Somatic nervous system

The somatic nervous system (SNS) is the part of the peripheral nervous
system associated with the voluntary control of body movements through the
action of skeletal muscles, and with reception of external stimuli, which helps keep
the body in touch with its surroundings (e.g., touch, hearing, and sight).
The system includes all the neurons connected with skeletal muscles, skin,
and sense organs.

Somatic Nervous System
The somatic nervous system (SNS), composed of somatic parts of the NS and
!NS, provides sensory and motor innervation to all parts of the body, except the
viscera in the body cavities, smooth muscle, and glands. The somatic sensory
system transmits sensations of touch, pain, temperature, and position from sensory
receptors. "ost of these sensations reach conscious levels (i.e., we are aware of
them). The somatic motor sys#tem innervates only skeletal muscle, stimulating
voluntary and re$exive movement by causing the muscle to contract, as occurs in
response to touching a hot iron.
Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system (%NS), classically described as the visceral
nervous system or visceral motor system consists of motor fibers that stimulate
smooth (involuntary) muscle, cardiac muscle, and glandular (secretory) cells. &t has
visceral efferent 'bers and visceral afferent fibers. These nerve 'bers and ganglia
of the %NS are organi(ed into two systems or divisions) the sympathetic
(thoracolumbar) division and the parasympathetic (craniosacral) division.
&n contrast to somatic nervous system both divisions of the %NS, conduction of
impulses from the NS to the effector organ involves a series of two multipolar
neurons. The nerve cell body of the 'rst presynaptic (preganglionic) neuron is
located in the gray matter of the NS. &ts 'ber (axon) synapses only on the cell
body of a post#synaptic (postganglionic) neuron, the second neuron in the series.
The cell bodies of these second neurons are located outside the NS in autonomic
ganglia, with 'bers terminating on the effector organ (smooth muscle, modi'ed
cardiac muscle, or glands).
SYMPATHETIC (THORACOLUMBAR !I"ISION O# ANS
The cell bodies of the presynaptic neurons of the sympathetic division of the %NS
are found in only one location) lateral gray horn fromT*#+,. The cell bodies of
postsynaptic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system occur in two locations, the
paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia)
Paraverte$ra% &an&%ia are linked to form right and left sympathetic trunks
(chains) on each side of the vertebral column and extend essentially the length of
this column.
Preverte$ra% &an&%ia are in the plexuses that surround the origins of the main
branches of the abdominal aorta (for which they are named), such as the two large
celiac ganglia that surround the origin of the celiac trunk (a ma-or artery arising
from the aorta).
The axons of presynaptic neurons leave the spinal cord through anterior roots and
enter the anterior rami of spinal nerves T*.+, or /.%lmost immediately after
entering, all the presynaptic sympathetic 'bers leave the anterior rami of these
spinal nerves and pass to the sympathetic trunks through white rami
communicantes (communicating branches).
0ithin the sympathetic trunks, presynaptic 'bers follow one of four possible
courses.
*. %scend in the sympathetic trunk to synapse with a post#synaptic neuron of a
higher paravertebral ganglion.
,. 1nter and synapse immediately with a postsynaptic neuron of the paravertebral
ganglion at that level
/. 2escend in the sympathetic trunk to synapse with a post#synaptic neuron of a
lower paravertebral ganglion.
3. !ass through the sympathetic trunk without synapsing, continuing through an
abdominopelvic splanchnic nerve (a branch of the trunk involved in
innervating abdominopelvic viscera) to reach the prevertebral ganglia.
!resynaptic sympathetic 'bers that provide autonomic innervation within the head,
neck, body wall, limbs, and thoracic cavity follow one of the 'rst three courses,
synapsing within the paravertebral ganglia. The presynaptic sympathetic 'bers
innervating viscera within the abdominopelvic cavity follow the fourth course.
Those postsynaptic sym#pathetic 'bers, destined for distribution within the neck,
body wall, and limbs, pass from the paravertebral ganglia of the sympathetic trunks
to ad-acent anterior rami of spinal nerves through gray rami communicantes . 4y
this means, they enter all branches of all /* pairs of spinal nerves, including the
posterior rami. The postsynaptic sympathetic 'bers stimulate contraction of the
blood vessels (vasomotion) and arrector muscles associated with hairs (pilomotion,
resulting in 5goose bumps6), and to cause sweating (sudo motion).
!ostsynaptic sympathetic 'bers destined for the viscera of the thoracic cavity (e.g.,
the heart, lungs, and esophagus) pass through cardiopulmonary splanchnic nerves
to enter the cardiac, pulmonary, and esophageal plexuses. The presynaptic
sympathetic 'bers involved in the innervation of viscera of the abdominopelvic
cavity (e.g., the stomach and intestines) pass to the prevertebral ganglia through
abdominopelvic splanchnic nerves. %ll presynaptic sympathetic 'bers of the
%bdominopelvic splanchnic nerves, except those involved in innervating the
suprarenal (adrenal) glands, synapse in prevertebral ganglia. The postsynaptic
'bers from the prevertebral ganglia form periarterial plexuses, which follow
branches of the abdominal aorta to reach their destination. Some presynaptic
sympathetic 'bers pass through the celiac pre vertebral ganglia without synapsing,
continuing to terminate directly on cells of the medulla of the suprarenal gland.
The suprarenal medullary cells function as a special type of postsynaptic neuron
that, instead of releasing their neurotransmitter substance onto the cells of a
speci'c effector organ, release it into the bloodstream to circulate throughout the
body, producing a widespread sympathetic response. Thus the sympathetic
innervation of this &%an' is e(ce)tiona%. %s described earlier, postsynaptic
sympathetic 'bers are components of virtually all branches of all spinal nerves. 4y
this means and via peri arterial plexuses, they extend to and innervate all the
body7s blood vessels (the sympathetic system7s primary function) as well as sweat
glands, arrector muscles of hairs, and visceral structures. Thus the sympathetic
nervous system reaches virtually all parts of the body, with the rare exception of
such avascular tissues as cartilage and nails. 4ecause the two sets of sympathetic
ganglia (para#and prevertebral) are centrally placed in the body and are close to the
midline (hence relatively close to the spinal cord), in this division the presynaptic
'bers are relatively short, where as the postsynaptic 'bers are relatively long,
having to extend to all parts of the body.
PARASYMPATHETIC (CRANIOSACRAL !I"ISION O# ANS
!resynaptic parasympathetic nerve cell bodies are located in two sites within the
NS, and their 'bers exit by two routes. This arrangement accounts for the
alternate name 5craniosacral6 for the parasympathetic division of the %NS) &n the
gray matter of the brainstem, the 'bers exit the NS within cranial nerves &&&, 8&&,
&9, and 9: these 'bers constitute the cranial parasympathetic out $ow.
&n the gray matter of the sacral segments of the spinal cord (S,.3), the 'bers exit
the NS through the anterior roots of sacral spinal nerves S,.3 and the pelvic
splanchnic nerves that arise from their anterior rami: these 'bers constitute the
sacral parasympathetic out $ow.
Not surprisingly, the crania% out *o+ )rovi'es )arasym)at,etic innervation of
the head, and the sacral out $ow provides the parasympathetic innervation of the
pelvic viscera. ;owever, in terms of the innervation of thoracic and abdominal
viscera, the cranial out$ow through the vagus nerve (N 9) is dominant. &t
provides innervation to all thoracic viscera and most of the gastrointestinal (<&)
tract from the esophagus through most of the large intestine (to its left colic
$exure).
The sacral out$ow to the <& tract supplies only the descending and sigmoid colon
and rectum. =egardless of the extensive in$uence of its cranial out$ow, the
parasympathetic system is much more restricted than the sympathetic system in its
distribution. The parasympathetic system distributes only to the head, visceral
cavities of the trunk, and erectile tissues of the external genitalia. 0ith the
exception of the latter, it does not reach the body wall or limbs, and except for the
initial parts of the anterior rami of spinal nerves S,.3, its 'bers are not components
of spinal nerves or their branches. >our discrete pairs of parasympathetic ganglia
occur in the head. 1lsewhere, presynaptic parasympathetic 'bers synapse with
postsynaptic cell bodies, which occur singly in or on the wall of the target organ
(intrinsic or enteric ganglia). onse?uently, in this division, most presynaptic 'bers
are very long, extending from the NS to the effector organ, whereas the
postsynaptic 'bers are very short, running from a ganglion located near or
embedded in the effector organ.
The anatomica% 'istinction between the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions of the %NS is based primarily on) *.The location of the presynaptic cell
bodies, and ,.0hich nerves conduct the presynaptic 'bers from the NS
% functional distinction of pharmacological importance for medical practice is that
the postsynaptic neurons of the two divisions generally liberate different
neurotransmitter substances) norepinephrine by the sympathetic division (except in
the case of sweat glands) and acetylcholine by the parasympathetic division.
#UNCTIONS O# !I"ISIONS O# ANS
%lthough both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems innervate involuntary
(and often affect the same) structures, they have different, usually contrasting yet
coordinated, effects. &n general, the sympathetic system is a catabolic (energy#
expending) system that enables the body to deal with stresses, such as when
preparing the body for the 'ght#or#$ight response. The parasympathetic system
&s primarily a homeostatic or anabolic (energy#conserving) system, promoting the
?uiet and orderly processes of the body, such as those that allow the body to feed
and assimilate. The primary function of the sympathetic system is to regulate blood
vessels. This is accomplished by several means having different effects. 4lood
vessels throughout the body are tonically innervated by sympathetic nerves,
maintaining a resting state of moderate vasoconstriction. &n most vascular beds, an
increase in sympathetic signals causes increased vasoconstriction, and a decrease
in the rate of sympathetic signals allows vasodilation. ;owever, in certain regions
of the body, sympathetic signals are vasodilatory (i.e., sympathetic transmitter
substances inhibit active vasoconstriction, allowing the blood vessels to be
passively dilated by the blood pressure). In t,e coronary vesse%s- t,e vesse%s o.
s/e%eta% musc%es- an' t,e e(terna% &enita%s- sym)at,etic stimu%ation resu%ts in
vaso'i%ation0
"ISCERAL SENSATION
8isceral afferent 'bers have important relationships to the %NS, both anatomically
and functionally. 0e are usually un#aware of the sensory input of these 'bers,
which provides information about the condition of the body7s internal environment.
This information is integrated in the NS, often triggering visceral or somatic
re$exes or both. 8isceral re$exes regulate blood pressure and chemistry by altering
such functions as heart and respiratory rates and vascular resistance. 8isceral
sensation that reaches a conscious level is generally perceived as pain that is either
poorly locali(ed or felt as cramps or that may convey a feeling of hunger, fullness,
or nausea. Surgeons operating on patients who are under local anesthesia may
handle, cut, clamp, or even burn (cauteri(e) visceral organs without evoking
conscious sensation. ;ow#ever, ade?uate stimulation, such as the following, may
elicit pain) @Sudden distension. @ Spasms or strong contractions. @ hemical
irritants. @ "echanical stimulation, especially when the organ is active. @
!athological conditions (especially ischemia) that lower the normal thresholds of
stimulation. Normal activity usually produces no sensation but may do so when the
blood supply is inade?uate (ischemia). "ost visceral re$ex (unconscious)
sensation and some pain travel in visceral afferent 'bers that accompany the
parasympathetic 'bers retrograde (backward). "ost visceral pain impulses (from
the heart and most organs of the peritoneal cavity) travel centrally along visceral
afferent 'bers accompanying sympathetic 'bers.
S1ELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system may be divided into two functional parts)
The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the head (cranium or skull), neck
(hyoid bone and cervical vertebrae), and trunk (ribs, sternum,
vertebrae, and sacrum).
The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the limbs, including those
forming the pectoral (shoulder) and pelvic girdles.
Carti%a&e an' Bones
The skeleton is composed of cartilages and bones.
CARTILA2E
artilage is a speciali(ed dense connective tissue. &t is hard but not rigid like bone.
&t can be bent and also brought back into its original form when bending force is
withdrawn.
This cartilage forms the skeletal basis of some parts of the body (auricle of the ear,
external nose). No nerves or $%oo' vesse%s occur in cartilage.
%t the time of birth, many parts of the skeletal frame work of the newborn are
made up of cartilage. +ater this cartilage will be converted into bones by a process
called ossification.
artilage consists of cells called chondrocytes, fibers A ground substance.
4ased on the type of fibers present in the matrix, the cartilages are classified into
three typesB
30 ;yaline cartilage 19) trac,ea and en's o. $one where they form 4oints.
50 1lastic cartilage 19) +o$e o. t,e ear, the e)i&%ottis
60 >ibrocartilage E78 'iscs $et+een t,e verte$rae
BONE
4one, a living tissue, is a highly speciali(ed, hard form of connective tissue that
makes up most of the skeleton. 4ones of the adult skeleton provide)
Support for the body and its vital cavities: it is the chief supporting tissue of
the body.
!rotection for vital structures (e.g., the heart).
The mechanical basis for movement (leverage).
Storage for salts (e.g., calcium, phosphorus, etc).
% continuous supply of new blood cells (produced by the marrow in the
medullary cavity of many bones).
Csseous tissue, or bone tissue, is the ma-or structural and supportive connective
tissue of the body. Csseous tissue forms the rigid part of the bone organs that make
up the skeletal system.
#ormation o. osseous tissue or $one tissue
4one tissue is a minerali(ed connective tissue. &t is formed by cells,
called osteoblasts, that deposit a matrix of Type#& collagen and also release
calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions that ultimately combine chemically
within the ollagenous matrix into a crystalline mineral, known as bone mineral,
in the form of hydroxyapatite. The combination of hard mineral and flexible
collagen makes bone harder and stronger than cartilage without being brittle.
C%assi.ication o. $ones- based on the
A0 Ty)es o. osseous tissue or $one tissue t,at ma/e u) t,e $one)
Cortica% $one, synonymous with compact bone, is one of the two types of osseous
tissue that form bones. ortical bone facilitates boneDs main functions) to support
the body, protect organs, provide levers for movement, and store and release
chemical elements, mainly calcium. %s its name implies, cortical bone forms
the cortex, or outer shell, of most bones, which is made up of bony plates called
lamella. These bony plates are arranged very compactly. %gain, as its name
implies, compact bone is much denser than cancellous bone, which is the other
type of osseous tissue. >urthermore, it is harder, stronger and stiffer than
cancellous bone. ortical bone contributes about EFG of the weight of a human
skeleton. The primary anatomical and functional unit of cortical bone is the osteon.
Cance%%ous $one, synonymous with trabecular bone or spongy bone, is one of the
two types of osseous tissue that form bones. ompared to compact bone, which is
the other type of osseous tissue, it has a higher surface area but is less dense, softer,
weaker, and less stiff because bony plates are arranged irregularly leaving spaces in
between them that gives a spongy appearance. &t typically occurs at the ends of
long bones, proximal to -oints and within the interior of vertebrae. ancellous bone
is highly vascular and fre?uently contains red bone marrow where hematopoiesis,
the production of blood cells, occurs. The primary anatomical and functional unit
of cancellous bone is the trabeculae.
B0 Bones are c%assi.ie' accor'in& to t,eir s,a)e0
+ong bones are tubular (e.g., the humerus in the arm).
Short bones are cuboidal and are found only in the tarsus (ankle) and carpus
(wrist).
>lat bones usually serve protective functions (e.g., the flat bones of the
cranium protect the brain).
&rregular bones have various shapes other than long, short, or flat (e.g., bones
of the face).
C0 Base' on 'eve%o)ment
%ll the bones are developed from the mesoderm
*. "embranous bone)
The mesenchymal tissue (developed from mesoderm) is directly transformed
in to a bone 19) CLA"ICLE
,. artilaginous bones)
The mesenchymal tissue is first transformed into a cartilage. +ater cartilage
undergoes ossification to form bones ex) %im$ $ones.
!0 SPECIAL TYPE O# BONES
*. !neumatic bone
These are flat or irregular bones with hollow spaces in their body. These spaces
contain air. 1x) ethmoid, maxilla.
,. Sesamoid bone (sesamoid seed#like)
Sesamoid bones (e.g., the patella or knee cap) develop in certain tendons and are
found where tendons cross the ends of long bones in the limbs: they protect the
tendons from excessive wear and often change the angle of the tendons as they
pass to their attachments.
Macrosco)ic structure o. a $one)
The long bone consists of two ends (epiphysis) and a shaft (diaphysis)
The shaft consists of a cylindrical cavity inside called medullary cavity,
which is filled with bone marrow. The outer (cortical) part of the shaft is
made up of compact bone.
The two ends of the long bone are filled with tiny plates of bone containing
numerous spaces called as spongy bone where the bone marrow does not
extend.
The outer surface of the bone is covered by a highly vascular connective
tissue membrane called periosteum except at the articular surfaces. &t is
ca)a$%e o. %ayin& 'o+n more $one ()articu%ar%y 'urin& .racture
,ea%in& and provide the interface for attachment of tendons and ligaments
The articular surfaces are covered by a cartilage called articular cartilage.
The medullary connective tissue is lined by another connective tissue
membrane is called endosteum.
Bone marro+
&t is the vascular connective tissue present in the cavity (medullary cavity) of
the bone. The bone marrow differs in composition in different bones and at
different ages. &t occurs in two forms, yellow marrow and red marrow. The
red marrow is actively engaged in the production of blood cells. The yellow
marrow derives its color form the large ?uantity of fat cells it contains. %t
birth the red marrow is present throughout the skeleton. %fter about fifth
year of postnatal life, the red marrow is gradually replaced in the long bones
by yellow marrow.
Microsco)ic structure
%n adult long bone consists of following components)
%. 4one cells
4. "atrix
com)act $one8
The compact bone is made up of lamellae.
+amellae are thin plates of bone consisting of collagen fibers embedded in
ground substance.
+amellae are placed one over the other.
The spaces between the lamellae are called lacunae
+acunae are occupied by osteocytes and the ad-acent lacunae are connected
through canaliculi, which are occupied by cytoplasmic processes of
osteocytes.
"ost of the lamellae are arranged in the form of concentric rings that surround
a haversian canal, which is present at the center of each ring.
;aversian canals are placed parallel to medullary and they are occupied by
blood vessels and nerve fibers.
%d-acent haversian canals are connected by volkman7s canal.
Cne ;aversian canal and lamella around it constitute a haversian system or an
osteon.
Bone ce%%s
Osteo$%asts
These are bone forming cells, more numerous in periosteum and these are
responsible for laying down organic matrix of bone including the collagen fibers.
They are also responsible for calcification of the matrix.
Osteocytes
These are mature bone cells, derived form osteoblasts after they have laid down the
matrix. There are present in the lacunae of the bone between lamellae and
osteocytes have many cytoplasmic processes, which establish connections with
other osteocytes. Csteocytes maintain the integrity of the lacunae.
Osteoc%asts
These are bone removing cells (deminerali(ation) and found in relation to the
surfaces of the bone. Csteoclasts are stimulated by parathyroid hormone.
MATRI7 (2ROUN! SUBSTANCE
The matrix of the bone consists of both organic and inorganic substances.
a. Crganic constituent (,HG of the matrix)
&t is mainly made up of collagen fibers and these are embedded in proteins,
carbohydrates and water.
The collagen fibers are responsible for toughness and resilience of bone and
these fibers are synt,esi9e' $y osteo$%asts.
hondroitin sulphate is another important organic constituent of the bone.
a. &norganic constituent (IHG)
b. alcium, phosphate and hydroxyl ions are in the form of crystals called
hydroxyapatite crystals which lie parallel to collagen fibers.
Ossi.ication
The process of bone formation is called ossification. %ll the bones are developed
form the mesenchymal tissue of the embryo. There are two types of ossification.
"embranous ossification)
The embryonic mesenchymal tissue will directly form the bone. 19)
clavicle, bones of cranial vault.
artilaginous ossification)
"esenchymal tissue is first transformed into a cartilage. +ater cartilage is ossified
to form bone
Ossi.ication o . a %on& $one
The ossification of begins in one or more areas of future bone model. These areas
are called centers of ossification.
!=&"%=J 1NT1= C> CSS&>&%T&CN
The ossification that starts in the central part of the cartilaginous model (i.e. at the
future shaft) is called primary center of ossification and part of bone that develops
from it is called diaphysis. The primary center ossification normally appears before
birth.
Secondary center of ossification
These centers appear at the two ends (epiphysis) of the long bone usually after
birth. The portion of long developed from secondary center of ossification is called
epiphysis. The portion of the bone which is in between the epiphysis and diaphysis
are actively involved in growth called as metaphysis. The metaphysis is the wider
portion of a long bone ad-acent to the plate. &t is this part of the bone that grows
during childhood: as it grows, it ossifies near the diaphysis and the epiphyses. %t
roughly *E to ,H years of age, the metaphysis stops growing altogether and
completely ossifies into solid bone.
1piphyseal plates (Kgrowth platesK) are located in the metaphysis and are
responsible for growth in the length of the bone.
The epiphyseal plate (or epiphyseal plate, physis, or growth plate) is a hyaline
cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end of a long bone. The plate is found in
children and adolescents: in adults, who have stopped growing, the plate is
replaced by an epiphyseal line.
La+s o. ossi.ication
1piphysis which ossifies first unites (fuses) with the diaphysis last and the
epiphysis which ossifies last fuses first.
B%oo' su))%y to t,e %on& $ones
1. Nutrient artery) enters shaft through a nutrient foramen and on reaching the
marrow cavity they divide into ascending and descending branches.
2. 1piphyseal arteries) they are several in numbers and enter the bone near the
ends.
3. "etaphyseal arteries
4. !eriosteal arteries) they are numerous and enter the bone along the muscular
attachment.
%ll the above the arteries forms an extensive anastomoses inside the marrow
cavity.
%n arteriovenous anastomosis is a connection between two blood vessels, resulting
in multitude of arteries and veins serving the same volume of tissue.
A))%ie' anatomy)
4ecause the metaphysis receives rich blood supply, metaphysis of long bones are
prone to hematogenous spread of Csteomyelitis in children.
2efects in the development and continued division of epiphyseal plates can lead to
growth disorders. The most common defect is achondroplasia, where there is a
defect in cartilage formation. %chondroplasia is the most common cause
of dwarfism.
:OINTS
% 4oint is the location at which two or more bones make contact. They are
constructed to allow movement and provide mechanical support, and are classified
structurally and functionally.
C%assi.ication
Structura% c%assi.ication
Structural classification names and divides -oints according to how the bones are
connected to each other.
There are three structural classifications of -oints)
fibrous -oint # -oined by fibrous connective tissue
cartilaginous -oint # -oined by cartilage
synovial -oint # not directly -oined
#unctiona% c%assi.ication
Loints can also be classified functionally, by the degree of mobility they allow)
M3N
synarthrosis # permits little or no mobility. "ost synarthrosis -oints are fibrous
-oints (e.g., skull sutures).
amphiarthrosis # permits slight mobility. "ost amphiarthrosis -oints
are cartilaginous -oints (e.g., vertebrae).
2iarthroses # permits a variety of movements. %ll diarthrosis -oints are synovial
-oints (e.g., shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, etc.), and the terms KdiarthrosisK and
Ksynovial -ointK

SYNO"IAL :OINT
% Synovia% 4oint, also known as a 'iart,rosis, is the most common and most
movable type of -oint in the body of a mammal. %s with most other -oints, synovial
-oints achieve movement at the point of contact of the articulating bones.
Structural and functional differences distinguish synovial -oints from cartilaginous
-oints and fibrous -oints ). The main structural differences between synovial and
fibrous -oints is the existence of capsules surrounding the articulating surfaces of a
synovial -oint and the presence of lubricating synovial fluid within that capsule
(synovial cavity).
Structure) articular capsule) The fibrous capsule is continuous with
the periosteum of bone. &t is also highly innervated but avascular (lacking blood
and lymph vessels)
articular cartilage) lines the epiphyses of -oint end of bone. !rovides the loading
and unloading mechanism to resist load and shock
synovial membrane) the inner layer of the fibrous articular capsule.
The synovial membrane covers the lining of the synovial cavity where articular
cartilage is absent.
Synovia% .%ui') it is a viscous fluid present in the -oint cavity and it provides
nutrition to the articular cartilage and lubrication to -oint.
Nerve Su))%y o. Synovia% :oint
&t is derived from the nerve supply of muscles acting on the -oint.
B%oo' Su))%y o. Synovia% :oint
>rom the arteries sharing in the anastomosis around the -oint.
Movements )ossi$%e
The movements possible with synovial -oints are)
%bduction) movement away from the mid#line of the body.
%dduction) movement towards the mid#line of the body.
1xtension) straightening limbs at a -oint.
>lexion) bending the limbs at a -oint.
=otation) a circular movement around a fixed point.
There are seven types of synovial -oints. Some are relatively immobile, but
are more stable. Cthers have multiple degrees of freedom, but at the expense
of greater risk of in-ury.