "n other words, in a hypotactic relation one
elements of the clause comple! is dependent on the other in the sense that one of the
clause can not stand by itself. Thus, one of the clause is dominant while the other is
dependent. The clause comple! of They spoke to 1r. .onaha, who was an ear, nose and
throat specialist forms a hypotactic relation since it is only They spoke to 1r. .onaha
which can stand alone by itself whereas who was an ear, nose and throat specialist can
not. "n other words, the latter is dependent on the former. /ther e!amples of hypotactic
relation are given below.
12
Tale 10 Dominant and Dependent Clauses
Dominant Dependent
The man rarely left the village
" can do my best thing
-e told me
apart from visiting his sister in ?ork once a
month.
when you sit there in your rocking chair
that his father would sell the house.
Technically a paratactic relation of clause comple! is marked as ', (, ), 8
whereas a hypotactic one is indicated by , , ,...
!ogicosemantic Relation
ogicosemantic relation indicates the meaning formed when a clause is combined
with another in a clause comple!. ogicosemantic relation includes e!pansion which
includes the meaning reali*ed by con7unction and pro7ection which includes direct and
indirect speech and thought. &!pansion divides into elaboration, e!tension and
enhancement. 5ro7ection divides into +uotation or locution and reporting or idea.
Technically the logicosemantic relations are marked as the following.
&laboration Q
&!tension L
&nhancement U
ocution H
"dea H
;hen the ta!is and logicosemantic relation are crossAclassified and mapped on
clause comple!es ten categories are derived as summari*ed in the following table.
Tale 11 Taxis and !ogico-semantic Relations
/G",/A#&3AMT",E&AT"/M "MT&EB&5&MB&M,? (TAU"#)
5aratactic -ypotactic
&!pansion
&laboration (Q) ' The boy did not waitP
Q ( he ran away
The boy did not wait,
Q which surprised his
mother
&!tension (L) ' The boy ran away
L ( his friend stayed
behind
The boy ran away
L whereas his friend
stayed behind.
&nhancement (U) ' Oohn was scared
U ( so he ran away.
Oohn ran away
U because he was scared.
5ro7ection
ocution (H) ' The babysitter said,
(I HBon%t make a noiseI
The babysitter told us
H not to make a noise
"dea ($) ' #he thought
$( $"%ll go now%
#he thought
$ he would go then.
14
1( $laoration
"n elaboration one clause elaborates on the meaning of another by further
specifying or describing it (-alliday 'KK1. ((2). This divides into two types paratactic
and hypotactic elaboration.
a( #aratactic $laoration '1G+(
5aratactic elaboration is indicated by 'Q(. This specifically divides into
(') e!position $in other words% 5 i.e. S
(() e!emplification $for e!ample% 5 e. g. S
()) clarification $to be precise% 5 vi* S
"n e!position the second clause restates the thesis of the primary clause in different
words, to present it from another point of view, or perhaps 7ust to reinforce the messageP
for e!ample.
- That clock does not workP it%s not working.
- &ach argument was fatal to the otherP both could not be accepted.
The relationship may be e!plicitly coded by a semicolon (P), or ,rather-, in other words,
that is, i. e.
"n e!emplification the secondary clause develops the thesis of the primary clause by
becoming more specific about it, often citing an actual e!ample, for e!ample
- Oohn is a naughty boyA he used to cheat his friends.
- -is face is the same as everybody lese has0the two eyes, nose in the middle, mouth
under.
The relationship between the primary and secondary clause may be e!plicitly stated by
con7unctives such as "or e7ample, "or instance, in particular, e. g. or by the use of hyphen
(A)
"n clarification the secondary clause clarifies the thesis of the primary clause
by backing it up with some form of e!planation or e!planatory comments as shown by
the following e!amples.
- -e never said anything to herP in fact his remark was evidently addressed to a tree.
- " was not surprised0it was what " had e!pected.
&!plicitly the relationship may be coded by con7unctives such as in "act, actually, indeed,
at least or i*.
( >)potactic $laoration '= )
,ommonly the hypotactic elaboration refers to MonAdefining relative clause. This
divides into finite and nonAfinite clauses. The finite hypotactic elaboration indicates that
the dominant clause functions to elaborate the meaning of the independent clause in nonA
defining relative clause as shown in My neighbors always /uarreled late at night, which
o"ten disturbed us. The dominant clause may elaborate the independent one in either one
of the following ways. whole clause or part of the clause. As groupings, not as types,
finite hypotactic elaboration clauses includes.
19
a. ,lauses with which whose domain is either the whole of the primary>dominant clause
or some part of it that is more than a nominal group such as
- -is son graduated from /!ford :niversity, which gives good reputation to the family.
(whole clause)
- They stayed in Cisaran for two days, which is a good memory in their lives.
b. ,lauses with which, that, who or whose whose domain is a nominal group.
- 3y son bought a new Toyota car, which is a genuine Oapanese car of the year.
- The ancient 6ataks usually believe in datus, whose teachings became the views of
life
;hen a nominal group is not in the final in the primary clause, the hypotactic clause
is often enclosed. "n this circumstance the structure is coded as VV Q >> as shown in
the following clauses.
- "nflation, which is an important indicator in economic development, struck "ndonesia
in 'KKJ
c. ,lauses with when or where which have as their domain of time or place such as
- ;e need a cooling period, when the problems are becoming less important
- #he was born in Cisaran, where the river of #ilau flows.
The nonAfinite hypotactic elaboration clause shows that the second clause is dependent to
the previous clause in its nonAfinite forms as shown in the following e!amples.
- -e worked in a farm at that time, growing rice.
- That is his ideaAto maintain the purity of his ethnic group identity.
- There was a huge fire in 5arapat, burning all trees all around.
+( $xtension
"n e!tension, one clause e!tends the meaning of another by adding something new
to it. This is done by some sense of addition and variation to the primary clause. The
specification of e!tension is summari*ed in the following Table '9.
Tale 159 #rincipal ;ar@ers of $xtension
Categor) ;eaning
'. addition
A additive>positive. $and% A and 6
A additive>negative. $nor% not A and not 6
A adversative. $but% A and conversely 6
(. variation
A replacive. $instead% not A but 6
A subtractive. $e!cept% A but not all 6
A alternative. $or% A or 6.
1J
a( #aratactic $xtension
The paratactic notation is ' L (. "n addition type, one process is simply ad7oined
to another. ,ommonly the primary clause is 7oined by the words. and, too, in addition,
also, moreoer, on the other hand, etc. as shown in the following e!amples.
- 3y father grows rice and my mother sells fruit.
- " said you looked like an egg, sirP and some eggs are very pretty, you know.
- They did not come here, nor did their sons.
"n variation type one clause is presented as being in total or partial replacement of
another. ,ommonly used con7unctions or con7unctives to indicate the relationship are
conersely, alternatiely, on the other hand, etc as shown in the following e!amples.
- Bon%t 7ust sit there, but tell me your name.
- " should have informed you about the matter, only " couldn%t find your telephone
number.
( >)potactic $xtension
The hypotactic notation is L . This hypotactic e!tension divides into finite and
nonfinite types. ,ommonly the dependent clause is marked by the con7unctions or
con7unctives of whereas, while, e7cept that, but ,"or the "act- that (not in the sense of
temporal).
- The boy opened the door, whereas his sister cleaned the floor.
- -e pretended to know all about it, whereas in fact he had no idea of what was
happening.
- The director did not attend the meeting e!cept that the personal manager was also on
leave.
The nonAfinite form of hypotactic e!tending is an imperfective clauses seen the
following e!amples. ,ommonly the nonAfinite hypotactic e!tension is marked by
besides, apart "rom, instead o", other than, without 8 as shown in the following
e!amples.
- ;e used to go away at the weekend, taking all our belongings with us.
- 6eside spending a week in Cisaran, she searched for a prospect for her business
- ;e stayed at home for days instead of following his instructions.
- They did everything without asking further instructions from her.
- #he wandered on, talking to herself as she went.
-( $nhancement
"n enhancement one clause enhances the meaning of another by +ualifying it in either on
of the following ways. by reference to time, place, manner, cause or condition (-alliday
'KK1. ()().
a( #aratactic $nhancement&
The paratactic enhancement notation is 'U(. The paratactic enhancement in a
clause comple! gives a notion of coordination with a circumstantial feature. Typically a
clause comple! with paratactic sense is e!pressed by either (') the con7unctions then, so,
"or, but, yet, still, (() by a con7unction group with and. and then, and there, and thus, and
so, and yet or ()) by and in combination with a con7unctive (that is cohesive devices0not
1K
structural) such as and at that time, and soon a"terwards, and till then ,and in that case,
and in that way. The principal markers for paratactic enhancement are summari*ed in the
table below.
Tale 1C #rincipal ;ar@ers and ;eanings of #aratactic $nhancement
Categor) ;eaning ;ar@ers
(') temporal
A same time A meanwhile 6 (and) meanwhile, (when)
A different time. later A subse+uently 6 (and) then, and L afterwards
A different time. earlier A previously 6 and>but L before that>first
(() spatial
A same place A there 6 and there
()) manner
A means A is via>by means of 6 (and) in that way), (and) thus
A comparison A is like 6 (and) similarly, (and) so, thus
(1) causalAconditional
A cause effect because A so result 6 (and) so, (and) therefore
A effect cause 6ecause intention A so
action 6
for, because
A condition. positive if A then 6 (and) then, (and) therefore
A condition. negative if not A then 6 or else, (or) otherwise
A concession conse+uence if A then contrary to
e!pectation 6
but, (and) yet, still, but L
nevertheless
A conse+uence concession contrary to e!pectation
A then 6
(though)
The following clause comple!es show the use of paratactic enhancement.
- temporal
"t is the officer from the -ead /ffice, now " have to talk to him
#he fired two shoots, then the deer collapsed to the ground.
- spatial
3y son stood, and there he showed us his power
The man stared at me from a small hole on the wall, thence " knew him
- manner
#it there and in that way you can observe their behaviors
-e looked at me and so did his companion.
- causalAconditional
-e did no want to interfere with our problems so he said nothing
-e left +uickly for he did not want to interfere with our problem.
The tiger lay motionlessP still it breathed its power through its silent roars.
&ven a small boy knows the answer though he does not know the words.
2D
( >)potactic $nhancement
The notation for hypotactic enhancement is ! . The combination of
enhancement with hypota!is is reali*ed by the traditional formal grammar of
$adverbial clauses%. The finite hypotactic enhancement is typically marked by
con7unctions commonly known as $subordinating con7unctions% in traditional
formal grammar. "n different way the nonAfinite hypotactic enhancement clauses
are marked either by (') a preposition such as on, with, by, be"ore, a"ter or (()
one of a subset of hypotactic con7unctions such as when, while. The markers of
nonAfinite and finite hypotactic enhancement are summari*ed in the following
table.
Tale 1D #rincipal ;ar@ers of >)potactic $nhancement
Categor) 6inite Non-finite
con/unction con/unction proposition
(') temporal
A same time. e!tent as, while while in (the
course>process of)
A same time. point when, as soon as, the
moment
when on
A same time. spread whenever, every time
A different time. later after, since since after
A different time. earlier before, until>till until before
(() spatial
A same place. e!tent as far as
A same place. point where
A same place. spread wherever, everywhere
()) manner
A means
A comparison as, as if, like, the way like by (means of)
(1) causalAconditional
A cause. reason because, as, since, in
case, seeing that,
considering
with, through, by,
at, as a result,
because of, in case
of
A cause. purpose in order that, so that (in order>so as) to,
for (the sake of),
with the aim of, for
fear of
A condition. positive if, provided that, as
long as
if in the event of
A condition. negative unless but for, without
A condition. concessive even if, although despite, in spite of,
without
2'
.( #ro/ection
5ro7ection refers to a representation of linguistic e!perience in another linguistic
e!perience. The clause I5ll "inish the !ob is a linguistic e!perience. "n the clause comple!
he said, %I5ll "inish the !ob&, the linguistic e!perience is represented again in another
linguistic e!perience of he said.
a( !ocution and Idea
A pro7ection consists of two parts the pro7ecting (clause), he said and the
pro7ected (clause), "%ll finish the 7ob. The pro7ecting is marked by the pro7ecting process,
which is said. ;ith reference to the pro7ecting process pro7ections divide into locution
and idea.
A locution is a pro7ection with verbal process. ;ith reference to -alliday ('KK1.
(2() verbal processes used as the pro7ecting processes include
'. the general process. say
(. specific verbs to. (') statements tell L Eeceiver, remark, obsere, point out, report,
announce, etc. (() +uestions ask, demand, in/uire, /uery,
). verbs $say% combining with some circumstantial elements, such as reply (say L in
response), e7plain (say L in e!planation), protest (say L with reservation), continue
(go on L saying), interrupt (say L out of turn), warn (say L undesirable
conse+uences).
1. Gerbs having connotations of various kinds such as insist (say emphatically), ,
complain (say irritably), cry, shout (say loudly), boat (say proudly), murmur (say
sotto voce), stammer (say with embarrassment)
"n line with locution, a linguistic e!perience pro7ected by mental process is called
idea. 3ental processes used to pro7ect a linguistic e!perience include think, imply,
wonder, re"lect, want, wish, surmise, etc.
#aratactic #ro/ection
5aratactic pro7ection is one where linguistic e!perience is pro7ected as wording. This is
also known as +uoting. To indicate the wording double +uotation marks (H) are used.
,lause comple!es he said, %I5ll "inish the !ob& and he thought , %I5ll "inish the !ob& are
identified as paratactic pro7ections. -ere the pro7ecting and pro7ected clauses are
reversible since both have independent status. Thus, it is acceptable to say %I5 ll "inish
the !ob&, he said and %I5ll "inish the !ob&, he thought.
c >)potactic #ro/ection
-ypotactic pro7ection is one where linguistic e!perience is pro7ected as meaning. This is
also known as reporting. To indicate the meaning pro7ected a single +uotation mar (H) is
used. ,lause comple!es he said he would "inish the !ob and he thought he would "inish
the !ob are identified as hypotactic pro7ections. -ere the pro7ected clause gains the status
of dependent to the primary clause or pro7ecting clause. Thus, in many cases it is not
acceptable to reverse the pro7ecting and pro7ected clause. The clause ; he would "inish
the !ob he said is fairly unacceptable.
;hen +uoting, reporting, locution and idea are cross classified four categories of
pro7ection are derived as shown in the following table
2(
Tale +E 6our T)pes of #ro/ection
Types of
pro7ecting
process
Ta!is
5aratactic (+uoting)
' (
-ypotactic (reporting)

Gerbal (locution) 'ording
< %=
-e said, H "%ll finish the 7obI
'ording represented as meaning
&
-e said he would finish the 7ob
3ental (idea) Meaning represented as
wording < >=
-e thought ,I"%ll finish the 7obI
Meaning
5
-e thought he would finish the
7ob
6igure 5 #ro/ection
- %nal)sis
Analysis of logical meaning is done by separating clause comple! into clauses.
The clauses are written in lower cases and the relationship among the clauses is sought
and determined with reference to ta!is and logicoAsemantic relation. The analysis can be
done by using either (') tree diagram, (() bracketing or ()) hori*ontal analysis. For
2)
practical purpose, hori*ontal analysis is commonly used. To e!emplify, the clause
comple! He told us that he would go to the country and isit the man, which surprised us
is analy*ed in the following.
TR$$ DI%:R%;
, ,
H
Q
' L (
he told us that he would go and visit the man which surprised us
6igure C %nal)sis of Clause Complex
<R%CH$TIN:
((( he told us))) (H ( (1 that he would go) ( ( Land visit the man)) ((Q
which surprised us)))
>ORIIONT%! %N%!8*I*
he told us
H ' that he would go
L( and visit the man
Q which surprised us
;ith reference to the descriptions of logical meaning in &nglish the following analysis
serves as e!amples of analysis of clause comple!es.
. Trouleshooting
a Unit of %nal)sis
A unit of analysis in logical meaning is a clause. Thus, whenever a long
stretch of linguistic form is found the linguistic form should be separated into clauses.
The clauses are then analy*ed with reference to the ta!is and logicoAsemantic relation.
<oundaries of ARan@ingB Clauses
There are problems of determining where clauses begin and end within a comple!.
c $medded Clauses
&mbedded (i. e. rankshifted) clauses do not enter into relations of hypota!is or parata!is
with other clauses and should be ignored. "t is relations between WrankingW clauses which
21
are to be analy*ed. "n The man who came here yesterday was reading a newspaper when
I le"t the embedded clause of who came here is not analy*ed since it has no relation to the
clause of when I le"t. Thus, the clause comple! is analy*ed as
the man <<who came here== yesterday was reading a newspaper
! when " left
d Included Clauses
/ne clause sometimes interrupts another without being embedded in it. The following
e!amples are interrupted clauses
- #ometimes, when we arrive before J, the place is still locked up.
- H3otherR,I the girl implored, Hdon%t wear that nubbly little bonnet.I
"n the above clause comple!es one clause is included within the other. For
e!emplification the position of the clause when we arrie be"ore ? can be described as.
#ometimes VVwhen we arrive before JXX the place is still locked up. Thus, the clause
comple! is analy*ed ad the following.
sometimes the place is still locked up
! when we arrive before J
e 7eral :roup or Clause Complex=
"n analy*ing a clause comple! one should distinguish a clause comple! from verbal
group comple!. "n He stopped to smoke the stopped to smoke is a verbal group comple!
rather than a clause comple!. -owever, He stopped the car in order to smoke is a clause
comple!.
f *eparate Clause or Circumstance 2ithin Clause
"t is important that one should distinguish a clause comple! separated by the
circumstance of time, cause, manner, etc. from a clause with the circumstance. The
sentence He came here by riding on horseback is a clause comple!P but the clause He
came here on horseback is not.
g #arataxis or >)potaxis
;hen uncertain as to whether a clause is hypotactic or paratactic, the signals of hypota!is
can be used below.
A A nonAfinite ranking clause is hypotactic.
#he entered, laughing happily
3y son went to ondon to broaden his knowledge o" English
Haing "inished the work, she went home.
A A ranking clause is hypotactic if introduced by a relative pronouns. who, whose, whom,
which
A A ranking clause is hypotactic if it is introduced by a con7unction that $stays with% its
clause even when that clause is shifted to another place in the clause.
" didn%t attend the meeting because I was ill.
22
#ecause I was ill " didn%t attend the meeting.
A A ranking clause is hypotactic if it is reported (indirect) speech or thought
3y mother said that she would buy a book for me
They believed that the man would come soon.
h Context of con/unction
A con7unction may have two functions. "t is very important that in the analysis for
logical meanings, one has to consider meaning conveyed. To e!emplify, the clause he sat
there doing nothing may mean he sat there and did nothing, (which is paratactic
e!tension) and he sat there while he was doing nothing , (which is hypotactic
enhancement).
0 $xercises
$xercise 1
"dentify the logicoAsemantic relation between the pairs of clauses in the following clause
comple!es. Add appropriate notations to the analysis as elaboration (Q), e!tension (L),
enhancement (U), parata!is (', (8) and hypota!is (, 8). For e!ample.
' ;illiam had 7ust gone away to ondon
L ( and his mother missed his money
'. -e didn%t offer for help but 7ust watched her struggling.
(. 3rs. 3orel talked again to 5aul, who was helping her with housework
). "t matters more than her cleverness, which after all would never get her to heaven.
1. As soon as the skies brightened, 5aul drove off in the milkman%s heavy boat.
2. The women said that she would go to the country soon.
4. " think the man is a doctor.
9. Bid he come or avoid the invitation.
J. " wonder if they sold the house.
K. -ow do you know that he has come@
'D. "f you do not come " will go alone.
$xercise +
"dentify the ta!is and logicoAsemantic relations in the following clause comple!es.
'. "t was getting very lateP it was half past eleven at night.
(. Ask him if the ondon train%s come and when it% ll leave.
). "f a +uarrel took place, the whole play was spoilt.
1. HThe train gets in at halfApast si!,I she replied emphatically.
2. 3rs. Aini was not an!ious to meet the boy, which was already '( years old.
4. #he said she did not go to the party.
9. Mo one would like to see the man since he has betrayed the villagers.
J. 3y son did not come because he was ill.
K. The doctor advised me to stay away from the busy life for three months.
'D. ;hat will you do if the boys do not come@
24
$xercise -
#eparate the following te!t into clauses. Then, analy*e the clause comple!es with
reference to ta!is and logicoAsemantic relation.
The numbat is an unmistakable slender marsupial with a pointed mu**le and short erect
ears. The body is reddish brown but the rump is much darker and has about si! white
bars across it. The eye has a black stripe through it and the long bushy tail is yellowish.
The toes are strongly clawed and very effective in digging out termites. The tongue is
e!tremely long, as in all mammalian ant or termite eaters. :nlike most marsupials, it is
said that the numbat is active during the day. 5eople say that it shelters in hollow logs. "t
was once relatively common but now lives only in a small area of #. ;. #outh Australia.
(Adapted from The ,oncise &ncyclopedia of Australia ( nd. 6uderim, Sueensland,
6ateman 'KJ1. 12K).
anguage is multifunctional. "t has been describe previously that language can be
used e!perientially, interpersonally and te!tually that language is used to represent,
e!change and organi*e e!perience respectively. "n this chapter the use of language
logically is described. The use of language logically means that language is used to relate
e!perience. 5ractically this implies that how a clause is related to another or others. To
study this logical meaning two criteria are used. the interdependency between or among
the clauses and logicoAsemantic relations between or among clauses. "n terms ta!is or
status of the clauses two categories are derived. parata!is and hypota!is. ;ith respect to
logicoAsemantic relation two categories are derived that of &!pansion which further
subdivides into elaboration, e!tension and enhancement and that of 5ro7ection which
further divides into locution and idea. The two criteria are used to analy*e logical
meanings in clause comple!es.
5 6urther Reading
5inter (,hapter K)
Gerd #tabler (,hapter 2)
&dward Arnold (,hapter ))
(,hapter 4)
3artin, O E. 'KK(. English Te7t9 system and structure. Amsterdam. Oohn
6en7amins (,hapter 1)
3atthiessen, ,hristian 'KK2. 0e7icogrammatical 6artography. Tokyo.
"nternational anguage #ciences (,hapter ))
29
Chapter 5
CO>$*ION
1 O/ectives
After completing this chapter completely, you are e!pected to be competent to
analy*e te!ts in terms of cohesive devices.
After studying the materials in this chapter you are e!pected to be competent
') to identify references in the te!ts,
() to analy*e ellipsis>substitutions in te!ts,
)) to identify con7unctions in relating clauses,
1) to apply appropriate cohesive devices, and
2) to analy*e le!ical cohesions in te!ts.
+& Orientation
A te!t forms in a unity or oneness. "ndeed one of the features of being a te!t is
the unity of meaning. The unity of meaning in te!t is called cohesion. The unity of
meaning forms in two ways. structurally and nonAstructurally. #tructurally, the unity is
created by the structure of Theme and Eheme. MonAstructurally the unity is made by
relations of meaning of words r le!ical items. Thus, it can be said that link of meaning
for achiveing unity in te!t>discourse using nonAstructural elements is called cohesion. A
te!t is said to be cohesive if the clauses as reali*ations of the te!t are linked or connected.
"n other words, the te!ture of a te!t is indicated by the relatedness of the clauses. As
indicated in ()1) below the te!t in ()1b) is more cohesive than ()1a). "n other words, te!t
in ()1b) makes more unity or oneness than ()1a). This is caused by the fact that ()1b)
has more number of threads which tie, fasten or link the clauses. The thread of discourse
in this book is termed cohesive devices.
()1)
a. Ali bought a new book. Ali gave a new book to Oack.
b. Ali bought a new book. Then, he gave the book to his cousin.
,ohesion is set up by applying cohesive devices. There are four types of cohesive
devices, namely
(') Eeferences,
(() &llipsis> #ubstitution,
()) ,on7unction and
(1) e!ical cohesion.
a Reference
As a cohesive device reference is subdivided into
(') pronouns (", we, you, us, him, one, nothing...)
2J
(() demonstratives (near. this,these, hereP far. that, those, thereP not near nor far but
$you know what " mean%. the, yonder)
()) ,omparative (positive. as...asP comparative.Aer, moreP superlativeAest, most@ as,
like, such as)
The cohesive device of reference has a retrieval power, that is, it has a power to refer to
the participant previously introduced. ;ith reference to the retrieval system a reference
may be
(') Anaphora,
(() ,ataphora,
()) &!ophora,
(1) -omophora,
(2) &sphora, and
(4) &ndophora.
An anaphoric reference refers or point to the identity of the refrence to the preceding
participant. "t is also said that an anaphoric reference refers backward as shown in ()2a)
where he and it respectively refers backward to the participants #en and a "lower. The
back and forward position of written te!t depends on the orthographic systems. "n
&nglish following the atin writing systems, the back is to one%s left side while the
forward is the right hand side. Th eopposite occurs in Arabic.
()2a) 6en picked up a flower. Then, he gave it to 3ary
A cataphoric reference points to the ensuing participant as the identity as shown in
()2b) below.
()2b)
An e!ophoric reference points to the outside of the te!tP the nonAverbal conte!t or
conte!t of situation as shown in ()4c). The identity of me, the, you as the e!ophoric
elements can be found by going outside f the te!t. "n other words, the identity is only
understood by the speaker or the interlocutor.
()2c)
5ass me the knife, will you@ Bid you see the man@
2K
Alhough he was young #en was very wise.
6en picked up a flower. Then, he gave it to 3ary
A homophoric reference indicates the identity of the rference to the outside, that is
to the conte!t of culture. "n ()2d) below it is indicated that the identity of the is
understood if one knows the &nglish culture that the moon refers to the only moon, the
only moon of the earth. #imilarly the state rferrs to the state where the spea7er is at and
the president is the president of the country where the spekers in at the moment.
()2d)
The moon was shining.
The president is visiting a party.
The state governmebt approves a petition.
An esphoric refrence points to the identity of the reference in the same clause. As
shown in ()2e) the identity of the man is in the same clause which is who came here.
#imilarly the identity of his is retrievad from 6ennny at the same clause.
()2e)
The man who came here las night is a doctor
6enny gave a book to his brother.
The term endophora is used to indicate that the identity of the reference is
retrievable from the te!t, that is from what is written and read. Thus, the term serves as a
cover for anaphora, cataphore and esphora. #trange still is that there is no a cover term fo
e!ophora and homophora.
$llipsis and *ustitution
1( $llipsis
&llipsis is defined as the deletion of a linguistic unit that is retrievable or
recoverable from its conte!t. A linguistic unit (typically word, phrase and clause) may be
deleted because of the influence or constraints of social conte!t. As a cue the deleted
element is traceable with reference of the social conte!t. &lliptical elements may be
clausal, group>phrasal, le!ical or morphemic. The deleted is indicated by the sign J.
a( Clausal9
A. Bid you go there@
6. ?es. Y (I went there)
( :roupK#hrase
" advised him to write a report but he refused to Y(write a report)
c( ,ord
A. Bid he go@
6. ?es, he did Y (go)
d( ;orpheme
Batang(i) dan kun7ungi T3"".
4D
Ayah(nya) dan ibunya sudah pergi.
+( *ustitutions
#ubstitution is defined as the deletion of linguistic unit (word, group>phrase, clause, and
paragraph) with the deleted part being replaced by another linguistic unit. As shown in
()4a), the unit of the other ones is derived from the other books with books being
replaced or substituted by ones.
()4a)
" have three books. /ne is red and the other ones are green
#imilarly, in ()4b) the who said that is derived from who said the world is coming
to an end tomorrow with the world is coming to an end tomorrow being deleted and then
replaced or substituted by that. The difference between who said that and who said so is
that the that refers to the person whereas the so refers to the way or manner of why or in
what way it is argued for.
()4b)
A. The world is coming to an end tomorrow@
6. ;ho said that@
;ho said so@
"n reality speakers say less than they mean. There are more meanings get
communicated or conveyed than utterances e!pressed. This is to say that, on one hand,
when one says less s>he means more. /n the other hand, when s>he says more s>he means
less. Thus, there is a parado!ical situation between meaning and e!pression.
c Con/unctions
,on7unctions functions to relate clauses. "n this way they link meanings and in
that way meaning relations create unity in te!t. ,on7unctions are categori*ed in various
ways. "n this book con7unctions are classified in terms of the type, empirical factor, and
interdependency as summari*ed in Table (D.
"n terms of the type, con7unctions are categori*ed into four classes. additive
con7unctions which bear $addition%, comparative con7unctions which indicate
$comparison%, temporal con7unctions which refer to $time% and conse+uential
con7unctions which denote $conse+uence%.
;ith respect to empirical factor con7unctions are grouped into e!ternal or internal
categories. &!ternal con7unctions are ones which indicate relations of meaning based on
empirical e!perience and universally accepted notions. "n addition, e!ternal con7unctions
are e!periential. "n different ways internal con7unctions bear relations based on te!tual
relation and culturally bound. Further, internal con7unctions are rhetoric in the sense that
they indicate or regulate occurrences of clauses in certain genres. "n ()9a) the te!t
indicates e!periential meaning, whereas in ()9b) the meaning relation is te!tual or
rhetoric and culturally bound.
4'
()9a)
6enny was thirsty so he grabbed a glass of water.
They crossed the river in the canoe because their boats had been damaged by the bombs.
As the weather was not conducive to the plan, the trip was abandoned.
()9b)
6enny was thirsty so the previous e!planations are verified.
After all they crossed the river in the canoe because their boats had been damaged by the
bombs.
"n conclusion, as the weather was not conducive to the plan, the trip was abandoned.
"n terms of the interdependency, con7unctions are classified into paratactic and
hypotactic ones. The two categories are related to the paratactic and hypotactic relations
as elaborated in ,hapter 4. Thus, and and but are paratactic whereas because and where
are hypotactic.
Tale +1 Con/unctions
T)pes Distinctive
internal
$xternalKInternal
Cohesive
#aratactic >)potactic
Additive 3oreover
"n addition
And
/r
and
or
besides
if not8then
,omparative Alternatively
&+ually
That is
/n the other hand
ikewise
"n contrast
"nstead
so N Finite
but
like, as, as if,
like when,
whereas,
e!cept that
Temporal At the same time
Finally
At first
3eanwhile
Throughout
5reviously
Thereupon
and
meanwhile
then
while, when, as
long as, after,
since, now that
,onse+uential To this end
Then
"n conclusion
After all
Mevertheless
Admittedly
"n this way
To this end
Then
/therwise
Therefore
For
-owever
?et
Thus
so
so
so
but
and thus
so that, lest
so as, in case
if, even if,
unless
because, as,
since
although, in
spite of
by, thereby
e !exical Cohesion
e!ical cohesion indicates relation of meaning based on the meanings of words.
e!ical cohesion is established through si! types namely
'. Eepetition,
(. #ynonymy,
4(
). Antonymy,
1. -yponymy,
2. 3eronymy, and
4. ,ollocation.
1( Repetition
:nity of meaning is set up by the repetition of a word. This is attributed to two
kinds, namely the complete or full repetition in which a word is completely or wholly
repeated as the first time it is introduced and the partial or derivational repetition in which
the derived form of a word occurs after its introduction. The te!t in (()Ja) is the case of
complete repetition in which the words book and mayor are repeated in the second
clauses. "n a different way in ()Jb) the word write is repeated in its derived form of
writer and announced in its derivational form of announcement.
()Ja)
6en bought a book. The book was given to 6ill.
The man intended to meet the mayor but he was told that the mayor had left for
#ingapore.
()Jb)
#he wrote a new book. "ndeed she is a wellAknown writer in her country.
The minute of the meeting was announced but the announcement confused all members.
+( *)non)m)
A meaning relation forms when words of similar meanings are used in two
clauses. "n ()Jc) the use of left for and depart, dangerous and ha*ardous.
()Jc)
3y daughter le"t early "or the port. -er brother departed much earlier.
#moking is ha*ardous. "ndeed it is dangerous for health.
-( %nton)m)
A meaning relation forms by two words with opposite meanings. The opposing
meanings may either be categorical, gradual or relational. Two words are categorically
antonymous when the absence of one absolutely results in the presence of the other and
reversibly the presence of one makes the absence of the other. As indicated in ()Jd) if
one is dead there is no reason to claim him or her to be alive. Thus, dead and alive are
categorically antonymous.
A gradual antonym indicates that the meaning of a word can not be claimed to be
the opposite of a single word since other words may be possible. There is no strong
ground to claim that the only opposite of the word hot is cold since the two words spread
in a continuum or cline of meanings as indicated "ro*enAcoldAwarmAhotAboilA
eaporate. There is a gradual increase of the degree of heat from the point of fro*en to
that of evaporation. Thus, there are a number of alternatives serving as the opposite of
coldP they may be warm, hot, boiling, and eaporate.
4)
A relational antonym is one in which when a word is used it has its related
opposites, such as day will relate to night, boy to girl, good to bad, give to take. The te!t
in ()Jd) indicates a categorical, gradual and relational antonym.
()Jd)
All his men were declared to be dead. 3iraculously, one was found alie (categorical).
Bid you cope with the cold weather@ " know you were born in hot and humid area
(gradual).
" borrowed some money from the man. " did not lend him (relational).
.( >)pon)m)
-yponymy indicates a relation of $member to group%. As a cover or group the
word animal covers tick, ant, cockroach, snake, rat, cat, tiger, elephant, whale, etc. The
relationship is indicated in Figure K. The relation between the word animal and rat is
hyponym us one. This is a vertical relation. The relation between or among members is
called coAhyponymy. This is a hori*ontal relation. Thus, a coAhyponym us relation forms
between rat and whale.
0( ;eron)m)
3eronymy indicates a $part0whole% relation. As a cover term tree is constituted
by its parts as root, trunk, branch, twig, lea", and bloom. The relation between tree and
root is one of meronymy, in which tree is vertically related to root, whereas the relation
between or among the parts, which is hori*ontal in nature as indicated in Figure 'D, is one
of coAmeronymy.
Animal
tick ant cockroach
snake rat
cat tiger
elepha
nt
6igure D >)pon)m)
41
whale
0( Collocation
A collocation is a relation of coAoccurrence. This is to say that if a word occurs in
one clause, there is a strong probability that another word will occur in the ne!t clause.
The level of probability varies from one type of te!t (register) to another. -owever, in
general it can be observed that when a word occurs another one will accompany it. For
e!ample, the word snow is a collocation to white, and neighbour is to "riendly.
"n addition and related to the si! types of le!ical cohesion, a meaning relation
may form in te!t by the instantiation or logogenetic development of the te!t. The
logogenetic development includes e+uivalence, naming and semblance.
"n e+uivalence a two or more items are one and the same in the conte!t of some
particular te!t. For e!ample, in the sailor was their daddy, the sailor is the same as
daddy.
6ased on the development of te!t, a word or an item may be the same by naming
the word or item another identity. For e!ample in the te!t the boys called their kites the
cleer cranes, the kites are the same as the cranes.
The semblance indicates that two or more words or items in the te!t resemble
each other. For e!ample, in the te!t the tigers roared and we saw their strips looking like
coloured hair tigers, the items strips and coloured hair refer to the same item.
- %nal)sis
"n order to analy*e cohesive devices in the te!t, the type of cohesive device used
is identified. #pecification of the cohesive device is indicated by using signs as indicated
below.
)naly*e the "ollowing te7ts in terms the cohesie deices.
tree
root
trunk
branch twig
leaf
bloom
6igure 1E ;eron)m)
42
ast week 6enny with his class mate went to the *oo. -e saw an elephant. The animal is
huge with a long trunk. "ts feet are as large as a tray. Then, the children went to observe
a python. The snake was shy and hid its pointed face in the log.
)nswer9
'1( Reference
6enny0his. esphora, the (*oo). e!ophora, he. anaphora, the (animal). anaphora, its
(feet). anaphora, the (children). anaphora, the (snake). anaphora, its (pointed face).
anaphora, the (log). e!opora.
as large as. comparative
'+( $llipsis
and Y (the snake) hid its pointed face
'-( Con/unction
then. temporal. hypotactic
and. additive. paratactic
'.( !exical Cohesion
elephant, snake0animal. hyponymy
trunk, feet0elephant. meronymy
trunk0feet. coAmeronymy
python0snake. hyponymy
face0snake. meronymy
huge0large. synonymy
. Trouleshooting
a !ogical or Textual 6unction=
A con7unction as a cohesive device should be distinguished from its function in
logical function. The use of con7unction in logical function refers to the relation of
clauses based on structure. As a cohesive device, which is related to the te!tual function,
con7unction serves to link le!ical item only.
>o2 is h)pon)m) differentiated from meron)m)=
The meaning relation of hyponymy and meronymy as indicated in the two figures
are similar. -owever, they are inherently different. To test if a relation is that of
hyponymy or meronymy, delete one member or part. After the deletion if the remaining
parts or members still constitute the cover word, the relation is that of hyponymy.
-owever, if the remaining parts or member do not constitute its cover word, the relation
is that of meronymy. As indicated in Figure 2, if the whale is deleted the remaining
members still constitute the word animal. /n the contrary, if the trunk is deleted the
remaining parts do not constitute the tree since there is no tree without a trunk.
0& $xercises
$xercise 1
Identif) the cohesive devices in the follo2ing text
44
'. 6ill went to the beach. Then, he went to the coffee shop.
(. "ndonesia is rich with natural resources. -owever, the country is facing economic
problems.
). As a civil servant, 6enny should give good public services.
1. Bid you see the man@
2. -ow long have they been waiting in this office.
4. The man asked me to resign but " refused to.
9. ;ho said that he would come soon@
J. #tudents are willing to do the work. -owever, they are not allowed to as their
works may be inefficient.
K. " saw a lion yesterday. The animal was about to grab a baby deer.
'D. Mo body would like to visit the man. This is because he is very boastful.
$xercise +
:se appropriate cohesive devices in the following incomplete te!t
'. Bid you notice Zman who was under the tree@
(. " did not agree with Zpetition,AAthe man insisted on voting for the public voices.
). They watched the tiger going out of the forest and they decide to shoot theAA.
1. " never approved the proposalP it was the man that0with it.
2. ;hen the man is available in his office, his wife must be Zfrom home.
4. The more she thought of the program the Zlikely she abandoned it.
9. 3y sister prefers cold weather, being the opposite of my cousin who like Z
weather.
J. 5lease remember the program and do not Zto support it in the meeting.
K. ;ho said that Zworld is coming to an end tomorrow.
'D. -e said he was sorry Zhe had upset me.
$xercise -
"dentify the cohesive devices in the following te!t.
&ditors of newspapers and maga*ines often go to e!tremes to provide their readers with
unimportant facts and statistics. ast year a 7ournalist had been instructed by a wellA
known maga*ine to write an article on the president%s place in anew African republic.
;hen the article arrived, the editor read the first sentence and then refused to publish it as
sufficient facts were not provided. The 7ournalist felt disappointed by the refusal despite
the fact that he had spent dangerous time in collecting data about the palace.
1& Revie2 3 Recontextuali4ation
,ohesion is an aspect of te!tual meaning. ,ohesion refers to the unity of
meaning in a te!t. "ndeed a te!t is inherent with the feature of unity of meaning. There is
no te!t without unity of meaning. "n order to create the unity of meaning there must be
link of meaning between or among clauses constituting the te!t. The link of meaning is
made by some sort of thread of discourse. This thread is achieved by using cohesive
devices, which cover reference, ellipsis>substitution, con7unction and le!ical cohesion.
The more cohesive devices used, the more tightly the meaning relation is resulted in the
te!t.
49
5 6urther Reading
Gerd #tabler (,hapter J
&dward Arnold (,hapter K
-alliday, 3.A.C. and E. -asan. 'KJ1. 6ohesion in English. ondonP ongman.
4J
Chapter C
;$T%#>ORIC%! R$#R$*$NT%TION*
1 O/ectives
After completing this chapter you are e!pected to be competent to analy*e
grammatical representation in academic te!ts.
After studying the materials in this chapter you are e!pected to be competent
') to identify representations of grammatical metaphor
() to unpack metaphorical representation into literal ones, and
)) to investigate motif behind the use of grammatical metaphor.
+& Orientation
3etaphor is defined as representing meaning in or interpreting meaning from two
sides or perspectives (Buranti 'KK9. )J, 41P #tern (DDD. )2). The term metaphor is
constituted by metaB which means $half% or $partly% as in metaphysics meaning $halfA
physical% or $partially physical% and phora or phoric meaning $referring to% or $pointing
to% as in anaphora, cataphora and e7ophora respectively meaning $pointing to the back%,
$pointing to the front%, and $pointing out side%. Thus, metaphor implies representing or
interpreting meaning from two viewsP that is partially from one side and partially from
another side. 3etaphor inherently implies two points. comparison and uncommon
representation. Firstly, a metaphorical coding involves a comparison with an emphasis
on similarity such as the e!pression of the door o" his heart where his heart is viewed as
having similar feature to that of a house in that a house has a door and his heart also has
one. #econdly, a metaphor implies an uncommon way of coding e!perience. "n #F
theory where language is viewed as a social semiotics, there are two poles of coding
e!perience. the unmarked or congruent and marked or incongruent coding. The
congruent coding is also known as a common, usual or literal representation whereas the
incongruent one is called uncommon, unusual or metaphorical representation. 3etaphor
divides into le!ical and grammatical metaphor. ;hereas le!ical metaphor has been wellA
known for long (akoff and Oohnson 'KJD), grammatical metaphor is relatively new
(-alliday 'KJ2). This paper elaborates both le!ical and grammatical metaphor and
focuses on the use of grammatical metaphor in scientific te!ts.
a !exical ;etaphor
e!ically there is a usual, common or congruent coding of meaning in language.
,ongruently, the word snake in the clause the snake is crawling on the grass refers to an
$animal% or $reptile%. Another way of coding e!perience is called incongruent or
metaphorical representation. "n the clause don5t trust (ack@ he is a snake the snake no
longer refers to a $reptile%. This is an unusual way of coding e!perience. Oack is not a
snakeP he is a human being but he is considered as if he were a snake. "t is implicitly
understood in the metaphorical representation that Oack is compared with a snake where
some characteristics of snake are seen to e!ist in Oack. To e!emplify, some features or
4K
characteristics of a snake are <Lhaving scales=, <Lcrawling=, <Lcoiling its body=, <Lhaving
fangs=, <Lbeing poisonous= and <having fangs=. /f all these features some are mapped on
to Oack. "n other words, some characteristics of the snake apply to OackP for e!ample Oack
has the characteristics of <Lcoiling= other people by using his words and <Lbeing
poisonous= in his words or e!pressions. /ther characteristics of <Ahaving scales=, <A
crawling= and <Ahaving fangs= are not applicable to Oack. The metaphorical clause of
(ack is a snake implies that Oack is like a snake, not to be trusted and subtly cheating
people (coiling or rounding people) and hurting others (by his poisonous words).
e!ical metaphor potentially occurs in comparison in which nouns and nouns,
nouns and verbs, nouns and ad7ectives, nouns and adverbs are compared. "n addition,
le!ical metaphor may occur in the conte!t of ideology.
e!ical metaphor is reali*ed by a noun in comparison with another. "n the clause
we hae identi"ied the root o" the matterP the matter (being a noun) is compared with the
root (another noun). The root is deep under ground as the basis of a tree. Thus, the root
o" the matter implies $the basis or cause of the matter%. "n other words, the root of the
matter means the fundamental cause of the matter. #ome other e!amples of le!ical
metaphors are the "oot o" the mountain, island o" hope, door o" heart, sea o" li"e, guard o"
reolution and taste "or music.
3etaphorical representations may occur where a noun is compared with a verb.
"n the clause they sailed to their e7pectation, their e7pectation is compared with sailed. "t
appears as if their e7pectation was the sea and they sailed through the sea. /ther
e!amples of metaphor with verbs compared with nouns are open your heart, smiling city,
"illing one5s li"e, escalating achieement and rocketing prices.
e!ical metaphor also forms with nouns compared with ad7ectives. "n the clause
he has got a bright "uture, the "uture is compared with the brightness of the sun. -ere,
the "uture (being noun) is compared with bright (being ad7ective). /ther e!amples of
metaphoric representations are the man is still green (being ine!perienced), green
reolution, golden age and dark li"e.
e!ical metaphor may also form in ideological conte!ts in which a meaning or
concept is one community is analogously applied in another culture. The president of the
:# (E. Mi!on) was once alleged for a scandal of corruption known as ;atergate scandal.
The other president (6ill ,linton) was also alleged for the scandal of Freshwatergate.
#ince then the morpheme gate was used for any corruption scandal. This was later
applied in "ndonesia where 5resident Abdurahman ;ahid was accused of #uloggate,
#runeigate and Golkargate in which gate is used to mark corruption scandal.
&:rammatical ;etaphor
Grammatical metaphor is defined as relocation or shift of wording the meaning
from its usual representation to another unusual reali*ation. "n this sense, analogously to
le!ical metaphor which is an unusual coding of meaning, grammatical metaphor indicates
an incongruent wording of meaning. This is to say that inherently there are two kinds of
wording, namely congruent and incongruent or metaphorical one.
A congruent coding or wording indicates that reality is coded in its usual or
common reali*ations. "n other words, congruent representation is the common way of
reali*ing semantics in grammarP specifically usual ways of e!pressing meaning in
le!icogrammatical aspects. This is also called literal meaning. For e!ample,
9D
le!icogrammatically a thing is congruently coded by noun and activity or event by verb.
"n the clause of the man arried late, the group the man is a thing and is coded in a noun
and arried is an event, which is coded in a verb. "n Table (D, based on 3artin ('KK)b.
('J), congruent coding of meaning is summari*ed.
"ncongruent or metaphorical coding does not follow the congruent representation.
"n other words, metaphorical coding or grammatical metaphor indicates uncommon
coding in which commonality of coding as summari*ed in Table (D is violated. The
e!pression of the man5s late arrial in the man5s late arrial surprises us is a
metaphorical wording since the congruent function of arrie as an event is now recoded
in noun. This indicates that grammatical metaphor indicates relocation or shift of
meaning e!pression from the normal to unusual one.
;hen a te!t is not congruent in its reali*ation or the literal reali*ation is violated,
grammatical metaphor forms. "n the clause of he succeeded in the !ob the wording is
congruent since it follows the principle as summari*ed in Table ((. -owever, in his
success in the !ob results in a strong criticism the nominal group his success is a
metaphorical wording. The range of grammatical metaphor is summari*ed in Table () in
which the sign means $reali*ed by%.
Tale ++ Congruent ,ordings of ;eaning
;eaning Reali4ed ) !exicogrammar
',ording(
$xamples
thing 5articipant>noun The book was sold.
activity 5rocess>verb ;e ran.
+uality Attribute>ad7ective The house is old.
location, time,
manner
,ircumstance>adverb -e wrote the letter neatly.
The man is in the room.
relation con7unction #he was absent because she was
ill.
position preposition The post office is near the bank.
7udgment,
opinion,
comment
modality #he may arrive early.
" must go now.
" will write a report.
9'
T%<!$ +- ;$T%#>ORIC%! CODIN:
No& Class ;etaphor 6unction ;etaphor $xamples
' ad7ective [ noun +uality [ thing unstable [ instability
probable [ probability
(a verb [ noun process [ thing transform [ transformation
succeed [ success
(b tense>phase verb
(adverb) [ noun
aspect of process [
thing
going to>try [ prospect>attempt
have completed [ solution
(c modality verb
(adverb) [ noun
modality of process
[ thing
can, could [ possibility, potential
is re+uired to go [ duty
(d verb L
adverb>prep.phr. [
noun
process
Lcircumstance [
thing
move in circle [revolutionP
behave badly [ misconduct
) preposition [ noun minor process [
thing
with [ accompaniment
so [ effect
1 con7unction [ verb relator [ thing so [ causeP proof
if [ condition
2a noun head [ noun
premodifier
thing [ class (of
things)
engine <fails= [ engine <failure=
2b noun head [ prep.
phrase postmodifier
thing [ possessor glass <fractures= [ <the fracture= of
glass
village <develop= <the development= of
village
2c noun head [
possessive determiner
thing [ possessor (of
thing)
government <decided= [ government%s
<decision=
4a verb [ ad7ective process [ +uality <poverty= is increasing [ increasing
<poverty=
4b tense>phase verb
(adverb) [ ad7ective
aspect of process [
+uality
was absent [ being absent
begin [ initial
4c modality verb [
(adverb) [ ad7ective
modality of process
[ +uality
always, will [ constant
9a adverb [ ad7ective manner circumstance
[ +uality
<acted= brilliantly [ brilliant <acting=
9b prepositional phrase
[ ad7ective
circumstance [
+uality
<argued= for a long time [ lengthy
<argument=
<describe= in details [detailed
<description=
9(
9c prepositional phrase
[ noun premodifier
circumstance [ class
(of thing)
<cracks= on the surface [ surface
<cracks=
<tea= in the morning [ morning <tea=
J con7unction [
ad7ective
relator [ +uality before [ previous
and [additional
K be>go L preposition [
verb
circumstance [
process
be about [ concern
be instead of [ replace
'D con7unction [ verb relator [ process and [ complementP then [ followP so
[ lead to
'' con7unction [
prepositional phrase
relator [
circumstance
so [ as a result
therefore [ as a conse+uence
'(a [ verb <in env. '0
1=
[ process <impact= [ have <an impact=
<press= [ apply <pressure=
'(b causative vrb [ verb
<in env. '01=
agency [ process make <conform= [ impose <conformity
on=
let <release= [ allow <departure=
') [ noun <in env.
5ro7ection=
[ thing <her success= [ the fact of <her
success=
<my apology= [ the act of <my
apology=
The change or shift of coding from the congruent to metaphorical representation
causes a tension between semantics and grammar. For e!ample, in ()Ka) the clause
comple! of )li was absent because he was ill is a normal or congruent coding in which,
as stated in Table ', relation of $cause0effect% is coded by con7unction because. "n
addition, +uality is coded by ad7ectives of absent and ill. -owever, in ()Kb, c, d, and e)
there is a shift in which relation is recoded in verb and +uality is recoded in nouns. The
+uality or attribute absent and ill are metaphorically recoded as being absent and being ill
in ()Kb). The te!t in ()Db) sounds unnaturalP however, te!ts in ()K, c, d, and e) are much
more natural in which absence and illness are used.
()K)
a. Ali is absent because he was ill.
b. Ali%s being absent was caused by his being ill.
c. Ali%s absence is caused by his illness.
d. Ali%s absence was due to his illness.
e. Ali%s absence was a conse+uence of his illness.
9)
c& Ran@shift
Eankshift is the change in the ranking or level of coding from a higher level to a
lower one. This is known as down grading of meaning representation. "n &nglish
grammatical units, from the highest to the lowest one, are constituted by four categories,
namely
'. ,A:#&,
(. GE/:5>5-EA#&,
). ;/EB, and
1. 3/E5-&3&.
The relation is that of constituency where a unit is constituted by the immediate
unit below it. Thus, a clause is constituted by groups>phrases, a group>phrase consist of
words and a word is made is comprised of morphemes.
Grammatical metaphor involves rankshift of two kinds. down grading and
upgrading. Eankshift of down grading occurs in situations where meaning normally or
congruently e!pressed in a clause is metaphorically coded in group. As a conse+uence of
group>phrase downgrading, clause comple!es are recoded in a single clause. ;here
meaning is normally e!pressed in groups>phrases, it is now recoded in words and that in
words is reali*ed in morpheme. "n Table (( below two types of representation. literal or
congruent and metaphorical are given.
Eankshift or upgrading is the opposite. ;here a meaning is congruently reali*ed
in the lower unit, metaphorically it is recoded in the higher units. #pecifically, the
meaning of a morpheme is recoded in word, that of a word in group>phrase, that of a
group>phrase in clause, and that of a clause in clause comple!. "n many cases the
rankshift is not gradual, where a word is recoded in clause leaving the group>phrase as an
intermediate unit. Thus, rather than he must be there, the e!pression is recoded in I
beliee he is there, it is certain he is there or there is a strong eidence that he is there in
which the modality of must is represented in a clause. This mode of metaphorical coding
typically occurs in diplomacy, bureaucracy and administration and this is not further
elaborated in this paper.
Tale +. !iteral and ;etaphorical Representations
!iteral Representation ;etaphorical Representation
a.
'. he was absent
(. because he was ill
a
'. his being absent was caused by his
being ill.
(. his absence was caused by his
illness.
). his absence due to his illness.
1. his absence was a conse+uence of
his illness.
b.
'. Ali arrived late,
b. Ali%s late arrival resulted in
our worries and our rival team%s
pleasure.
91
(. which worried us
). but pleased our rival team.
c
'. the doctor advised
(. that the patient should stay in a
peaceful place for one month
). by which her mental stress can be
cured.
c.
the doctor%s advice for the patient%s
oneAmonth stay in a peaceful place is
meant for a probability of cure for her
mental stress.
d
'. "ndonesia has successfully
developed its economy in 'KJD%s
(. which affected the people
). who live in the rural areas
1. to live in modern ways.
d
'. "ndonesia%s 'KJD%s successful
economic development resulted in
social effect of modern ways of life
in rural areas.
(. social effects of "ndonesia%s 'KJD%s
successful economic development
resulted in modern ways of life in
the rural communities.
e
'. our campus is green and large
(. and is distant from the city centre
). which has provided us with a
natural environment
1. to study
2. and to hang around comfortably.
e
the greenness, largeness and its distance
from the city centre are provisions for
natural environment study and a
comfort of wander.
f
'. you may leave now
(. since you have completed the work
). but you must return
1. if " call you
2. when " need you
4. to help me
9. to reshelf the books
f
your leave on completion of work is
followed by an obligatory return on my
call upon assistance for the book reshelf
As shown in Table ((, by applying grammatical metaphor a clause comple! of
two clauses or more in their literal representation is reduced or condensed into a single
simple clause in its metaphorical representation. For e!ample, the te!t in row f of Table
(( shows that seven clauses are condensed into a single clause. This is the strength of
metaphor and this makes the clause comple! practical in the sense that rather than coding
e!perience in some clauses they can be coded in a single simple clause. The
condensation of meaning is inherent in science since such condensation fits scientific
features.
92
All types of process as seen in f, dominantly material process, are $buried% or
packed in nominali*ation. This nominali*ation results in thing. As seen in the e!amples
clauses no ' and ( are buried into thing your leae on completion o" work and clauses no
), 1, 2, 4 and 9 are condensed into thing an obligatory return on my call upon assistance
"or the book reshel". "n between the two things a relational process is "ollowed by is
placed to relocate con7unction but. This indicates that grammatical metaphor is effective
in burying material process in nominali*ation and transferring the process to thing as
shown in the following figure
you may leave now since you have
completed the work
but you must return if " call you when "
need you to help me to reshelf the books
your leave on
completion of work
is followed by an obligatory return on
my call upon assistance
for the book reshelf
-& %nal)sis
"n order to grasp or learn meaning of grammatical metaphor, the metaphorical
representation needs $unpacking%, namely the metaphorical coding is compared with its
literal or congruent e!pressions. /perationally, the comparison is done by the following
procedures
(') displaying the congruent e!pression against the metaphorical representation,
(() placing the metaphorical form against its closest congruent form,
()) comparing the two kinds of e!pression in order to find out le!ical or grammatical
metaphor,
(1) suggest reasons or motif for the choice of metaphorical form.
"n the following two e!amples, the analysis of metaphorical representation is done
through unpacking procedures. Firstly, the metaphorical form of the clause #en5s
absence was caused by his illness and its literal or congruent e!pression #en was absent
because he was ill are compared. The congruent form is indicated between two single
inverted marks $8%.
6en was absent because he was ill vs 6ens absence was caused by his illness
$6en% $was% $absent% $because% $he% $was% $ill%
,arrier 5rocess.
Eelational
Attribute con7unction ,arrier 5rocess.
Eelational
Attribute
!
6en%s absence was caused by his illness
Galue 5rocess.
Eelational
Token
Beictic Thing Beictic Thing
modifier noun modifier noun
94
As shown in the analysis, 6en which is Thing>noun>,arrier is converted to
,lassifier>modifier>Beictic at the nominal group. The con7unction because is relocated as
verb was caused byP the case of which is stated in no 'D of Table ('. Further changes are
elaborated as follows.
(') #en C#en5s, absent Cabsence, heC his, illC illness, and because Cwas caused
byP these are all cases of grammatical metaphor
(() the reason or motif behind this is the condensation, simplification or rankshifting
of the clause comple! into a single clause, where #en was absent was changed or
rankshifted to nominal group #en5s absence and that of he was ill to nominal
group his illness. The condensation of the two clauses makes the clause comple!
practical.
#econdly, the congruent form of they arried at the summit on the "i"th day is
compared against its metaphorical representation the "i"th day saw them at the summit.
$on the fifth
day%
$they% $at the summit% $arrived%
,ircumstance.
ocation.
Temporal
Actor ,ircumstance.
ocation.
#patial
5rocess.
3aterial
the fifth day saw them at the summit
#enser 5rocess. 3ental 5henomenon ,ircumstance.
ocation.
#patial
After comparing the two modes of e!pression of the two clauses, it is found that
(') A le!ical metaphor occurs where it is clearly seen that the fifth
day is a #enser with its congruent form ,ircumstance of on the
fifth day. The the "i"th day does not normally see (saw) anything.
(() The reason behind the metaphorical coding is to promote the
time or ,ircumstance. location. Temporal to be the Theme of the
clause.
Grammatical metaphor normally occurs in te!ts of science, technology and
academics because these fields have characteristics, which motivates the use of
grammatical metaphor. #ome features characteri*e scientific te!ts are
'. /b7ective,
(. "mpersonal,
). Technical,
1. 5ractical, and
2. ;ritten anguage.
All of these characteristics find their e!pressions in language, particularly in
metaphorical representations of le!icogrammatical aspects.
99
.& Trouleshooting
3etaphor divides into le!ical and grammatical metaphor. e!ical metaphor is
commonly about relocating congruent le!ical items to other incongruent or metaphorical
ones. For e!ample, literally it is known that lion, star are natural ob7ects. -owever when
one says the lion o" England was Ding Eichard, she is the star in the classroom the
coding is that of le!ical metaphor where the lion and star metaphorically indicate
$authority% and $the most lovely% respectively.
Grammatical metaphor is concerned with the comparison of coding in grammar.
#imply, it says that congruent representation is where thing is coded as noun, activity as
verb, +uality as ad7ective, manner and location as adverb, relation as con7unction and
position as preposition. ;hen the coding does not follow the congruent representation, it
is called grammatical metaphor.
"t is advised that in analy*ing grammatical representation one should be able to
distinguish the two types of metaphor.
0 $xercises
$xercise 1
"dentify metaphorical form in the following te!ts by underlining the parts of the clauses.
For e!ample, in the clause the doctor5s adice was ery wise the metaphorical part is
underlined as the following
The doctor%s advice was highly appreciated.
-is absence was due to his son%s illness
'. 3y son%s colleagues made a party for his success in his work.
(. " think they will come tomorrow.
). Bid the cause of the event also affect you presence@
1. Bue to the heavy rain the plane departure is cancelled.
2. The desire to be a member of a prestige group often influences
adolescent behaviour.
4. 5eer group pressure affects young people to behave in the community.
9. ;ars cause death and destruction and put resources to nonAproductive uses.
J. -owever, wars also bring useful developments.
K. There was uncertainty in some +uarters concerning the regulation of free labour.
'D. Any threat of force or any persuasion other than that permitted and defined by law
to men who are unionist, or any other form of boycotting should, in the opinion of
this ,onference, be resisted by the united union.
$xercise +
;rite the congruent representations of the following te!ts. Then, compare the
metaphorical e!pression of each te!t against that of its congruent one. To e!emplify, the
te!t in its metaphorical and congruent coding are given.
6en%s early leave was meant for his desire for immediate arrival at his home town.
(metaphorical)
6en left early because he was eager to arrive immediate at his home town (congruent)
9J
'. The enlargement of companies in "ndonesia owed something to the national
challenge of identity
(. Buring the Gietnam war women became fullAtime members of the armed forces in
the south.
). ;ars have revealed inade+uacies in Australia%s scientific and research
capabilities.
1. The government gave its support to the advancement of science in many areas,
including agricultural production
2. "ncreased responsiveness may be reflected in feeding behaviour.
4. ung cancer death rates are clearly associated with increased smoking.
9. -igher productivity means more supporting services.
J. The atomic nucleus absorption and energy emission are measured in +uanta or
discrete units.
K. The conical space rendering of cosmic strings% gravitational properties applies
only to straight strings.
'D. The modes rest on the locali*ed gravitational attraction e!erted by rapidly
oscillating and e!tremely massive closed loops of cosmic string.
$xercises -
Eead the following te!t and identify metaphorical e!pressions then state the motif or
reason behind the metaphorical coding by comparing the metaphorical representation
against the congruent one.
For a long time predation has been intuitively considered to be a ma7or driving force in
shaping *ooplankton communities. "n contrast to herbivores of terrestrial ecosystems,
planktonic herbivores are e!tremely vulnerable to predation, particularly predation by
visuallyAoriented planktivorous fish. -aving no burrows or bushes for shelter, they are
forced to feed in the most illuminated strata of the lake midwater where food is most
abundant, and where they are desperately e!posed to the danger of falling prey to one of
the abundant fish species that can visually locate its prey at light intensities as low as 'D
lu!. arge bodied herbivores such as Baphnia are most conspicuous and therefore they
are the first to be decimated or even locally driven to e!tinction.
&!tinction of most conspicuous, largeAbodied *ooplankton are most apparent in those
habitats, where new species of plantivorous fish have 7ust been introduced. For instance,
introduction of Alosa resulted in e!termination of largeAbodied calanoids in the Great
akes in America and introduction of brook char caused permanent e!tinction of all
cladoceran and most copepod species from fishAfree alpine lakes in Tatra 3ontains.
5redation by plantivorous fish seems to be a force that is strong enough to be held
responsible for the final eradication of many planktonic herbivore species from the fauna
of the past.
1& Revie2 3 Recontextuali4ation
3etaphorical representation indicates an uncommon or incongruent coding of
e!perience. 3etaphor divides into le!ical and grammatical metaphor. "n grammatical
9K
metaphor one codes e!perience in incongruent way, that is in violation of common
coding as summari*ed in Table '. The use of grammatical metaphor offers two
advantages. Firstly, grammatical metaphor reduces or condenses a clause comple! into a
single clause. This results in practicality of e!pression in which processes are relocated
as things in nominali*ations. #econdly, grammatical metaphor buries material and other
types of processes in nominali*ation and provides relational process to indicate relations
between or among things. 6y the two uses, grammatical metaphor is a powerful tool in
turning te!ts of common sense e!perience into scientific te!ts.
9. Further Eeading
-alliday, 3.A.C. (DD1. )n Introduction to Functional Grammar. (third edition)
ondon. &dward Arnold (,hapter 'D)
-alliday, 3.A.C. and ,. 3. ". 3 3atthiessen (DD'. 6onstruing E7perience
through Meaning9 a 0anguageB#ased )pproach to 6ognition.
ondon. ,ontinuum.
(,hapter 9)
3artin, O E. 'KK(. English Te7t9 system and structure. Amsterdam. Oohn
6en7amins
R$6$R$NC$*
6olivar, A. 'KK1. The #tructure of newspaper editorials. "n ,oulthard, 3. (&d.)
)dances in 'ritten Te7t )nalysis. ondon. Eoutledge, (94A(K1.
Buranti, A. 'KK9. 0inguistic )nthropology. ,ambridge. ,ambridge :niversity 5ress.
JD
&ggins, #. 'KK1. )n Introduction to $ystemic Functional 0inguistics. ondon. 5inter
Gerot, . F 5. ;ignell 'KK1. Making $ense o" Functional Grammar. #ydney. Gerd
#tabler
-alliday, 3.A.C. 'K9J. 0anguage as a $ocial $emiotics. ondon. &dward Arnold.
-alliday, 3.A.C. 'K9K. 3odes of meaning and modes of e!pression. types of
grammatical structures and their determinations by different semantic
functions. "n Allerton, B.O., &.,arney, and B. -oldcroft (eds) Function
and 6onte7t in 0inguistic )nalysis9 a "estschri"t "or 'illiam Hass.
,ambridge. ,ambridge :niversity 5ress, 29A4K.
-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KJ(. -ow is a te!t like a clause@ "n Allen, #. (&d.- Te7t 4rocessing9
te7t analysis and generation, te7t typology and attribution. #tockholm.
Alm+vist F ;iskel "nternational, (DKA(19
-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KJ2. #ystemics 6ackground. "n 6enson, O. B. and ;.#. Greaves (eds)
$ystemic 4erspecties on 1iscourse, Gol. ", Morwood. Able!
5ublishing, 'A'2.
-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KJJ. /n the language of physical science. "n Ghadessy, 3. (&d.)
Eegister o" 'ritten English9 situational "actors and linguistic "eature.
ondon. 5inter 5ublishers, '4(A'9J.
-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KK(. -ow do you mean@ "n Bavies, 3 and .Eavelli (eds) Advances
in #ystemic inguistics. recent theory and practice. ondon. 5inter
5ublishers, ('A)2.
-alliday, 3.A.C. 'KK1. )n Introduction to Functional Grammar. ondon. &dward
Arnold
-alliday, 3.A.C. (DD1. )n Introduction to Functional Grammar. third edition. ondon.
&dward Arnold.
-alliday, 3. A. C. (DD2. /n grammar and grammatics. "n ;ebster, O. O. (ed.). 2n
Grammar. ondon. ,ontinuum, )J101'9.
-alliday, 3. A. C. dan ,hristian 3. ". 3. (DD'. 6onstruing E7perience through
Meaning9 a 0anguageB#ased )pproach to 6ognition. ondonP
,ontinuum
-alliday, 3.A.C. and E. -asan. 'KJ2. 6onte7t and Te7t9 aspects o" language in social
semiotic perspecties. Geelong. Beakin :niversity 5ress.
-alliday, 3. A. C. F O. E. 3artin 'KK). 'riting $cience9 literacy and discursie power.
ondon. Falmer 5ress
"edema, E., #.Fee* and 5.;hite (in press) Media 0iteracy. B#5 3etropolitan &ast,
#ydney.
akoff, G. and 3. Oohnson. 'KJD. Metaphors 'e 0ie #y. ,hicago. :niversity of ,hicago
5ress.
3artin, O.E. 'KK(. English Te7t9 system and structure. Amsterdam. Oohn 6en7amins.
3artin, O.E. 'KK). A conte!tual theory of language. in ,ope, 6., 3ary Calant*is (eds)
The 4owers o" 0iteracy9 a genre approach to teaching writing. ondon.
The Falmer 5ress, ''4A')4.
3artin, O. E. (DDD. ,lose reading. functional linguistics as a tool for critical discourse
analysis. "n :nsworth, . (ed.). Eesearching 0anguage in $chools and
6ommunities9 Functional 0inguistic 4erspecties. ondon. ,assell,
(920)D(
J'
3artin, O. E. (DD4. 3entoring semogenesis. $genreAbased% literacy pedagogy. "n
,hristies, F. (ed). 4edagogy and the $haping o" 6onsciousness. ondon.
,ontinuum, '()0'22.
3atthiessen, ,hristian 3. ". 3. (in press) 0e7icogrammatical 6artography. &nglish
systems. #ydney. #ydney :niversity
van Bi7k, Teun A. 'KJ4. Mews #chema. "n ,ooper, ,.E. and #. Greenbaum (eds)
$tudying 'riting9 linguistic approaches. 6every -ills. #aga, '22A'J1.
#tern, O. (DDD. Metaphor in 6onte7t. ,ambridge. The 3"T 5ress.
Trimble, . 'KJ2. English "or $cience and Technology9 a discourse approach. ,ambridge.
,ambridge :niversity 5ress.
Tucker, G. -. 'KKJ. The 0e7icogrammar o" )d!ecties9 ) $ystemic Functional )pproach to
0e7is. ondon. ,assell
% rief account of the 2riter& Amrin #aragih was born in 5ematangbandar,
#imalungun on '1 Oanuary, 'K22. -e is a senior professor of linguistics at the &nglish
Applied inguistics #tudy 5rogram, #chool of 5ostgraduate #tudies and at the &nglish
Bepartment, Faculty of anguages and Arts, the #tate :niversity of 3edan. After
completing his Brs. (e+uivalent to 6A honours in Australia) degree at the "C"5 ("nstitute
of Teacher Training and &ducational #ciences in ) 3edan ('KJ() he was awarded a
scholarship by the Australian Government (,olombo 5lan, A"BA6, ABA6, Aus Aid) to
study in Australian :niversities for J years. -e completed his Biploma in the Teaching
of &nglish as a Foreign anguage (BT&F) at the :niversity of #ydney, Mew #outh
;ales in 'KJ4 and obtained an 3A degree in linguistics at the same university in 'KJJ.
-e was then transferred to 3elbourne, Gictoria and continued his studies at a Trobe
:niversity where he obtained the 5hB degree in inguistics in 'KK4. "n (DD2 Br. Amrin
#aragih was promoted to his professorship. 5rof. Brs Amrin #aragih, 5hB, 3A,
BT&F has attended seminars as speakers and participants in linguistics, language
teaching, culture and semiotics in Australia, "ndonesia, 3alaysia, Thailand, Mew
\ealand, and #ingapore. -is interests are discourse studies, semiotics and ideology in
te!ts. -is works are mostly related, influenced by and based on systemic functional
linguistics theories as developed my 3. A. C. -alliday one of the world leading
linguists and O. E. 3artin (,anada) who were his lecturers at the :niversity of #ydney,
M#;, Australia. 5rof. Amrin #aragih, 5hB, 3A, BT&F occupied positions of the
Beputy Bean for Academic Affairs ('KK40(DD)), the Beputy Birector for Academic
Affairs of the #choolP of 5ostgraduate #tudies ((DD10(DD4), the #tate :niversity of
3edan. ,urrently he is the ,hairperson of the #chool of Foreign anguages (#T6A) of
-arapan, 3edan and the -ead of The Mational anguage ,entre (6alai 6ahasa) in
3edan. Mow 5rof. Amrin #aragih, 5hB, 3A, BT&F is also a senior lecturer at the
inguistics #tudy 5rogram of the 5ostgraduate #chool of :#: (the :niversity of Morth
#umatra) and :"#: (the "slam :niversity of Morth #umatra) where he lectures in
Biscourse Analysis, Translation, 5ragmatics and #emiotics of anguage. -e has a wide
range of publicationsP of which two are very current #ahasa dalam Donteks $osial
((DD4) and Tema dan Eema ((DD9).
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,arning
In accordance 2ith academic ethics,
Regulations and !a2s of the Repulic of
Indonesia, no part or the 2hole of this oo@
is allo2ed to e reproduced, photocopied or
circulated in an) form 2ithout prior
permission from the author&
J4
#R$6%C$
This book is mainly prepared for the students of &nglish Bepartment, Faculty of
anguages and Arts (F6#), the #tate :niversity of 3edan (:M"3&B) doing the lectures
of Functional Grammar and 1iscourse )nalysis each of which is allocated or weighed in
( #C# or credits. -owever, the book is suggested for use for those who are interested in
functional grammar or functional analysis of language.
"t is a fact that the aim in any educational system is conte!tually determined. This
implies that a te!tbook is only relevant with reference to the students% needs. #ince the
students% needs vary with reference to the social conte!ts and background in which they
live or brought up, obviously there is no book which is wholly or completely suitable to
any instructional program, let alone for all purposes. "n other words, materials for
instructions are dependent on social conte!ts where teachings are held. "n the light of this
assumption, the materials in te!tbooks depend on various factors, such as who are
learning the materials, where learning takes place, what ob7ective are to achieve, what
facilities are available, what e!pectations of the learners are, etc.
This book is primarily meant to meet with the students% needs of the &nglish
Bepartment, F6# :M"3&B with specific ob7ectives to train teacher students to be good
at (&nglish) grammar and be +ualified &nglish teachers. The materials in this book are
obtained from various sources as listed in the references and the present writer%s
e!perience in teaching $ystemic Functional Grammar and 1iscourse )nalysis for the last
fifteen years to "ndonesian university students in 3edan, Morth #umatra.
Those who want to use the book individually are advised to use it se+uentially by
its chapters. "n this way any unnecessary gaps in the successions and presentations of the
materials are avoided. "n addition, the materials are graded in terms of difficulty.
" would like to thank all those who have contributed to the making of this book.
First of all, " would like to thank 5rof. 3. A. C -alliday and 5rof. O. E. 3artin (#ydney
:niversity, Australia) who taught me and supervised my works in systemic functional
linguistics during my academic years in Australia ('KJ20'KK4). The two linguists have
inspired me to apply their theories to other languages and their academic and linguistic
orientations have deeply rooted in my works. This is because, in my understanding,
J9
theories of systemic functional linguistics (#F) are very relevant and contributive to
social, economic and cultural developments in "ndonesia. As a developing country,
"ndonesia is now developing all aspects of life and theories of #F are obviously y
relevant to educational developments in "ndonesia.
#econdly, my indebtedness is to 5rof. 6arry 6lake (a Trobe :niversity Gictoria,
Australia) who very often critici*ed my dissertation on systemic functional linguistics.
5rof. 6arry 6lake also offered an alternative theory to my dissertation that " could not
accept. -owever, his sincere offer convinced me to continue with my #F theories in my
dissertation.
Then, " am indebted to my thesis and academic supervisor at a Trobe :niversity,
Br. Graham #cott who assisted me very much in my efforts to write a book on linguistics.
The humorouslyAconveyed advice and criticism by Br. Graham #cott motivated me to
bring this book into e!istence.
" would like to thank all the (DD4>(DD9 academic year students of &nglish Applied
inguistics #tudy 5rogram, the 5ostgraduate #tudies of the #tate :niversity of 3edan
(:M"3&B) who have contributed to the writing of this book and inspired me in arranging
the materials of this book.
" would also like to thank my colleagues 5rof. T. #ilvana #inar, 5hB, 3A (:#:)
and Asruddin 6arori Tou, 5hB, 3A (:M?), 5rof. " 3ade #ut7aya, 5hB, 3A, 5rof. "
3ade #uastra, 5hB, 5rof. " Cetut Artawa, 5hB (:dayana) who have motivated and
encouraged me to write this book.
3y wife 3as 5. Caban strongly motivated me to bring this book into e!istence.
#he has been faithfully responsible to manage family matters. #he endured loneliness
and burden for childcares for almost J years during my stay in Australia.
Then, " would like to thank friends. Brs. \ainuddin, 3. -um, Br. 6usmin
Gurning, 3. 5d., Bra. Eahmah, 3. -um., Bra. #iti Aisyah Ginting 3. 5d., Bra. 3eisuri,
3A, Bra. ,ut &rnidawaty, 3. 5d., and Bra. #ri 3inda 3urni, 3# who readily made
contributions to the manuscript of the book.
ast but not least " would like to thank #ukarny who has been responsible for the
setting, lay out and printing of the book.
3edan (( April, (DDJ
5rof. Amrin #aragih, 5hB, 3A, BT&F, Brs.
JJ
CONT$NT*
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12
,hapter 9 ,/-&#"/M 8888888888888888888888.. 2J
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JK
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KD

Introducing Systemic Functional Grammar

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Chapter 1

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