Mathematics

Standards
A Parents Handbook

Grades K-5
Math & Science Collaborative
2 What your child should be learning:
The elementary mathematics
curriculum taught in your
childs school is Investigations in
Number, Data, and Space

. This
means the classroom activities
and assignments for kindergar-
ten through ffth grade should
refect those described in this
handbook.
The goal of Investigations is to help
students become mathematical
thinkersindividuals with the
necessary skills, strategies, and un-
derstanding of mathematical ideas
to approach new concepts and
problems with confdence. With
that in mind, the curriculum is
organized around the big ideas
(key concepts) of math. Activities
and assignments are designed to
engage students who have a range
of skills and learning styles.
The content and teaching ap-
proaches of Investigationswhat
students learn and how they learn
itare different from most par-
ents experiences with elementary
school math. While computation
(adding, subtracting) is still a
major focus, the curriculum also
includes geometry, early algebra,
probability, and data. For exam-
ple, students begin exploring the
features of shapes (geometry)
in kindergarten. Throughout the
grades, they work with patterns
recognizing, creating, and
extending patterns with objects,
shapes, and numbers (algebra).
They fnd the probability of
events and learn to carry out
a data investigation: posing a
question, gathering information,
showing the data on various
kinds of graphs, describing and
interpreting data, and comparing
one set of data to another.
Teaching approaches in Investiga-
tions focus on students active
involvement in learning. Teachers
ask students to explain their rea-
soning and their solutions to the
class, to compare the strategy they
used to solve a problem to their
classmates strategies, and to think
about why a solution makes sense
or doesnt make sense. Along
with building on what students
already know, teachers challenge
them to think beyond the particular
example. (This triangle has a corner
that matches the corner of a piece of
paper. Do all triangles have to have a
corner like that?This strategy works
for addition; why doesnt it work for
multiplication?) Research shows
that compared to passive learning,
such as copying a procedure shown
by a teacher, active learning helps
students reach deeper levels of
understanding.
CLASSROOM ROUTINES AND
TEN-MINUTE MATH
In grades K-3, classroom routines
and daily activities show students
how math is used in real life and
help them practice skills. In grades
3-5, Ten-Minute Math activities
are used to reinforce concepts and
skills. Examples of routines and Ten-
Minute Math activities include:
Attendance (K-1). Students
count the number who are
present and the number who
are absent, helping them learn
to count accurately (counting
each student only once) and
giving them practice add-
ing and subtracting. (If our
class has 29 students and two
students are absent, how many
are present today?) They also
learn number conceptsfor
example, beginning the count
from one side of the room or
from the other side of the room
results in the same number.
Calendar (K-1). Students count
days and keep track of ac-
tivities on a monthly calendar.
(How many days has it been
since our feld trip to the zoo?)
Weather (grade 1). Students
record the weather on a chart
each day to practice gathering
and examining data that
change over time.
Todays Number (grades
2-4). Students fnd equivalent
expressions for a given num-
ber. (For example, equivalent
expressions for 10 include
5+5, 100-90, 5x2.) Sometimes
INTRODUCTION
Questions parents can ask their children
In the classroom, the teachers goal is to create an environment
where students feel comfortable questioning themselves and their
classmates, and working through the confusion and frustration
which can be part of the learning process. At home, parents can
provide a similar kind of support by asking questions that push
their childs learning further. You might ask:
What are you being asked to fnd out?
What does the problem tell you? Have you seen a problem
like this before?
Is there any part of the problem you already know how to do?
Is there anything you dont understand? Where can you fnd
answers to your questions?
Will it help to make a list, a chart, a table, a drawing, a diagram?
What will you try frst? Then what?
What do you estimate your answer will be?
Is your strategy working? Why or why not?
Is there another way to check your answer?
How do you know if your answer is right or wrong?
End-of-Unit Assessment
Fill this shape with as many blocks as
you can.
How many blocks did you use?_______
Now ll this shape with as few blocks
as you can.
How many blocks did you use?_______
First grade assessment
Source: Investigations
3 Introduction
students must follow guide-
lines, such as starting with
numbers greater than 100, or
using only subtraction.
Quick Images (K-5). The teacher
fashes an image twice, asks
students to describe, draw and/
or model it from memory, then
follows up with a discussion.
The image may be groupings
of dots (like dots on a domino),
shapes, or other things. The goal
is to help students form visual
images of quantities (fve dots,
two dots plus eight dots) or to
recognize shapes easily. Dis-
cussions center around which
features of a shape students re-
membered (It had four sides)
or the different ways they
visualized quantities. (I saw
two groups of four dots. Thats
eight. There was space for ten
but two squares were empty.
Ten minus two is eight.)
At each grade level, students
play games that give them op-
portunities to practice skills and
to build strategies. The curricu-
lum also includes a computer
component, geometry software,
that schools may or may not use.
STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
All students have the right to
participate in the learning ac-
tivities of the math curriculum.
Some students may be able to
participate fully with the help of
special technology or a facilitator;
for others, activities may need
to be modifed. Teachers guides
for Investigations include sugges-
tions and support for adapting or
modifying lessons to meet indi-
vidual needs. Ask your childs
teacher for more information.
WHAT IS IN THIS HANDBOOK?
In this handbook, you will fnd an
outline of the math standards
goals and expectations for stu-
dentsfor each grade level. To
illustrate the kinds of activities that
build skills and understanding
of concepts, information for each
grade level includes a sample of
student work and a game students
play (along with directions for
playing at home). Pages 18 and 19
provide more information about
strategies students use to solve
problems, and examples of graphs.
Page 17 contains a glossary of
mathematical terms that may be
used by your childs teacher or in
homework assignments.
FOR MORE INFORMATION
This handbook is only an out-
line. For more information, try
one of the following sources:
Talk to your childs teacher, the
principal, or a math coach or su-
pervisor for your school district.
The Investigations curriculum
provides two kinds of family
letters for each unit: About
the Mathematics in This Unit
and Related Activities to Try
at Home. Ask your childs
teacher for copies if you
havent received them.
Each grade level has a Stu-
dent Math Handbook with an
overview of the program for
that year, sample problems and
strategies for solving them, and
games. If your child doesnt
bring this book home, ask the
teacher if you can borrow it.
Visit the developers Web site:
http://investigations.terc.edu.
See the glossary on page 17 for
further explanations of math-
ematical terms and concepts.
This publication was developed at the request and with the support of the Math
& Science Collaborative located at the Allegheny Intermediate Unit. This material
is based on work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No.
EHR-0314914. Any opinions, fndings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed
in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily refect the views
of the granting agency.
Writing/editing: Faith Schantz
Design/layout: Julie Ridge
Photographs: Greg Blackman
Contributors and reviewers: Dr. Nancy Bunt, Andrea Miller, Michael Fierle,
Corinne Murawski, and Sandra Fowler of the Math & Science Collaborative; Lisa
Bellinotti of the Fox Chapel Area School District; Mindy Harris and Mary Wallace
of the Uniontown Area School District; Dr. Nancy Jacqmin of Carlow University;
and parents Kim Killinger and Laurie Wozniak.
Samples of student work were provided by teachers in the Fox Chapel Area,
Quaker Valley, Uniontown Area, and Upper St. Clair school districts; and Propel
East charter school.
Examples of math problems, assignments, games, and other text from the
Investigations curriculum were used with permission.
Photographs were taken at Hartwood Elementary School in the Fox Chapel Area
School District and at Benjamin Franklin School in the Uniontown Area School
District, Pennsylvania.
2009 Math & Science Collaborative of the Allegheny Intermediate Unit
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Standards by grade level:
Kindergarten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
First grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Second grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Third grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fourth grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fifth grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Strategies for solving problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Contents
4 What your child should be learning:
NUMBERS
Write numbers from 0 to 10. Re-
late spoken numbers (nine) to
corresponding written numbers
(9).
Identify by sight how many objects
are in a small group or set (such as
3 dots on a domino).
Count up to 20 objects. Rec-
ognize that with each counted
number, the number of objects in
the counted group increases.
Compare quantities up to 10.
Develop visual images of
numbers (as in the illustration).
Make equal groups of objects
(such as a set of 3 red chips, a
set of 3 white chips).
Compare unequal groups
(3 red chips, 5 white chips;
the number of letters in 4
students names). Which has
more, fewer, the most, the
smallest number?
Find different combinations
that make the same number (3
and 3, 5 and 1).
ADDING AND SUBTRACTING
Combine 2 amounts and sepa-
rate 1 amount from another.
Add and subtract small quanti-
ties of objects and show answers
in pictures, words, and/or
numbers. For example, lay out
5 blue tiles and 1 yellow tile.
KINDERGARTEN
GRADUATES SHOULD...
Write 5 and 1 are 6.
Make combinations of numbers
that add up to the same number
(0+5=5, 1+4=5, 2+3=5, 3+2=5,
4+1=5, 5+0=5).
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Solve problems using objects
and pictures. Show solutions
by counting and/or writing
numbers.
MEASURING
Measure objects using non-stan-
dard units (such as cube blocks
or sticks). (My shoe is 7 cubes
long.)
Compare sizes of objects. Which
is longer, wider, taller, heavier?
Order objects from shortest to
longest.
GEOMETRY
Explore shapes, including cir-
cles, ovals, squares, rectangles,
diamonds, and other polygons
(2-dimensional fgures made up
of line segments).
Describe the features of simple
shapes. (A circle is round. It
looks like a wheel.)
Make 2-D and 3-D shapes using
pattern blocks, wooden blocks,
and clay.
Copy shapes.
Combine or separate shapes to
make new shapes. For example,
combine 2 triangles to make a
rectangle.
PATTERNS AND MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
Copy simple patterns (sss
sss).
5 Kindergarten
Continue patterns (ll
llll).
Make patterns and identify the
unit (the part that repeats).
uuunuuun
COLLECTING AND
GRAPHING DATA
Sort objects by one of their
features (such as buttons with 3
holes and buttons with 4 holes).
With classmates, collect data. For
example, collect answers to the
question, How many people in
our class have a pet?
Find ways to show data (draw-
ing pictures of the buttons
with 3 holes in one box and the
buttons with 4 holes in another
box; making a chart, table, or list
showing students who have pets
and students who dont).
Use data to solve problems or
answer questions. (10 people in
our class have a pet.)
Collect 10 Together
TOOLS: Pennies, a dot cube
HOW TO PLAY:
Play with a partner.
1. The frst player rolls
the dot cube and takes
the number of pennies
shown.
2. The second player rolls the dot cube and
takes the number of pennies shown.
3. Partners determine whether they have 10 pennies together. If they
do not, the frst player rolls again. Play continues until players have
at least 10 pennies.
SAMPLE GAME
SAMPLE OF STUDENT WORK
A pattern block picture showing the collection and recording of data
Unit
6 What your child should be learning:
words, pictures, numbers, and
symbols.
GEOMETRY
Recognize shapes in the environ-
ment (square boxes, rectangular
buildings, round cans, diamonds
in a wallpaper pattern). Iden-
tify some of their features.
Sort 2-dimensional shapes by their
features (4 sides, 3 corners).
Identify the features of triangles
(all have 3 corners, 3 points, and
3 straight lines that may or may
not be equal).
Identify the features of quad-
rilaterals (4 corners, 4 points, 4
straight lines that may or may
not all be equal).
Make triangles and quadrilater-
als of different shapes and sizes.
Make 3-D shapes out of 2-D
shapes (for example, build a box
from index cards). Compare 2-D
shapes to related 3-D shapes (see
illustration).
Combine and separate shapes to
form new shapes. For example,
make a hexagon using triangles.
Find different
ways of form-
ing the same
shape.
MEASURING
Explore measurement.
Measure objects using non-
standard units (cut-out
shapes, tiles, cubes, sticks).
Describe measurements
(a little more than 9 cubes
long).
NUMBERS
Count, read,
write, and
order numbers
to 105. For example, order cube
towers from least to most, fnd the
missing numbers in a sequence, or
count on from a known number
on a 100 chart (begin at 37 and
count on 11 more). (See page 17
for an example of a 100 chart.)
Skip count by 2s, 5s, and 10s
starting with any familiar num-
ber (Six, eight, tenfve, ten,
ffteentwenty, thirty, forty).
Find strategies for counting groups,
such as counting cubes by 5s or
10s, or using tally marks.
Count up to 50 objects. For ex-
ample, trace ones own foot and
fnd out how many pennies can
ft inside the tracing.
ADDING AND SUBTRACTING
Add numbers to make sums up
to 20 (5+7=12, 10+9=19).
Break apart numbers up to
20 (subtract) and take away one
part (11-8=3, 10-3=7).
Know which combinations of
numbers add up to 10 (5+5=10,
6+4=10).
Show different ways of express-
ing a number (5+5+5+5=20, 30-
10=20, 2 dimes).
Recognize the relationship be-
tween addition and subtraction.
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Determine whether a story
problem requires addition,
subtraction, or both.
Solve story problems using strat-
egies such as using one problem
to solve another.* (There are 9
rabbits. 5 hop away. How many
rabbits are left? 9-5. 10-5=5, so
9-5=4.)
Solve story problems with more
than one step. (Keeshawn had
15 pennies in one pocket and 6
pennies in the other pocket. He
spent 5 pennies. How many did
he have left?)
Use objects, a number line,
and a 100 chart to solve prob-
lems. Show strategies and so-
lutions using combinations of
59 60 61 62 64
Rectangular prism Rectangle
FIRST GRADE
GRADUATES SHOULD...
* See pages 18 and 19 for more examples of strategies.
7
Compare multiple measure-
ments of an object.
Compare measurements of an
object using different units.
Compare estimates to actual
measurements.
Understand some real-world
purposes of measurement.
PATTERNS AND MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
Explore patterns using shapes,
colors, and numbers.
Create patterns.
Continue patterns.
Analyze patterns to identify
the unit (the part that repeats).
s s s s s s s s s

Recognize patterns that
involve a constant rate of
increase (such as adding 3
pennies to a jar each day).
Predict how patterns will
continue (What will be the
color of the 12th square? How
do you know?)
Compare patterns to discover
similarities (similar patterns:
s s s , uun, AAB).
COLLECTING AND
GRAPHING DATA
Sort objects by one of their fea-
tures (shape, color).
Pose survey questions. (Would
you rather be invisible or able to
fy?)
With classmates, collect answers
to survey questions.
Show data using tally marks,
charts, picture graphs, and bar
graphs.
Describe data. (18 people would
choose to be invisible. 2 would
choose to fy. 20 people answered
the question.)
Interpret data. (More people
chose to be invisible. Not many
chose being able to fy.)
First Grade
1 2 3 4 6 5
Double Compare
TOOLS: Deck of primary number
cards (to play at home, label the
Queens as 0s, the Aces as 1s, and
remove the other face cards)
HOW TO PLAY:
Play with a partner.
1. Deal the cards face down.
2. Both players turn over
their top 2 cards.
3. The player with the larger total says
Me! and takes the cards. If the totals are the same, both play-
ers turn over 2 more cards.
4. Keep turning over 2 cards each time. The player with the
larger total says Me! and takes the cards.
5. The game is over when there are no more cards to turn over.
OTHER WAYS TO PLAY:
The player with the smaller total says Me!
Play with 3 players.
Play with Wild Cards, such as jokers. A Wild Card can be
any number.
SAMPLE GAME
SAMPLE OF STUDENT WORK
Unit
An example of using a picture to solve an addition problem
8 What your child should be learning:
Use objects, a number line, a 100
chart (see page 17 for an ex-
ample), mental math, and esti-
mation to solve problems. Show
strategies and solutions using
combinations of words, pictures,
numbers, and symbols.
GEOMETRY
Draw and build 2-dimensional
and 3-dimensional shapes, using
pattern blocks and wooden blocks.
Sort 2-D and 3-D shapes by their
features (such as the number of
sides).
Name the number of sides in any
polygon (a 2-D fgure made up of
line segments).
Combine and separate shapes to
form other shapes. Find different
ways of forming the same shape.
Recognize a right angle (90).
Identify the features of rectangles
(all have 4 sides and 4 right
angles).
Identify the congruent faces (sides
that are the same size and shape)
on rectangular prisms (3-D rect-
angles).
Build rectangular arrays (for
example, a rectangle made of
square tiles or a
rectangle drawn
on grid paper).
Recognize mirror-image sym-
metry in objects and designs (for
example, a butterfys wings).
NUMBERS
Find strategies for grouping num-
bers and counting by groups.
Count up to 60 objects by 1s, 2s,
5s, or 10s.
Skip count by 2s, 5s, and 10s
up to 110 (ffty-two, ffty-four,
ffty-six, fve, ten, ff-
teen, forty, ffty, sixty).
Solve problems with quantities
that include 10s and 1s. (Baseball
cards come in packs of 10. Kristin
has 2 packs and 3 cards. How
many altogether?)
Know that even numbers can
make groups of 2, or 2 equal
groups. (We have 12 people. We
can have 2 teams of 6.) Know
that odd numbers cant make
groups of 2, or 2 equal groups.
(We have 13 people. Not every-
one can have a partner.)
Understand fractions as equal
parts of a whole (half of the
pizza is left over, boys make up
one-third of our class).
Express fractions in words (one-
half, one-fourth) and in written
numbers (, ). Understand what
each part of a written fraction rep-
resents. Express mixed numbers
(such as 1) in words (one and
one-half) and in written numbers
(1). Understand what each part of
a written mixed number represents.
Combine and break apart
numbers with fuency.
ADDING AND SUBTRACTING
Use a variety of strategies to add
numbers with sums up to 100,
and to subtract 2-digit numbers.*
Write an equation to show a solu-
tion (2+2=4, 27-3=24).
Know that numbers can be
added in any order with the same
results (7+4+9=20, 9+7+4=20,
4+9+7=20).
Express a number in many ways
(19+1=20, 100-80=20, 2 dimes).
Know addition and subtraction
combinations (the numbers
that can be added or subtracted
to equal a given number) up to
10+10.
Know the values of a penny,
nickel, dime, quarter, and dollar.
Make exchanges with coins (10
pennies for a dime, 2 dimes and 5
pennies for a quarter).
Add even numbers together, odd
numbers together, and even and
odd numbers together. Reason
about the results.
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Determine whether a story problem
requires addition, subtraction, or
both. (Maya had 100 pennies. Then
she lost some. If she has 73 pennies
left, how many did she lose?)
Solve story problems with more
than one step.
Write stories to match problems. For
example, write a story for 100-73.
Congruent faces
Rectangular array
SECOND GRADE
GRADUATES SHOULD...
SAMPLE OF STUDENT WORK
Use different types of pattern blocks to fll the shape. Record your work
by tracing the shapes of the blocks you used onto each shape outline.
Use 1 type of pattern block to fll the shape [above].
Use two types of pattern blocks to fll the shape.
* See pages 18 and 19 for more examples of strategies.
9
Create patterns and designs that
have mirror-image symmetry.
MEASURING
Create and use standard measur-
ing tools (such as an inch ruler).
Measure in U.S. units (inches, feet,
yards) and metric units (centi-
meter, meter), with increasing
accuracy.
Recognize the importance of
using common (standard) units,
through experiences with estimat-
ing, comparing, and measuring
lengths and distances.
Recognize length as a defning
characteristic of objects.
Tell time to the quarter hour (3:15
p.m.). Solve problems involving
time measurement. Use a timeline
to measure and record the dura-
tion of events.
Describe the area (the amount of
space inside a 2-D shape) of a
rectangular array in terms of units.
(The rectangle has 2 rows with 4
tiles in each row.)
PATTERNS AND MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
Explore constant ratios (ratios
where the rate of change is the
same, such as one to
two or 1:2, and two to
four or 2:4) using cubes
and pattern blocks.
(It takes 2 trapezoid
pattern blocks to cover
1 hexagon, so for 2
hexagons, well need 4
trapezoid blocks.)
Use a table to organize numbers
expressing a constant ratio.
Explain the numbers in a table.
(Its a count-by-2s pattern.
If you double the number of
hexagons you get the number of
trapezoids.)
Extend a table. (How many trap-
ezoids will cover 6 hexagons?)
Analyze patterns with repeating
units (red/green/green,KXX).
Write a number sequence to de-
scribe one element in the pattern.
s l n s l n s l n
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number sequence for squares: 3, 6, 9
Extend number sequences.
(What symbol will be over 16?)
Recognize the difference between
a repeating pattern (as in the il-
lustrations) and a growing pattern
(as in the table).
COLLECTING AND
GRAPHING DATA
Collect data. (What books have
we read this month?)
Organize data by category.
(Which books are fction, which
are non-fction?)
Show data using Venn diagrams,
line plots, and other representa-
tions (see sidebar on page 19).
Describe data, including the
highest number, the lowest num-
ber, and the mode (the number
that occurs most frequently).
Interpret data. (Our class read
more non-fction than fction
last month.)
Compare 2 sets of data (such as
the number of baby teeth lost in
each of 2 second grade classes).
Second Grade
Number of
Hexagons
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
4
6
?
?
?
Number of
Trapezoids
Close to 20
TOOLS: Cubes or other objects, recording paper, deck of primary
number cards (to play at home, label the Queens as 0s, the Aces as
1s, and remove the other face cards)
HOW TO PLAY:
Play with a partner.
1. Deal 5 cards to each player.
2. Take turns. Each player should:
Choose 3 cards that make a total as close to 20 as possible.
Record the total of the 3 cards and the score. The score is the
difference between the total and 20.
Take that number of cubes.
Put those 3 cards aside and take 3 new cards.
3. After each player has taken 5 turns, total the scores.
4. Each player counts their cubes. They should have the same
number of cubes as their total scores.
5. The player with the lowest score is the winner.
OTHER WAYS TO PLAY:
Play with Wild Cards, such as jokers. A Wild Card can be any number.
SAMPLE GAME
What your child should be learning: 10
NUMBERS
Read, write, and order numbers
to 1,000.
Identify how many groups of 100,
groups of 10, and groups of 1 are
in a 3-digit number (352 = 3 one
hundreds, 5 tens, and 2 ones, or
35 tens and 2 ones). Identify the
place value of the digits in any
3-digit number.
Use pattern blocks and groups of
objects to name and show frac-
tions. Divide a whole into fractions
and name them. Divide a group
into fractions and mixed numbers.
(2 people share 3 brownies. Each
gets
3
/2, or 1 brownies).
Identify equivalent fractions (for
example,
3
/6=
2
/4=).
Understand decimal fractions in
the context of money ($.25=one
quarter, or of a dollar).
ADDING, SUBTRACTING,
MULTIPLYING, DIVIDING
Combine numbers that add up
to 100 (48+52, 33+67). Make
combinations of coins that equal
$1.00 (such as 3 quarters, 2
dimes, 5 pennies).
Use a variety of strategies to add
and subtract 2- and 3-digit num-
bers, such as breaking numbers
apart by place value.* (76+37.
70+30=100, 6+7=13, 100+13=113.)
Add multiples of 10 and multiples
of 100 with fuency.
Use knowledge of addition com-
binations (numbers that can be
added to equal a given number) to
solve subtraction problems. (10-6.
I know that 6+4=10, so 10-6=4.)
Use pattern blocks and groups of
objects to add fractions.
Understand that multiplication in-
volves making equal-sized groups.
Understand that division involves
equal sharing. Recognize the rela-
tionship between multiplication
and division.
Use a variety of strategies to solve
multiplication and division prob-
lems.* (How many groups of 5
pennies can I make with 35 pen-
nies? I can skip-count the pennies
by 5s: 5, 10, 15, 20and count how
many groups I have.) Recognize
and use symbols for multiplication
and division (x, , ).
Know that 2 numbers can be
multiplied in either order with the
THIRD GRADE
GRADUATES SHOULD...
same results (3x4=4x3).
Know multiplication facts with
products up to 50 (7x7=49,
11x3=33).
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Describe, analyze, and compare
strategies for solving addition and
subtraction problems.
Analyze a variety of subtraction
story problems to determine what
kinds of problems they are, including:
Taking away. (A pet store had 162
goldfsh. They sold 25 of them.
How many were left to sell?)
Finding the unknown part.
(Our class goal is to collect 50
cans of food for the food bank by
the end of the week. Its Tuesday
and weve collected 9 cans. How
many more cans do we need to
collect between now and Friday
to reach our goal?)
Comparing. (Todays tem-
perature is 62. A month ago the
temperature was 44. How many
degrees warmer is it today?)
Use objects, a number line, a 100
chart (see page 17 for an example),
and a 1,000 chart to solve prob-
lems. Use arrays (objects or sym-
bols laid out in rows or drawn on
grid paper) to visualize multiplica-
tion problems (see page 17). Show
strategies and solutions using
combinations of words, pictures,
numbers, and symbols.
GEOMETRY AND MEASUREMENT
Identify 2-dimensional and 3-di-
mensional shapes and sort them
by their features.
Make 2-D and 3-D shapes.
Describe the features of 2-D
shapes such as polygons (2-D
SAMPLE OF STUDENT WORK
1. How would you share each of the following? Write about your
thinking or use a drawing to show your solution.
9 brownies shared among 4 people
9 balloons shared among 4 people
2. How much money does each person get? Compare your answer to
the answer you get using a calculator.
9 dollars shared
among 4 people
9 4 on a calculator
3. Put a circle around each of your four answers above. They are all
answers to 4 people sharing 9 things. How are they different from
each other? How are they alike?
* See pages 18 and 19 for more examples of strategies.
11
fgures made up of line
segments) and circles. For
example, name the number
of sides, angles, and vertices
(the points where 2 sides meet)
in a triangle.
Describe the features of 3-D
shapes, such as prisms, cylin-
ders, and pyramids. For exam-
ple, name the number of faces
(fat surfaces), edges (line seg-
ments where
2 faces meet),
and vertices,
and whether a
shape is fat or
curved.
Identify shapes in the environ-
ment (classroom: rectangular
prism, basketball: sphere).
Determine whether or not shapes
are congruent (the same size
and shape) by sliding, fipping, or
turning them to see
if they can be made
to coincide.
Explore and create 2-D represen-
tations of 3-D shapes (nets),
such as an
unfolded
box.
Identify angles as larger or smaller
than a right angle (90).
Measure length in U.S. units
(inches, feet) and metric units
(centimeter, meter). For example,
measure how far each student
can jump.
Identify perimeter (the sum of
the length of the sides of a shape),
and measure perimeter in non-
standard units (such as the side
of a block) as well as in U.S. and
metric units. Make and compare
different shapes that have the
same perimeter.
Find the area
of a shape (the
amount of
space inside
a 2-D shape)
by counting
square units. Make and compare
shapes with the same area.
Understand volume (the amount
of space inside a 3-D shape) in the
context of flling a box with cubes.
Design a box for a given volume.
PATTERNS AND MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
Read simple graphs and tables
that show situations involving
changing data (such as weekly
temperature fuctuations from
September to December). De-
scribe and interpret graphs. (The
average temperature changed
almost every week.)
Read graphs that show a constant
rate of change (such as 3 more
marbles added to a collection
each day).
Create and explain tables that show
a constant rate of change. (My
table shows that on Day 6, there
were 48 marbles in the collection.)
Day 1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
Marbles 8 | 16 | 24 | 32 | 40 | 48
Compare tables and graphs that
show different constant rates of
change (3 marbles added daily
compared to 2 marbles added
daily, for example).
Write rules to describe patterns of
change. (I started with 11 marbles
in my collection. I get 3 more
marbles each day. So my rule for
how many marbles I have any day
is Number of days x 3 + 11.)
COLLECTING AND
GRAPHING DATA
Pose questions that can be an-
swered with data. (What kinds
of games do we like to play?)
Organize data by categories.
Show data using line plots, bar
graphs, double bar graphs, and
other representations (see sidebar
on page 19).
Describe the shape of the data,
including the highest and lowest
numbers, where data are concen-
trated, the mode, the median, and
outliers (see glossary on page 17
for more information).
Interpret data, using appropriate
language (less than half, not
many, almost all).
Compare 2 sets of data (such as
third graders and frst graders
answers to the same question).
Third Grade
Congruent shapes
One example of a netan unfolded box
The area of this figure
is 8 square units.
face
vertex
edge
Rectangular prism
Capture on the 300 Chart
TOOLS: 300 chart (a chart with the numbers from 1 to 300 listed in or-
dersee the illustration of the 100 chart in the glossary for a similar
example), deck of plus/minus cards (cards with positive and negative
numbers), 30 chips, game piece for each player, recording sheet*
HOW TO PLAY:
Play in pairs or in 2 teams.
1. Place 30 chips on different numbers on the 300 chart. Deal 5
plus/minus cards to each player or team and place the remain-
ing cards face down on the table. Players put their game pieces
anywhere on the 300 chart to start.
2. On each turn, a player tries to land on a square with a chip by
using any combination of plus/minus cards. For example, Brians
game piece is on 255 and theres a chip on 260. Brian uses a +4
and a +1 card to move to 260. Players can use from 1 to 5 cards.
3. A player who lands on a square with a chip captures it by taking
it off the board. Players can capture only 1 chip during a turn,
and it must be from the square they landed on.
4. Players record their moves as an equation on the recording sheet.
For example, if Kara begins on 145 and uses the cards +2, +10,
-100, and +3, she records 145 + 2 + 10 - 100 + 3 = 60.
5. Place used plus/minus cards face down in a discard pile and
replace them with cards from the top of the deck. If the deck of
plus/minus cards is used up, shuffe the discard pile and turn
it face down on the table to reuse. The frst player or team to
capture 5 chips wins.
* To play at home, ask your childs teacher for photocopies of a 300 chart and plus/minus
cards, or make your own chart following the example in the glossary, and your own
cards: four each of +1, -1; two each of +2, -2, +3, -3, +10, -10, +20, -20, +30, -30; one
each of +4, -4, +5, -5, +40, -40, +50, -50, +100, -100, +200, -200.
SAMPLE GAME
What your child should be learning: 12
NUMBERS
Read, write, and order numbers
to 10,000.
Identify place value to 5-digits.
Recognize the pattern of place
value (ones, tens, hundreds).
Identify fractional parts of a
whole (such as
3
/5 of a rectangle)
and a group (such as
1
/10 of the
class).
Recognize fractions that are equal
to 1 (such as
4
/4) and greater
than 1 (
5
/4), and change fractions
greater than 1 to equivalent mixed
numbers (
5
/4=1).
Compare fractions with like de-
nominators (
3
/8 is smaller than
7
/8)
and unlike denominators (
3
/4 is
larger than
3
/8). Order fractions on
a number line.
Find decimal equivalents for
some commonly used fractions
(=.75).
Read and write decimals to the
hundredths place (.01). Relate
decimal places to place value in
whole numbers.
ADDING, SUBTRACTING,
MULTIPLYING, DIVIDING
Use pictures or drawings on grid
paper to add fractions and mixed
numbers (such as +1).
Use a variety of strategies to add
3- and 4-digit numbers.* For
example, change the numbers to
make the problem easier, then
adjust for the change. (1,852+688.
Change 688 to 700, add the num-
bers, then subtract the extra 12.)
Use a variety of strategies to
subtract 3-digit numbers.* For
example, subtract in parts. (924-
672. 924-600=324, 324-20=304,
304-50=254, 254-2=252.)
Know some multiplication facts
from memory, and mentally
compute other facts, up to 12x12.
For example, a student might
think, 6x12. 6 is half of 12. I know
FOURTH GRADE
GRADUATES SHOULD...
that 6x6=36, so 6x12 is the same as
36+36, which is 72.
Use a variety of strategies to multi-
ply 2-digit numbers.* For example,
create an equivalent problem by
doubling one factor and halving the
other (factor: a number that divides
evenly into another number). (6x35.
Double 35 to get 70, halve 6 to get 3.
3x70 is the same as 6x35.)
Find the factors of 2-digit num-
bers and recognize patterns with
the factors (for example, 3x4=12,
3x40=120, 30x40=1200). Find
multiples of 2-digit numbers and
recognize patterns with multiples
(multiple: the product of a whole
number and another whole num-
berfor example, 8 is a multiple
of 4 because 4x2=8).
Add and subtract multiples of 10
and 100 (up to 1,000) with fuency.
Use a variety of strategies to di-
vide 2- and 3-digit numbers (633,
33614).*
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Describe a range of strategies for
addition and subtraction and ex-
plain why they work.
Create and solve multiplication
story problems.
Create and solve division story
problems, with and without re-
mainders, involving:
Sharing. (There are 55 valen-
tine hearts and 22 students in
the class. How many does each
student get?)
Grouping. (There are 55 val-
entine hearts. I want to put 3 in
each gift bag. How many gift
bags can I fll?)
Use objects, models, a number
line, a 100 chart (see page 17 for
an example), and a 1,000 chart
0 1 2
4
/8
5
/4
Problem: Janie had 24 baseball cards. She
gave
1
/8 of the cards to her sister and
3
/8
of the cards to a friend. What fraction of
her cards did Janie give away?
1
/8
3
/8
SAMPLE OF STUDENT WORK
* See pages 18 and 19 for more examples of strategies.
13
to solve problems. Use arrays
(objects or symbols laid out in
rows or drawn on grid paper) to
visualize multiplication problems
(see page 17). Show strategies and
solutions using combinations of
words, pictures, numbers, and
symbols.
GEOMETRY AND MEASUREMENT
Sort 2-dimensional shapes into
categories and subcategories
according to their features. For
example, identify
a quadrilateral as
a 4-sided closed
fgure; classify
trapezoids, paral-
lelograms, rectangles, and squares
(among other fgures) as quadri-
laterals; classify a square as a kind
of rectangle.
Know that a right angle measures
90. Name other angles as acute
(smaller than a right angle) or ob-
tuse (larger than a right angle).
Using a right angle
as a reference, iden-
tify 30, 45, and 60
angles.
Find the area (the amount of space
inside a 2-D shape) of regular
and non-regular polygons (2-D
fgures made up of line segments)
in square units and parts of square
units.
Investigate the features
of geometric solids
(fgures with length,
width, and height, such
as a cone). Compare
2-D representations of
solids, such as nets
(see illustration), silhouettes, and/
or drawings. Create 2-D repre-
sentations from different perspec-
tives. For example, draw the front,
back, and top of a building made
of cubes.
Identify lines of symmetry (the
line or lines that can divide a fg-
ure into 2 mirror-image halves).
Find the volume
(the amount of
space inside a
3-D shape) of
cubes and rect-
angular prisms.
Build and draw rectangular
prisms (make a cube building,
use an unfolded box) to visual-
ize and calculate volume.
Find the volume by counting
cubes and layers.
Mentally calculate volume.
(12 cubes will ft in the frst
layer of this box. The box will
have 2 layers when its folded
together, so the volume is
24 cubes.)
Measure distance up to 100
feet in U.S. units (inches, feet)
and metric units (centimeter,
meter). Choose appropriate
tools (such as a yardstick
rather than a ruler for longer
distances).
Measure perimeter (the sum of
the length of the sides of a shape)
and draw shapes that have a
given perimeter.
Fourth Grade
One kind of
quadrilateral
45
45
Non-regular polygon Regular polygon
area=8
area=8
Pyramid
Silhouette of
a pyramid
One example of a netan unfolded box
Rectangular prism
continued on page 16
Multiple Turn Over
TOOLS: Calculators (optional), recording sheet, deck of multiple
cards (Basic game: numbers 2-50; Intermediate game: numbers
2-80; Advanced game: numbers 2-113)*
HOW TO PLAY:
Play with a partner or a small group.
1. Deal out 10 multiple cards to each player.
2. Players arrange their multiple cards face up in front of them,
visible to each player.
3. The player with the smallest multiple begins. This player calls
out any whole number (except 1). Each player records that
number on his or her recording sheet.
4. All the players (including the player who called out the number)
search for cards in their set that are multiples of that number. They
write those multiples on their recording sheet and turn those cards
face down. If a player has no multiples of the number called, that
player writes none under Multiple Cards I Turned Over.
5. Players take turns calling out numbers. The game is over when
one player has turned over all 10 multiple cards.
EXAMPLE: Jamal has the lowest number on a card, a 2, so he
goes frst. He calls out nine and all the players write 9 on their
recording sheets. Sara has a card with 45, so she writes that on
her recording sheet and turns the card face down. Jamal reviews his
cards and records a 36. Holly determines that she has no multiples
of 9, so she writes none under Multiple Cards I Turned Over.
* To play at home, ask your childs teacher for photocopies of multiple cards and the
recording sheet.
SAMPLE GAME
What your child should be learning: 14
NUMBERS
Read, write, and order numbers
to 100,000.
Identify the place value of the
digits in any 6-digit number.
Read, write, compare, and order
decimals to the thousandths
place (.001). Shade in
tenths, hundredths,
and thousandths on
rectangular grids to
visualize decimal
places.
Order fractions with like and
unlike denominators (,
4
/8, ,
7
/8), including halves, thirds,
fourths, ffths, sixths, eighths,
tenths, and twelfths.
Know that fractions, decimals,
and percents all represent parts of
a whole.
Compare fractions, decimals,
and percents and fnd equiva-
lents (
1
/8 =.125=12.5%). Convert
between fractions, decimals, and
percents to solve problems (3 out
of 6,
3
/6==50%).
ADDING, SUBTRACTING,
MULTIPLYING, DIVIDING
Use strategies to add 4-digit
numbers.* For example, create
an equivalent problem that is
easier to solve. (1897+6831. Add
3 to 1897, subtract 3 from 6831.
1900+6828=8728.)
Use strategies to subtract 4-digit
numbers.* For example, change
one number and adjust for the
change. (3726-1584. Change 1584 to
1600 by adding 16. 3726-1600=2126.
2126+16=2142. 3726-1584=2142.)
Add and subtract multiples of 100
and 1,000 with fuency.
Estimate answers to addition and
subtraction problems with large
numbers (100,000 and beyond).
Use familiar strategies to solve
problems with large numbers.
Use strategies to add and subtract
fractions and decimals.
Use strategies to multiply 2- and
3-digit numbers.* For example,
break up the factors (numbers
that divide
evenly into
another
number) and
use a rectan-
gular array
to visualize
the problem
(see illustra-
tion).
Explore factors and multiples (mul-
tiple: the product of a whole number
and another whole number).
Find all the factors of a num-
ber. For example, the factors of
FIFTH GRADE
GRADUATES SHOULD...
36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, and
36all the numbers that divide
evenly into 36.
Recognize a number as prime
(a number greater than 1 with
exactly 2 factors: 1 and itself) or
composite (a number with more
than 2 factors). Find the prime
factorization of a number
(expressing a number as the
product of its prime factors). For
example, the prime factorization
of 36 is 2x2x3x3.
Recognize square numbers
(numbers multiplied by them-
selves, such as 5x5 or 5
2
, and 6x6
or 6
2
).
Find multiples of a number and
identify patterns with multiples.
For example, 20 is a multiple of
4, so 200 is a multiple of 40.
Use strategies to divide numbers
with 2-digit divisors (23756,
33812).* For example, use knowl-
edge of multiplication facts (up to
12x12) to solve division problems.

0.1
1
/2=
5
/10
3
/5=
6
/10
6
/10
1
/2 +
3
/5 =
11
/10, or 1
1
/10
Adding
1
/2 and
3
/5 with paper strips
Problem: 38x26
30
20 6
38
26
30
x20
600
8
600+180+160+48=988
30
x6
180
8
x6
48
20
x8
160
SAMPLE OF STUDENT WORK
* See pages 18 and 19 for more examples of strategies.
Different ways to solve 18 x 14
15
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Describe and compare strategies
for solving addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division
problems, and explain why the
strategies work.*
Use objects, models, a number
line, a 100 chart (see page 17 for
an example), and a 1,000 chart to
solve problems.
Use arrays (objects or symbols laid
out in rows or drawn on grid pa-
per) to visualize multiplication and
division problems (see page 17).
Use a clock face, a rectangle, or a
number line to visualize equiva-
lent fractions and to add and
subtract fractions.
Show strategies and solutions
using combinations of words, pic-
tures, numbers, and symbols.
GEOMETRY AND MEASUREMENT
Explore the defning character-
istics of 2-dimensional shapes
and classify some quadrilaterals
(4-sided closed fgures) in more
than one way. For example, con-
sider whether or not all rectangles
are parallelograms (quadrilaterals
with 2 pairs of parallel sides).
Use known angle measures (such
as 90) to identify angles that are
30, 45, 60, 120, and 150.
Investigate area (the amount of
space inside a 2-D shape) and
perimeter (the sum of the lengths
of the sides).
Measure the perimeter of rect-
angles and determine the area
by counting square units and
parts of units.
Identify fgures that have the
same area but different perim-
eters, and the same perimeter
but different areas.
Compare area and perimeter in
similar fgures (fgures with the
same shape but not necessarily
the same sizesee page 17 for
an example).
Explore volume (the amount of
space inside a 3-D shape), using
objects, folded paper, and draw-
ings on grid paper.
Find the volume of pyramids,
cylinders, and cones in cubic
units. (The volume of this cyl-
inder is 12 cubic centimeters.)
Relate the volume of a rectan-
gular prism to the volume of a
pyramid with the same height
and base size.
Recognize that changing vol-
ume requires changes in the
dimensions of length, width,
and/or height.
PATTERNS AND MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
Create graphs showing rates of
change that are not constant (such
as the growth of a plant over
time). Compare them to graphs
that show a constant rate of
change (such as adding 3 pennies
to a jar each day). Reason about
the different shapes of the graphs.
Write a rule that describes a
situation with a constant rate of
change. For example, write a rule
to describe how the perimeter in
the illustration changes as each
square tile is added, such as P
[perimeter] = (1 + n) x 2. (The
letter n stands for a changing
number, the number of squares.)
Represent the same situation in a
table, in a graph, and in an equa-
tiona statement showing that
2 mathematical expressions are
equal, such as 2+2=4, or P =
(1+n) x 2.
DATA AND PROBABILITY
Pose a question and conduct
an investigation that involves
experiments with 2 groups or 2
kinds of objects. (How long can
adults and ffth graders stand
on 1 foot? How much weight
in pennies can 2 different kinds
of paper bridges hold?) Design
a procedure that can be applied
consistently, and carry out
repeated trials.
Organize data (for example, use
a table) and show data using
Fifth Grade
12
6
5 7
3 9
2 10
1 11
4
8
8 out of 12 hours
40 out of 60 minutes
2
/3=
8
/12=
40
/60
base
Close to 1
TOOLS: Decimal cards sets A and B, recording sheet*
HOW TO PLAY:
Play with 1 or 2 other players.
The object of the game is to choose cards whose sum is as close to 1
as possible.
1. Deal 5 cards in the middle. Each player uses any or all of the
same 5 cards to make a total that is as close to 1 as possible.
2. Taking turns, each player chooses cards and writes the numbers
and the sum on the recording sheet.
3. Players total their scores. The score for the round is the differ-
ence between a players sum and 1. (The sum can be greater or
less than 1.)
4. When all players have a sum and a score, they compare results.
5. Put all 5 cards in the discard pile and deal 5 new cards.
6. After 5 rounds, total the scores. The player with the lowest
score wins.
OTHER WAYS TO PLAY:
Follow the rules above with one or both of these variations:
Make and use 4 Wild Cards. Wild Cards can be any number.
Give each player his or her own 5 cards.
* To play at home, ask your childs teacher for photocopies of both sets of decimal cards and
the recording sheet.
SAMPLE GAME
0.025
twenty-five
thousandths
0.875
eight hundred seventy-five thousandths
continued on page 16
What your child should be learning: 16
PATTERNS AND MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
Read and analyze graphs on a
coordinate grid (see sidebar on
page 19).
Describe information on a
graph, including where the
graph shows increases, decreas-
es, or no difference in the rate
of change. (The graph shows
that the bean plant grew slowly
for the frst 3 days, then its rate
of growth increased quickly.)
Understand what the steepness
of the line represents.
Make a graph on a coordinate
grid using information from a
table. Show different starting
points on a graph.
Plot, analyze, and compare data
on a graph showing different rates
of constant change, and predict
future data points. For example,
Penny Jar A started with 6 pen-
nies and 4 were added each day.
Penny Jar B started with 0 pen-
nies and 6 were added each day.
Will the jars ever have the same
amount of pennies?
Write a rule that describes the
situation shown on a graph or in a
table, using words and/or num-
bers and symbols. For example,
a rule to describe the number of
pennies in Penny Jar A on any
given day would be: 6 + (4 x n).
(The letter n stands for a changing
numberthe number of the day.)
DATA AND PROBABILITY
Pose a survey question and
gather data about 2 groups.
(How many books did our class
and the other fourth grade class
read last month?)
Organize data (for example, use
a table) and show data using line
plots, bar graphs, double bar
graphs, and other representations.
Describe the shape of the data
for each group, including:
The highest and lowest numbers
The range (difference between
the highest and lowest numbers)
Where data are concentrated
(Most of our class read be-
tween 8 and 10 books.)
The mode (the number that
occurs most frequently)
The median (the number that
would fall in the middle if all
the numbers are listed in order)
Outliers (unusual data: Some-
one in the other class read 20
books.)
Compare the 2 groups and make a
statement supported by data. (The
data show that our class read
more books overall. Even though
someone in the other class read 20
books, that wasnt typical.)
Predict the likelihood of an event
(tomorrow will be sunny, rolling
an even number on a number cube,
a spinner pointing to a 3).
Show the probability of events on
a Likelihood Line (Impossible
UnlikelyMaybeLikelyCertain)
and on a 0-1 number line, with
0 representing impossible and 1
representing certain.
Compare experimental prob-
ability (probability determined
through data collection, such as
tossing a coin 100 times to fnd
the likelihood of getting tails) to
theoretical probability (calculat-
ing probability: the likelihood of
getting tails is 50%).
line plots, bar graphs, double bar
graphs, and other representa-
tions (see sidebar on page 19).
Group data into intervals when
appropriate (0-20 seconds, 21-40
seconds).
Describe the shape of the data
for each group, including:
The highest and lowest num-
bers
The range (difference between
the highest and lowest num-
bers)
Where data are concentrated
(10 out of 15 times, Bridge A
held between 20 and 39 pen-
nies. Thats
2
/3 of the time.)
The mode (the number that
occurs most frequently)
The median (the number that
would fall in the middle if all
the numbers are listed in order)
Outliers (unusual data: 1 time
Bridge B held 70 pennies.)
Summarize the data for the 2
groups, compare them, and make
statements supported by data.
Compare theoretical prob-
ability (probability determined
through calculations) to the
actual outcomes of many trials
(experimental probability). For
example, determine the likelihood
of getting an even number when
rolling a number cube, then roll
the number cube and record how
many times the result is an even
number.
Show probability as a fraction, a
decimal, or a percent. (There are
3 even numbers and 3 odd num-
bers on the number cube. So there
is a 3 out of 6 chance of getting an
even number, or 1 out of 2, or .)

Fourth Grade continued from page 13 Fifth Grade continued from page 15
17 Glossary
100 chart, 1,000 chart: A table in which
consecutive whole numbers are arranged
in rows.
area: The measure, in square units, of the
surface of a 2-dimensional shape.
array: An arrangement of objects or
symbols laid out in rows
or drawn on grid paper to
visualize multiplication.
combination: Two numbers that are
combined through an operation to equal
another number. For example, 6 and 4 are
one addition combination for 10; 7 and 5
are one multiplication combination for 35.
composite number: A whole number with
more than 2 different whole-number fac-
tors, such as the number 14. (The number
1 is neither prime nor composite.)
congruent, congruence: Having the same
size and shape, although
possibly in different
positions. Such shapes
have congruence.
coordinate graph: A 2-dimensional graph
made up of a horizontal x axis and a
vertical y axis and ordered pairssuch as
(3,2) in the illustration on page 19rep-
resenting values. Coordinate graphs are
used to show the relationship between 2
variables, such as length and width, or
distance traveled and time.
data: Information, in the form of facts or
fgures, that can help answer questions.
edge: The line seg-
ment where 2 faces
of a 3-dimensional
fgure meet.
equation: A state-
ment showing that 2 mathematical
expressions are equal, such as 2+2=4, or P
= (1+n) x 2.
equivalent: Of equal value. For example,
, .75 and 75% are equivalent.
face: A fat surface (side) on a 3-dimen-
sional shape (see illustration above).
factor: A number that divides into another
number without leaving a remainder. For
example, 1, 3, 5, and 15 are all factors of
15 because all divide evenly into 15.
geometric solid: A fgure with length, width,
and height, such as a cone or a cube.
grid: Any pattern of crisscrossing lines
that creates squares, such as the pattern
on graph paper.
line plot: A graph that shows data on a
number line with an x or another mark to
show frequency (see page 19).
median: The number that would fall in the
middle if all the numbers in a data set are
listed in order.
mixed number: A number that includes a
whole number and a fraction, such as 1.
mode: The number that occurs most fre-
quently in a data set.
multiple of a whole number: The product
of the whole number and another whole
number. For example, the multiples of 4
include 4 (4x1), 8 (4x2), 12 (4x3), 16 (4x4).
n: A letter commonly used to represent
an unknown or changing number. For
example, if 4 pennies are added to a
penny jar each day, a rule for the num-
ber of pennies in the jar on any given
day could be 4 x n, where n stands for
the number of the day.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
GLOSSARY
This glossary is intended to provide information for parent readers. It is not
intended to provide complete, technical defnitions of mathematical terms.
net: A 2-dimensional repre-
sentation of a 3-dimensional
shape, such as the unfolded
box in the illustration.
number line: A model in which numbers are
shown as marked points.
operation: A process or action performed on
a number or numbers. Addition, subtrac-
tion, multiplication, and division are all
examples of operations.
outlier: An unusual data point, such as a
value much higher or lower than the other
values in the data set.
parallelogram: A 4-sided fgure
(a quadrilateral) with oppo-
site sides that are parallel.
perimeter: The sum of the length of the sides
of a shape.
polygon: A 2-dimensional, closed shape
made up of 3 or more connected line seg-
ments that do not cross over each other.
prime factor: A factor that cant be divided
evenly into smaller whole numbers. For
example, 2 and 3 are prime factors of 12.
prime factorization: Showing a whole number
greater than 1 as the product of its prime
factors. For example, the prime factoriza-
tion of 12 is 2x2x3. Each whole number
can be written as the product of its prime
factors in only one way.
prime number: A whole number greater than
1 with exactly 2 different factors, 1 and the
number itself, such as the number 7. (The
number 1 is neither prime nor composite.)
probability: A number that indicates the rel-
ative likelihood that an event will happen.
Experimental probability is determined
through data collection. For example, if a
basketball player succeeded in making 20
baskets out of 80 free throws, her experi-
mental probability of making a basket
would be 20 out of 80, or 25%. Theoreti-
cal probability is found by analyzing the
possibilities. Because we know there are 2
possible outcomes for a coin toss and 1 of
those is tails, we calculate the probability
of getting tails to be 1 out of 2, or 50%.
product: The result of multiplying 2 numbers.
For example, 12 is the product of 6 and 2.
proportional: Having the same proportions,
but not necessarily the same size.
quadrilateral: A 4-sided
closed fgure.
range: The difference
between the highest and lowest numbers in
a data set.
ratio: A comparison between 2 quantities
that shows the size of 1 relative to the size
of the other. For example, if a cake recipe
calls for 2 eggs, 2 cakes would require 4
eggs. The ratio is 2:1 (2 eggs to 1 cake).
representation: The format for displaying
a problem and/or its solution, such as a
graph, a table, a model, a picture, an equa-
tion, or a written description.
similar, similarity: The
same shape but
not necessarily the
same size. Shapes
are similar, or have
similarity, when
their corresponding sides are proportional
and their corresponding angles are equal.
square number: A number that is the product
of a whole number multiplied by itself. For
example, 9 is a square number because 3x3
equals 9.
symmetry: A characteristic of shapes that
have balanced or corresponding elements,
such as a butterfy or a windmill. Line or
mirror-image symmetry refers to shapes
with mirror images (a butterfys wings).
Rotational symmetry refers to shapes that
would match exactly if they were rotated
(the blades of a windmill).
unit: When referring to a pattern, the part
that repeats. For example, in the pattern
sss sss, the unit is sss.
vertex: The point where 2 or more lines,
rays, or line segments meet (intersect) to
form an angle. Plural form: vertices.
volume: The measurement of the space
inside a 3-dimensional shape.
face
vertex
edge
Rectangular prism
Congruent shapes
Array for 2 x 4
Proportional rectangles
2

c
m
5

c
m
4 cm
10 cm
ra
y
vertex
0 2 1 4 3 6 5 8 7 10 9
What your child should be learning: 18
A student is given this problem:
There are 38 rows in an audito-
rium with 26 chairs in each row.
How many people can sit in the
auditorium?
If we could look into her mind, we
might see something like this:
Hmmmwhat is this problem asking
me to do? Multiply. I can make it
easier by changing the numbers and
drawing an array [see illustration
below] to keep track of what Im
doing. 30 x 20 is an easier problem.
3 x 2 = 6, so 30 x 20 = 600. Thats
30 rows with 20 people in each row.
There are 30 more rows with 6 chairs,
30 x 6. 3 x 6 = 18, so 30 x 6 = 180.
There are still 8 rows. 8 rows with 20
people would be 8 x 20, which is 160.
Then 8 more rows with 6 people
thats 8 x 6 = 48. My array helps me
check that I multiplied all the parts of
the problem. Now I have to add all the
numbers together. 600 + 180 + 160
+ 48 = 988. 988 people can sit in the
auditorium. I knew that the answer
would be a big number because I was
multiplying double-digit numbers.
Also I could picture all those chairs in
an auditorium.
While there are many ways to
solve this problem, the example
above shows the kind of mathemat-
ical thinking that students develop
in Investigations classrooms.
Throughout their elementary
years, students try out strategies to
add, subtract, multiply, and divide
numbers (operations), and de-
velop problem-solving skills (such
as identifying the type of problem,
comparing strategies, or using
models). During class, they are
asked to share their reasoning and
their solutions so everyone sees a
variety of ways. By the end of ffth
grade, the goal is for each student
to be comfortable using a range of
strategies, including mental strate-
gies, to solve problems accurately
and effciently.
Parents may wonder why teach-
ers dont simply show students
steps to follow that produce
right answers, as in the
example on the right. In
Investigations, traditional
methods for operations
are taught after students
have an understanding of how
numbers are represented in many
ways. Rather than memorizing
a procedure, the students focus
is on the underlying mathemat-
ics. When students understand
why a strategy works based on
mathematical principles, they can
use the strategy for more complex
problems, or adapt the strategy
for a different operation. By con-
trast, a student who is taught to
follow the steps of a traditional
procedure has only learned to
repeat those steps with a problem
that looks exactly the same.
In the example above, consider
what the students thinking
shows about her knowledge
of operations, place value, and
problem-solving, all of which can
be applied to solving other prob-
lems. The student:
Figured out what kind of prob-
lem it was (multiplication)
Chose a strategy (changing the
numbers by breaking apart the
factors38 and 26)
Chose a conceptual tool to visu-
alize the problem (an array)
Used an understanding of place
value to further simplify the
problem (3 x 2 = 6, so 30 x 20
= 600)
Used the tool to check work
midway (My array helps me
check that I multiplied all the
parts of the problem.)
Understood that the strategy of
breaking apart the factors re-
quires multiplying all the parts
Compared the answer to an
estimate, and used a real-world
reference, to see if the answer
seemed reasonable (estimating
that multiplying multi-digit
numbers would result in a large
number, visualizing chairs in
an auditorium)
Some of the strategies students
learn are outlined here, with
STRATEGIES
FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS
examples. For more information,
ask your child to tell you what
he or she is doing while solving a
problem, ask your childs teacher
to show you and explain, or see
the Student Math Handbook for
your childs grade. Note: Children
are not necessarily required to
write out all the steps shown here.
ADDING
Count on from one number.
Example: 3 + 3
4 5 6
3 + 1, 2, 3
3 + 3 = 6
Add by place value.
Example: 258 + 392
258
+392
500 (hundreds added)
140 (tens added)
+ 10 (ones added)
650
OR
Add the hundreds: 200 + 300 = 500
Add the tens: 50 + 90 = 140
Add the ones: 8 + 2 = 10
Add them together: 500 + 140 + 10 = 650
Add one number in parts.
Example: 321 + 258
258 = 200 + 50 + 8
321 + 200 = 521
521 + 50 = 571
571 + 8 = 579
Change one number to make
the problem easier and adjust
for the change.
Example: 1852 + 688
Add 12 to 688 to get 700.
1852 + 700 = 2552
Subtract 12: 2552 - 12 = 2540
Change both numbers to create
an equivalent problem.
Example: 1897 + 6831
Add 3 to 1897 to get 1900.
Subtract 3 from 6831 to get 6828.
1900 + 6828 = 8728, so 1897 + 6831 = 8728.
Problem: 38x26
30
20 6
38
26
30
x20
600
8
600+180+160+48=988
30
x6
180
8
x6
48
20
x8
160
38
x26
228
988
76
4
1
SUBTRACTING
Count back.
Example: 9 - 5
1 2 3 4 5
9 8 7 6 5 4
9 - 5 = 4
Subtract in parts.
Example: 57 - 23
57 - 20 = 37
37 - 3 = 34
Add up from the lower number.
Example: 72 - 37
Add 3 to 37 to get to the
closest tens: 40
Add 30 to get to the tens closest
to the target number: 40 + 30 = 70
Add 2 to get to the target
number: 70 + 2 = 72
Add the added numbers
together: 3 + 30 + 2 = 35
72 - 37 = 35
Subtract by place value.
Example: 4355 - 2216
4000 - 2000 = 2000
300 - 200 = 100
55 - 16 = 39
2000 + 100 + 39 = 2139
4355 - 2216 = 2139
MULTIPLYING
Multiply smaller numbers and
add the results.
Example: 6 x 8
5 x 8 = 40
Add one more group of 8 (1 x 8).
40 + 8 = 48, so 6 x 8 = 48.
Change one number to make
the problem easier and adjust
for the change.
Example: 27 x 30
30 x 30 = 900
30 - 27 = 3 (amount of the change)
3 x 30 = 90 (extra that must be adjusted)
900 - 90 = 810 (subtracting the extra)
27 x 30 = 810
Change both numbers to create
an equivalent problem.
Example: 6 x 35
Double one factor and halve the other:
double 35 to get 70, halve 6 to get 3.
3 x 70 = 210, so 6 x 35 = 210.
DIVIDING
Multiply to reach the target
number.
Example: 156 13
13 x 10 = 130
156 - 130 = 26 (26 remains after
multiplying by 10)
13 x 2 = 26
10 + 2 = 12 (adding the numbers that
were multiplied by 13: 10 and 2)
12 x 13 = 156, so 156 13 = 12.
Divide smaller numbers and add
the results.
Example: 156 13
156 = 130 + 26
130 13 = 10
26 13 = 2
10 + 2 = 12 (adding the numbers found
by dividing: 10 and 2)
156 13 = 12
19 Strategies for solving problems
1 2 3 4 5 0
1
2
3
6
(3,2)
A venn diagram
FICTION
fairy tales
science fiction
NONFICTION
books about
math
stories about
real people
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
X X X X X X
X X X
X
X
Number of pockets worn by students
GRAPHING
Students learn to read, interpret, compare, and show data on
various kinds of graphs, including the examples below.
Outside Inside
Location
Where do we like to play?
Grade 3
Grade 1
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

s
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
0
5
10
15
20
Venn diagram
Ordered pair on a coordinate graph
Double bar graph
Line plot
Coordinate graph showing
constant rate of change
Table and coordinate graph showing rate of change that is not constant
0
T F S S M T W T F S S M
5
10
15
20
25
Day
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Monday
Growth of a
bean plant
Height
3 cm
4 cm
6 cm
9 cm
11 cm
14 cm
16 cm
24 cm
1
2
3
2
2
8
3
3
0
6
9
12
Day 1
N
u
m
b
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r

o
f

p
e
n
n
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e
s
Day 2 Day 3 Day 4
Published by the Math & Science Collaborative
This material is based on work supported by the National Science Foundation under
Grant No. EHR-0314914. Any opinions, ndings, conclusions, or recommendations
expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reect
the views of the granting agency.
Math & Science Collaborative
Allegheny Intermediate Unit
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Homestead, PA 15120
Phone: 412.394.4600
Fax: 412.394.4599
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