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Swearing is the use of provocative or offensive language. This ubiquitously present linguistic element is mentioned to, at a certain point in live, have touched each and every person (Van Lancker and Cummings, 1999:83). Swearing is unique within the field of sociolinguistics due to its social implications, as although the denotation of a swearword may be insignificant; its connotations can invoke a derogatory epithet. Society empowers swearwords, as social factors assert whether one is to take offence to ideas, or feelings, their connotations invoke. This basic analysis of the social effect of swearing, portrays its relationship to emotion. I became personally impelled to read into swearing and emotions, after I had come across a photo on Facebook posted by online community “Word Porn”. Known for sharing literary content of various genres concerning writing, this particular picture contained a lexical entry and read as followed: lalochezia, (n.) the emotional relief gained from using abusive or profane language (appendix 1).
Titolo originale
"Lalochlezia" and swearing: does it reflect taboo, or "Boohoooo"
Swearing is the use of provocative or offensive language. This ubiquitously present linguistic element is mentioned to, at a certain point in live, have touched each and every person (Van Lancker and Cummings, 1999:83). Swearing is unique within the field of sociolinguistics due to its social implications, as although the denotation of a swearword may be insignificant; its connotations can invoke a derogatory epithet. Society empowers swearwords, as social factors assert whether one is to take offence to ideas, or feelings, their connotations invoke. This basic analysis of the social effect of swearing, portrays its relationship to emotion. I became personally impelled to read into swearing and emotions, after I had come across a photo on Facebook posted by online community “Word Porn”. Known for sharing literary content of various genres concerning writing, this particular picture contained a lexical entry and read as followed: lalochezia, (n.) the emotional relief gained from using abusive or profane language (appendix 1).
Swearing is the use of provocative or offensive language. This ubiquitously present linguistic element is mentioned to, at a certain point in live, have touched each and every person (Van Lancker and Cummings, 1999:83). Swearing is unique within the field of sociolinguistics due to its social implications, as although the denotation of a swearword may be insignificant; its connotations can invoke a derogatory epithet. Society empowers swearwords, as social factors assert whether one is to take offence to ideas, or feelings, their connotations invoke. This basic analysis of the social effect of swearing, portrays its relationship to emotion. I became personally impelled to read into swearing and emotions, after I had come across a photo on Facebook posted by online community “Word Porn”. Known for sharing literary content of various genres concerning writing, this particular picture contained a lexical entry and read as followed: lalochezia, (n.) the emotional relief gained from using abusive or profane language (appendix 1).
Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude
Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014
1 Swearing: Does it express Taboo or Boohoo? Swearing is the use of provocative or offensive language, and this ubiquitously present linguistic element is mentioned to have touched every human at a certain point in live (Van Lancker and Cummings, 1999:83). Due to its social implications, it is unique within the field of sociolinguistics, which comes from to the fact that the denotation of a swearword may be insignificant: its connotations can invoke a derogatory epithet. Society empowers swearwords as social factors assert whether one is to take offence to ideas or feelings its connotations invoke. This basic analysis of the social effect of swearing portrays its relationship to emotion. I became personally impelled to read into swearing and emotions after I had come across a photo on Facebook, posted by online community Word Porn. Known for sharing literary content of various genres concerning writing, this picture contained a lexical entry that read the following: lalochezia, (n.) the emotional relief gained from using abusive or profane language (appendix 1). According to Jay (2000:82), humans readily associate swearing with all emotional states in early childhood. Linguists and psychologists developed language theories over a century, yet these excluded swearing (10). Jay moreover states that excluding swearing, also excluded emotions in the language theories discussions while emotions are as innate in language as they are in humans (11). Moreover, in most research concerning swearing, emotions are rarely discussed as these studies have been written from linguistic and historical-social points of view (16). Jay mentions swearing is an emotional element of language that alters the way we view ourselves and others (81). In a way, this implies that the powerful and provocative Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 2 act of swearing is actually a tool to express emotions, disguised as tabooed language. It will be interesting to compare whether women, whom are stereotypically deemed to be more emotional than men (Jay, 2000:92), gain more or stronger lalochezia- emotional relief from swearing than male counterparts. To research this, I designed a small-scaled online survey, which collected data from 26 female and 22 male participants (appendix 2). This essay aims to show, by conducting literary research, comparing data and reflecting on findings, the majority of participants experienced emotional relief. However, degrees of gained relief differed on individual levels, showing a surprising outcome from the gender viewpoint. Before commencing on the analysis and interpretation of data, it is important to briefly discuss swearing in general and review academic research that correlates with this essays focus on emotion. Thereafter, gender and language use will be discussed, before focusing on research regarding gender and swearing. There are abundant descriptors for using provocative language, but for the sake of continuity, this essay adopts the term and derivations of swearing. While swearing occurs in many forms, this essay generalizes swearing into three common major categories. These categories of swearing are adopted in this paper, as I believe its connotations transcend languages sworn in. The first category regards swearwords alluding to sexuality and excretion (fuck, shit, cunt, etc.), the second category includes blasphemous swearwords or otherwise related to religion (damn, Jesus, God) (Gauthier, 2012:9). The third category of refers to categorizing epithets to e.g. race, (dis)abilities, sexuality, et cetera (retard, fag, trailer trash) . In an article by O'Callaghan (2013), several theories and inducements for human swearing are discussed. She mentions swearwords to be processed Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 3 differently from more polite words inside our brains. The ability to swear lies in a different area of the brain, which apparently has been long known. Interestingly she mentions aphasic persons, impaired by losing aspects of higher cognition because of injury or neurodegenerative disease, havent lost their ability to swear (2013:72). Apparently humans, as well as other species evolutionally developed areas housing automatic reactions to stress in their brain. OCallaghan exemplifies a study in which triggering the stress-circuit of a cat electronically caused the creature to let out an ear-splitting howl. In people, whom were stimulated similarly, the trigger elicited an outburst of rage accompanied by swearing. It seems humans primitive cries of emotion have assimilated to swearing as basic reflex. According to Jays NPS Theory (Neuro-Psycho-Social) emotional responses occur at different levels of awareness and controllability (2000:20). There are two central brain systems that regulate emotional swearing. In the area controlling emotions: the limbic (subcortical) area (2000:48), swearing can become an automatic (short) reflex and difficult to control, while in the cortical area swearing becomes a more complex and strategically aware response (e.g. jokes or sarcastic responses) (2000:53). Experiencing (or rather, hearing) his wifes coping with the pain of childbirth, inspired psychologist Richard Stephens to conduct an experiment to investigate whether participants experienced relief responding to pain by swearing consistently, like his wife during labour, and measured the effect of swearing on pain levels. Two years after successful conductance, Stephens collaborated with Umland and reconstructed the experiment (2011:1274). Again, the research was able to demonstrate pain amelioration had been experienced by participating undergraduates whom swore while trying to hold their hands in ice-cold water as Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 4 long as possible. Apart from pain relief, participants allowed to swear were measured to be able to hold their hands an average of thirty-one seconds longer in the ice water, than non-swearing participants (1278). This effect on pain endurance has been ascribed: the hypoalgesic effect of swearing (2011:1280). Stephens and Umland suggest in their paper, that swearing may induce an emotional response in the speaker, by which pain is relieved. Their academic proposition makes the actualization of gaining emotional relief from swearing, as suggested by this essays focus lalochlezia, a more plausible possibility. Before briefly discussing gender and language and research done into swearing and gender, it has to be mentioned that in reconstructing Stephens study a variable was added to the experiment of 2011 related to gender. Participants daily swearing frequencies were assessed to determine the affect ones swearing frequency has on the degree of pain relief when swearing. Results showed participants with higher swearing frequencies, experience a lesser emotional response () because of habituation to the stimulus of swearing (,) [and] experience a lesser pain tolerance effect from swearing (2011:1278). Findings from several psychologists regarding multilingualism and swearing, mentioned by Abrahams (2013), showed swearing in ones native languages dredges up deeper, more hellacious emotion than swearing in a "foreign" language. As children associate swearwords to emotional states at an early age, and value its pragmatics when they can recast them to acquire attention from parents and they discover swearwords convey emotional states more accurately than primitive cries and shrieks (Jay, 2000:53&82). From this perspective, swearing in the language one has Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 5 first associated and expressed emotions with, rather than languages acquired thereafter, is likely to induce stronger emotions. Genetic differences between men and women are hardly matters of dispute (Wardhaugh, 2010:335). Yet even at physiological level, society affects gender identity as it set norms to conform physiological representation of language to. Wardhaugh mentions vocal sounds may be emphasized to match societys assumptions of how we should sound like when they talk (335), exemplifying this with Margaret Thatcher being advised to lower her pitch and adjust her speaking style in correspondence with her position as British Prime Minister (i.e. she had to sound more masculine) (337). According to Jay (2000:166), cultures aims to mould children into masculine and feminine adults. He portrays gender identity as set of cultural prescriptions and expectations (ibid) to which males and females are to conform. Current Western societies seem to allow women and men freedom to transcend (and mix) their masculine and feminine characteristics. Yet, despite social progress, displaying traits different from social norms may still cause stigmatization and name-calling as gay, tomboy, queer, butch. Wardhaugh (2010:343) states females are reported to be more polite than men in speech, and makes the important observation that in studies into language and gender, male speech overall provided the norm for comparison (335). Differences regarding use of swearwords between genders appear as soon as children go to school (Jay, 2000:92). Apparently, boys swear more often and use more offensive kinds of words than girls. Yet, this could be ascribed to childrens parents, whom swear more with their male children, whereas they monitor their speech with their female ones according current research into gender and swearing Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 6 by Gauthier (2012:128). He reports findings from three main objectives relevant to this essay (126-8). Analyzing the way women and men perceive swearing, was his studys first and foremost aim. While he states the outcome may have been influenced by the traditional stereotypical views representing women as prudish persona to avoid swearing behaviour around and men being big swearers, it demonstrates a perceivable difference. Male participants used substantially more swear words when they were with other men while avoiding avoiding such behaviour around women (2012:127). This showed men related gender much more to swearing than females, whom portrayed consistency in swearing disregarding audience, but rather tended to consider what swear words conveyed and referred to (ibid). Gauthier his second aim linked to these findings, was investigate how swearing is used by both genders as well as its differences. As his first aim showed men swore significantly more in male-only settings, the probability of an unaffected gender division was excluded. He mentions that among men, swearing has a specific function, stating this led him to believe that swearing was a bonding factor for men (2012:127). Gauthier uses these observations to question his last aim regarding the stereotypes of language and gender, as these show the relativity of females assumed prudishness, and that in turn as males being a lot more likely to refrain from swearing than females, this questions the accuracy of applying prudishness in discussing gender and differences in swearing. Gauthier proposes an explanation might lay in the general use of womens swearing compared to mens, as the latter tend to see swearing as a tool more likely to prove useful in everyday situations (ibid), i.e., men see swearing having a socializing and bonding function transcending Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 7 its conveyed connotations. However, Gauthier does states that stereotypical views may begin to change, as traditional gender expectations may be starting to lose of their impact, at least among certain speakers (128). He concludes that, despite the current presence of stereotypes, younger generations are proposed to become more egalitarian despite current parenting differentiation gender-wise, as young females (18-25) are mentioned to report swearing sufficiently more than men. As analysis didnt show potential for women to bond socially over swearing, Gauthier mentions finalizes his report by the implication that women do not swear more than men to be accepted by them, but simply to equal, or even surpass them and create a balance through an equivalent use of strong language(ibid.). With regards to my own research, I collected data from 48 responders via an anonymous online survey with ten questions (appendix 2). Although it is common to devote a section to discussing results, having appended my data summary, the word- limit of this paper and my non-existing skill to analyse statistics: I will commence justifying my design and provide interpretation/analysis of findings. I dispersed the link for the survey among Facebook friends. In making its topic and purpose apparent in its description, I made clear the language used was English to gather responses from individuals proficient in English and interested in my study. The first two questions establish participants gender and age groups, the latter I preferred over specific age as it caters to anonymity more (Gauthier, 2012:55) which particularly when dealing with a tabooed subject might hold respondents back, and also categorizes generations. Gender dyad was quite balanced: 26 females and 22 males, the majority aged between 20-30. The third question assessed frequency of swearing in everyday discourse, to provide insight in gender difference in use of Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 8 swearing. Also due to Stephen & Umland (2011) having asserted frequency of swearing an important variable, due the affect of habituation on gaining relief. All participants (minus one female) reported to swear yet gender difference found correlates with discussed research. Women represent 75% of the occasional swearers and merely 25% of those whom swear everyday. Questions 4-6 examine how context influenced the frequency of swearing behaviour. The context in which swearing occurs is an important variable to assess, as swearwords can merely be perceived provocative or foul when the speakers social setting and listener, along with other variables, are considered. Given the size of this study, settings only variable questioned was swearing frequency. The first context proposed swearing around friends. The first categories of frequency were in balance among genders. Occasionally reported 42.31% by females versus 9.09% by males. Swearing everyday showed 31.82% by males and 11.54% by females. In general this corresponds with Gauthiers (2012:127) findings on male swearing and can be ascribed to its role in male-socialization. Question 5 regarding swearing around family members is asserted to show little difference among genders. For the sake on continuing one can interpret genders overall feel the same about sharing emotions with family. Question six, enquiring the frequency of swearing around superiors shows a dyad. 73.08% females reported never to swear in such contexts while 59.09% males reported occasionally; and 9.09% to often do so. Although these questions are limited and free to interpret by its few variables, findings portray high- frequency swearing in men making women appear stereotypically polite in comparison. Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 9 Question 7 established frequency of use in the three major categories of swearing. Although 10 women reported to never epithets, the first category seems most balanced in use among gender. The four frequencies of religious swearwords reported to increase consistently in males: 0%; 18.18%; 36.36% and 45.45%. Again, women reported lower frequenting is use: 11.54%; 38.46%; 38.46% and 11.54%. Women admittedly report using words alluding to sexuality and excretion, most even doing so often: 0%; 38.46%; 42.31%; 19.23%. Still, they cant beat the male figures: 0%; 9.09%; 31.82%; 59.09%. Males reported swearing much more frequent than women: it even seemed to increase as the survey evolved. Participants could provide options and examples to these generalized categories, which 7 males and 2 females did. Apart from one -seemingly British- response, generally suggestion referred to (explicit!) examples of illnesses, particularly cancer (appendix 3). From an international viewpoint the custom of Dutch language relating swearwords to diseases appears to be rather unique (Van Sterkenburg, 2001; in Rassin and Muris, 2005: 1673). The last three questions cover the focus of this study: Lalochlezia. Question 8 asserts whether emotional relief has even been gained from swearing by the participants, and if so, its frequency. Merely 6 respondents reported never to have gained emotional relief: 2 male and 4 female. Of the other 42, 25 stated to sometimes experience emotional relief from swearing (11 male and 14 female); 15 reported gaining lalochlezia from swearing most of the times (7 male and 8 female). Two participants reported to Always gain relief, both male. To question 9, asserting whether lalochlezia ever induced one to swear, and if so- its frequency, most reported not being aware of it, which corresponds to the discussion on the Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 10 (sub)cortical areas controlling swearing. 3 men stated to never been induced, 8 hadnt experiences emotional relief from swearing to their knowing; 5 men replied lalochlezia induced swearing a few times and merely 1 reported it was why he swore so much. That even 9 polite occasionally swearing, females admittedly reported being induced to swear a few times by its emotional merits shows men are becoming numbed due to swearing habituation. Entering the 10 th and last question of this studys survey: a hypothesis proposed to induce outrage from women, and misconceptions or no opinions from men. Shockingly, only 13 participants disregarded the stereotypically composed hypothesis: 7 males and a mere 6 females. 16 (8/8) responded to have no opinion on this personal matter; 7 females and 2 males agreed a little, 2 women and 1 man did so predominantly and an equal number full-heartily agreed. Luckily, of the four participants whom dared to provide to the other option (appendix 4) the only (egalitarian) female stated what I was looking for: I am not a man, so I dont know how they feel. To conclude, the effect of lalochlezia appeared to correspondence to assumptions proposed by studies examining pain relief from swearing which demonstrated the hypoalgesic effect of swearing. Researching the relationship of swearing and emotions has shown swearing and language theories have long been kept apart, and connecting these might give more insight into the processing of emotions. Having investigated swearing and gender in relation to lalochlezia, based on stereotypical traditions assuming females are the emotional gender, provided the following interpretations. Firstly it seems that traditional gender-identities in language and swearing are omnipresent and are seemingly accepted as normal by society, which hinders society and language evolve into a more egalitarian society. Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 11 Therefore, women may in fact gain more emotional relief from swearing than men; as they are too polite to allow habituation numbing lalochlezia, and it may very well be that keeping these emotions in by refraining from swearing, -unlike men- is what makes women more emotional. Yet, to end on a pending note: if women are the more emotional gender, why do men swear so much?
Annemarie van der Woude.
Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 12 REFERENCES Abrahams, M. (2013, March 18). Does swearing make you feel better? The Guardian. Retrieved from: http://www.theguardian.com/education/2013/mar/18/improbable-research- art-pain-education [last accessed 19-06-2014] Gauthier, M. (2012). Profanity and gender: a diachronic analysis of mens and womens use and perception of swear words. (PDF) Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/2962962/Profanity_and_Gender_a_diachronic_a nalysis_of_mens_and_womens_use_and_perception_of_swear_words [Last accessed 12-05-2014] Jay, T. (2000). Why We Curse: A Neuro-Psycho-Socio Theory of Speech. Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V. (print). OCallaghan, T. (2013). Rude Awakenings: How swearing made us human. New Scientis, Vol. 2948. No.220: 72-4. Rassin, E. and Muris, P. : Personality and Individual Differences Vol. 38. 2005: 166974. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886904003174 [last accessed 09-06-2014] Stephens, R. and Umland, C. : Swearing as a Response to PainEffect of Daily Swearing Frequency. The Journal of Pain, Vol. 12, No. 12 (December), 2011: 1274-81. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1526590011007620 [last accessed 17-06-2014] Van Lancker, D. and Cummings, J.L.: Expletives: Neurolinguis- tics and neurobehavioral perspectives on swearing. Brain Res. Rev. 31:83-104, 1999. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165017399000600 [last accessed 18-06-2014] Wardhaugh, R. (2010). An Introduction to Sociolingistics, 6 th edition, Sussex: Willey-Blackwell Ltd.
Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 13 Appendix 1: Picture from Word Porn as posted on Facebook wall
Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 14 Appendix 2: Data online survey comparing male and female responses
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Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 25 Appendix 3: Examples provided to swearing categories (Question 7)
Language and Society 500631760 Annemarie van der Woude Module leader: Vincent Hernot IDEE Year 4 June 2014 26 Appendix 4: Other optional responses to hypothesis (Question 10)