INSTITUTE

OF
ISLAMIC
STUDIES
516^5 *
McGILL
UNIVERSITY .
31014173986
McGILL UNIVERSITY
Montreal
Institute of Islam^e Stud: es
Tehran Branch
JCollected Papers
on
Islamic Philosophy and Mysticism
Edited by
M. MOHAGHEGH & H. LANDOLT
Tehran 197 1
Pri nted by Tehran Uni versi ty Press, Tehran, Irn.
WERE WISDOM IN THE PLEIADES EVEN THEN
MN OF PERSIA WOULD OBTAIN IT
IV
WISDOM OF PERSIA
SER1ES
OF T E X T S AND STUDIES PUBLISHED
by
The Institute of Islamic Studies
McGill University, Tehran Branch
General Editors
MEHDI MOHAGHEGH Ph. D. T O S H I H I K O I Z U T S U Litt. D.
Professor at Tehern University, Irn Professor at McGill University, Canada
Research Associate at McGill University Guest Professor at Keio University, Japan
WISDOM OF PERSIA
Publications of the Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University,
Tehran Branch
General Editors: M. Mohaghegh and T . Izutsu
I. H. M. H. Sabzavvri ( 1797- 1878).
Sharh-i Ghurar al-Farid or Sharh-i Manzmah
Part One: Metaphysics
Arabic text and commentaries edited, with introductions in
English and Persian, and an Arabic-English glossary, by
M. Mohaghegh and T . Izutsu
I I. M. M. shtiyni (ob. 1372/ 1952)
Ta'lqah bar Sharh-i Manzmah
Arabic text edited, with introductions in English, Germn and
Persian, by
T. Izutsu, A. Falaturi and M. Mohaghegh
(Under Print)
III. N.A. Isfaryini (639/ 1242- 717/ 1317)
Kshif ul-Asrr
Persian text edited, with a French translation and introductions in
French and Persian, by
H. Landolt
(Under Print)
I V. Collected Papers on Islamic Philosophy and Mysticism
edited by
M. Mohaghegh and II. Landolt
V. Mr Dmd (ob. 1040/ 1631)
Al-Qabast
Arabic text edited, with introductions in English, Germn and
Persian, by
T. Izutsu, H. Landolt, S. A. Musawi, M. Mohaghegh
(In preparation)
VI WISDOM OF PERSIA
Contents
1 - Foreword, G.J. Adams
2- Address at the Opening of the McGill Institute of Islamic
Studies, Tehran Branch, S.B. Frost
3- Mystique et Humour chez Sohrawardi, Shaykh al-Ishrq,
H. Gorbin
4- 11 he Basic Structure of Metaphysical Thinking in Islam,
T. Izutsu
5- Islam and the Making of Europe, W.M. Watt
6- Simnn on Wahdat al-Wujd, H. Landolt
Page
I X - X I I
1-12
13-38
39-72
73-90
91-112
FOREWORD
On the occasion of the 16th International Congress of Orientalists
held in New Delhi in January, 1964, a small group of Irni and North
American scholars met in an informl way over lunch in the Asoka Hotel
to consider the wisdom of opening a new centei fr Persian studies at the
Institute of Islamic Studies of McGill University. On the Irni side the
initiators of this proposal wtre Professors Seyyed Iossein Nasr and Hafiz
tarman-Farmaian, both of the University of Tehrans Faculty of Letters, and
both mn who were well acquainted with the strengths and weaknesses of
North American students of their country and its illustrious cullure. McGill
University was represented by Professor Wilfred Cantwell Smith, founder of
the Institute of Islamic Studies, and the present writer. Although it appeared
to all concerned that McGill University might be a good choice as an
agency fr expanding the scope of North American activity in Persian studies,
there were formidable problems of a practical natr, principally financial,
that had first to be solved. The proposal was brought much nearer
to realization in the spring of 1965 when their Imperial Majesties, the
Shahanshah Aryamehr and Empress of Irn, paid a State visit to Canada.
Their itinerary included an afternoon at the Institute of Islamic Studies where
the chance was seized to lay before His Imperial Majesty the proposal of
strengthening Persian studies at McGill. As the direct result of His Imperial
X FOREWORD
Majestys interest in the matter, an arrangement was concluded with the
Ministry of Education of the Imperial Government (later the Mi ni st ry of Sci
ence and Higher Education) that brought an Irni Professor to serve on the
stafF of the Institute of Islamic Studies on the basis of shared expenses
between the Ministry and McGill University. The Professor who carae to
Canada, from the Faculty of Letters of Tehran University, was Dr. Mehdi
Mohaghegh, who remained with his family fr a full three years, teaching a
variety of subjects having to do with the intcllectual history o f Irn, tne
tradition of the Shicah, and Persian culture. At the end of his three year
term Dr. Mohaghegh returned to his duties in Tehran and was replaced by
Dr. Mehdi Ha iri of the Faculty of Theology, University of Tehran, who at
the time of this writing is still carrying on teaching duties in Montreal.
' l h e effort to foster Persian studies evoked a strong and favorable
response from the students and staff of the Institute of Islamic Studies. In
the course of Dr. Mohagheghs stay several joint research projects in the
history of Irni philosophy were begun, and there was promise of much more
to come. In order to preserve the momentum of this work and in order als
to strengthen the Communications between Irni scholars and those in Gana-
da, it was decided to open a small branch of the Institute of Islamic Studies
in Tehran. With the consent of His Imperial Majesty and the co-operation
of his government such a branch was established and formally opened in
January of 1969. The realization of the small branch in Tehran was made
possible through the co-operation and active assistance of a number of
agencies and individuals whose help is gratefully acknowledged. Without the
active support of Professors Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Dr. Jahanshah
Salih, Chancellor of Tehran University, the project could never have
FOREWORD XI
coine to fruition. O f equal nnportance w as the financial assistance generously
extended by the Old Dominion Foundation of New York and the National
Iranian Oil Oompany. The ability of the branch to meet its financial com-
mitments is als due in part to the help of the Szmn-i-Awqf of the
Imperial Government, of the National Monuments Association, and of the
Pahlavi Foundation, all of whom have purchased its publications in con-
siderable numbers.
The principal activity of the Tehran Branch, Institute of Islamic
Studies, has been the study of philosophy in Irn in the period since the
Mongol invasions. The personnel of the branch have been occupied with
the publication and translation of important texts and with the preparation
of monographic materials that treat the history of this relatively neglected
ra in humn thought. Through these efforts and in co-operation with other
agencies like the French Institute of Iranology the intention is to make the
Irni contribution to philosophy in recent centuries better known to the
world outside Irn. The work of the Branch is, thus, a truly international
undertaking which strives to enrich all of humn culture by making a par-
bcularly rich segment of it better appreciated.
The present volume contains a series of incidental papers which have
been delivered on occasions sponsored by the Tehran Branch. Their authors
constitute a distinguished collection of internationally known scholars.
Although nt all of the papers printed here have to do with Irn or with a
philosophical subject matter, their appearance does illustrate one of the
primary functions of the Tehran Branch which exists precisely to build bridges
of communication among scholars of different countries and languages.
XII FOREWORD
Hopefully, in the future the Branch may continue to be a center where
scholarly work of this kind in the Islamics field may be fostered. I f that is to
be the case, the Branch will need the sympathy and assistance of all who
share its interests.
Charles J. Adams,
Professor and Director,
Institute o f Islamic Studies.
January 1, 1971.
ADDRESS AT THE OPENING OF
THE Mc GILL INSTITUTE OF ISLAMIC STUDIES
TEHRAN BRANCH
By
Stanley B . Frost
Vice - Principal, McGill University
Your Excellency, Mr. Vice-Chancellor, Professor Adams, distinguished
guests, ladies and gentlemen.
I have the honour to represent at this time the Royal Society fr the
Advancement of Learning, which is more familiarly known as McGill Uni
versity, and in particular I represent the Faculty of Graduate Studies and
Research, in which jurisdiction the Institute of Islamic Studies has its ho-
noured piac. I bring the greetings of the University, and express on its bc-
half the most lively satisfaction that after much planning and contriving
this day has arrived and we have gathered here to celebrate the opening
of McGill House in Tehern.
In Montreal we have extremely happy memories of the visit of his Im
perial Majesty the Shahanshah to the University and the Institute two years
ago, and we have als enjoyed our close relationships with those who en-
hanced our Canadian Centennial Exhibition with the Iranian pavilion which
attracted so much attention by its beauty and its rich display of Persian
culture. We are very appreciative that the Pavilion is being continued on the
same site in the Monteal Exposition ManandHis World . Indeed the Mayor
of Montreal, M. Drapeau, has asked me to convey to His Excellency,
the Minister of Education, and this gathering the following message:
Louverture Thran dune maison o les tudiants de l Univer-
sit McGill pourront poursuivre leurs tudes sur l histoire et la culture ira-
niennes illustre les liens troits entre l Iran et notre pays. La participation
de l Iran l Exposition universelle de 1967 et TERRE DES HOMMES
n a fait quc resserrer l amiti de nos deux peuples et nous esprons que la
prsence de P l r a n Montral pourra se manifester d une aussi brillant fa-
5on dans Pavenir.
4 STANLEY B. FROST
The links, therefore, between Irn and Canada are very close and are
constantly being strengthened. The recent publication by the Toronto Uni
versity Press of a volume devoted to the magnificent collection of gems in
the Imperial Treasury, which have been surveyed and catalogued by our
colleagues in the Royal Ontario Museum, is a further instance of the close
relationship between our two countries. We at McGill University have the
particular benefit of a professorship in Iranian philosophy, which is jointly
financed by the Government of his Imperial Majesty and by the Univer
sity. We greatly benefited from the colleagueship of Professor and Madam
Mohaghegh during their appointment to the Institute, and we now have the
opportunity to continue our Iranian studies guided by Professor Ha iri, with
whom I recently had lunch and a very informative visit. I bring his
greetings to all his friends here. We als have each year a number of students
from Irn, 12 being currently enrolled in one or another of our different
Faculties. It is, therefore, most appropriate that it should be a Canadian
university which is opening this House in Tehern, and even more appro
priate that that University should be McGill.
Moreover, I believe that the intention of this House of Study is parti-
cularlv apposite to the days in which we live. We find ourselves at this
time standing on a shrinking plnt in an expanding universe. The universe
is opening up before us with an ever greater immensity, wlule at the same
time our home plnt becomes even smaller, so that Canada and Irn and
indeed all nations and all cultures are now near neighbours. In such a si-
tuation nne of us can escape the ultimate questions - cWho am I ? , c What
is the purpose of life? , What is my personal role in that larger purpose? .
These are the classical questions of philosophy, and to have a House of
Study, devoted to exploring the riches of Iranian philosophy, and to bringing
too-long-neglected treasures to the attention of ihe Western world, is at this
time in the history of the humn race a most significant and a most promising
develoT'ment. Our hope is that these treasures may fertilise and irradiate
Western philosophy, and themselves be quickened and brought to increased
vitality by this intimacy of contact and that in this House there may be a
ADDRESS..
5
new opportunity fr East-West dialogue at the deepest levels of humn per-
ccption.
I want if I may to use the time available to me to develop that thought
alittle further. The most significant event in 1968 was undoubtedly the Apol
l moonshot. That heroic voyage marks as decisive a moment in the history
of the humn race as did the rise of Cyrus the Great in 550 B.C. or the
voyage of Columbus in 1492. In each case, mankind and the culture of
mankind, that complex thing we call civilization, broke out of old frontiers
and poured beyond them int new worlds. In the time of Cyrus, civilization
broke out of the Fertile Crescent and the eastern Mediterranean to reach
int India and the lands of the East. In the time of Columbus, civilization
broke out of the Old World of Euro-Asia int the New World of the West.
In our day, mn and his culture has fr the first time left his home plnt
and reached out fr the stars. Those fst uncertain steps int space will
soon become, we can be quite sure, a steady march. We may confidently
expect, always excepting a nuclear holocaust, that our children and our
grandcbddren wi1! inherit the gala^ies.
Bt the culture which has made this great step forward possible is the
technological one. It is the culture of in.dustrialisation, and of mathematics,
and of science. Its dommant feature is the computer and the significant thing
about the computer is that it does nt talk English or Arabic or Russian or
Chinese. Its language can be translated int any or all of these , and we
use Fortran or Algo or somc other artificial go-between, bt the rel language
of the computer is inalhematics and mathematics belongs to no one humn
culture bt to all. The Babylonians gave us arithmetic and the Greeks gave
geometry, and the Arabs gave us algebra bt mathematics belongs distinc -
tively to nne of these cultures: it belongs to the humn mind - indeed it be
longs to the stuff of the universe and that is another way of saying that
it belongs to God. Similarly there is no Hindu physics, no Muslim chemis-
try, no distmctivelv Chrisian biology. The culture o f the technological age
does nt belong to the West any more than it belongs to the East. At Mc
Gill we have Indin mathematicians, Chinese medical scientists, European
6 STANLEY B. FROST
meteorologists, Arab biochemists, North American physicists, bt they all
speak the one language of science and they all talk in the common terms
of technology.
Bt when we turn to the humanities and to the social Sciences the
situation is readily seen to be something very different. When we seek to
answer what Paul Tillich called the questions of ultimate concern Who
am I ? , What is the purpose of life? , What is my personal role in the
generl scheme of things ? the very questions which our technological suc-
cesses thrust with ever-increasing insistence upon us, we have to go back
fr our answers to the great religions of mankind, and to the philoso-
phies to which they have given rise, and it is here that a diversity of cul-
tures confronts us with kaleidoscopic complexity. Muslim philosophy has a
relationship to Greek philosophy bt has very different insights. The prac-
tical wisdom of China differs greatly from the speculative wisdom of India;
the characteristic. interests of Christianity, whether Catholic or Protestant,
are quite different from those of Buddhism, whether Mahayana or Hinayana.
The kind of answer a mn finds fr the questions of ultimate concern de-
pends upon the tradition in which he was reared.
There was a time, nt so long ago, when each of the great families of
mankind was convinced that it, and it alone, had achieved (or what was
even more dangerous, had been vouchsafed from on hi gh) the full and final
understanding of truth. The Indin stood firm in his Indianness and the Chin-
ese stood firm his Chineseness; the Jew believed himself to be the Chosen
Nation; the Muslim resisted all encroachments upon the profession of Islam;
and the Ghristian, with the very best of intentions, bt with what we can
now see was often misguided zeal, poured forth missionaries all over the
face of the globe. Within the last decades there has, however, begun to be
felt a very far-reaching change in these attitudes, and this I believe will
prove to be one of the most, i f nt the most, significant fact of our times.
A great many factors have contributed to that change: our new knowledge
of the global history of mankind, from the first emeigenceof homo sapuns
ADDRESS.
7
to the rediscovery of lost empires like those of the Mycenaeans and the Hit-
tites; our new realization of the unity of that global history since the
first appearances of civilization less than ten thousand years ago; our dee-
pening understanding of the grand process of evolution, and the way in
which it bmds all life together in one great organic whole; the current in-
termingling of cultures consequent on the new mobility of the humn race;
our new awareness of the universe beyond the solar system. Bt more im-
portant than any of these is, I suggest, a new insight int the natr of
religon itself, which is rapidly being shared by mn of many faiths and of
very different traditions. I may perhaps express that insight in the most sim-
ple and crude way by saying that it is the relisadon that in matters of
religion I as a Ghnstian do nt have to be wrong in order fr you as a
Muslim to be right; that religious truth is nt exclusive in the same way
as is mathematical truth. Zoroaster says: cAs the Holy One I recognized
I bee, O Ahura Mazda5; the Hebrew prophet says, Thus has the Lord
said, I am Yahweh, there is no other; beside me there is no god ; St.Paul
says There is one God and one Mediator between God and mn,
the mn Ghrist Jesus , and the Muslim says There is no God bt
Allah and Mohammed is his prophet , and we find it even now difficult
to grasp that these statemcnts may all be true, religiously true. The light
of religion may shine, does shine, through them all, with different degrees
of luminosity fr different mn. In order to rciv illumination from your
lamp, I do nt have to blow out my own; bt I do have to believe that
your lamp is lighted and I do have to be ready to sit where you sit, to
catch its beams; and I do have to be ready to learn humbly and recep-
tively to think as you think, and to understand as you understand. Bt if
I will do this, then I can bring your light to strengthen my light as I
seek to read the riddle of humn existence. I must stand firm in my Chris-
tianity, and you must stand firm in your Islam, and together we may share
an increased perception.
In a book which is to be published next month I have expressed this
conviction in this way. Speaking of Christianity as a myth, I say : I use
the controversial term myth in this context very much in the way an
economist or a physicist uses the term model . An economist collects his data
and assembles it int a coherent pattern, a construct of inter-acting forces ,
which he can set out descriptively in language, or visually in graphs and
diagrams, or mathematically in formul. I f the model does nt cope ade-
quately with the realuies of the on-going situation, he has to adapt and
modify it until it performs more satisfactorily. Similarly a physicist has his
data relating to molecules, atoms, and particles. He can visualise or depict
them in models, or he can State their activity 111 mathematical tormulae.
When he is dealing with radiation he knowingly uses two unrelated i f nt
mutually inconsistent models, that of energy as transmitted particles and
that o f energy as wave motion through space. Similarly I thmk we have to
recognise that Christiamty is of the natr o f a model of ultimate truth,
and that it is , fr this generation at least, a c myth , that is, an interpre-
tation o f reality. Our task is to explore that myth, and discover whether it
is sufficiently universal to absorb man s new knowledge and new insights and
suli satisfyingly interpret to him himself. We have to ask whether this myth
can still cogently explain fr him his pst and still challengingly point him
to his future. I now add that what I have there said of Christiawity I be
lieve we have to say of all religions, and of course, I am by no means alone
in saying these things. A Dutch professor of the History and Fhenomeno-
logy of Religions, C. J. Bleecker, has recently written: The logic of the
rruth which God has revealed to mankind is sweeping us irresistibly towards
a conditionin which all true belicvers will be able to understand and ap-
preciate each other s values, without having to relinquish the particular faith
so dear to them . My former colleague who founded this Institute, Profes
sor Wilfred Gantwell Smith, has expressed it differently. Speaking of the great
religious symbols of mankind, he asks what we mean by identifying any -
thing in any religion as a symbol and he answers his own question thus :
First, it is sacred; and second, it is therefore translucent. Those fr whom
it is sacred, when they look at it do nt, like the rest of us, sec it, bt
see through it to something beyond -- something nt precise, nt obiective,
STANLEY B. FROST
ADDRESS.
9
nt finite. It is nt something that they see, perhaps, so much as something
about which they feel and feel deeply. Its form serves as a highly charged
crystallizing of whatever emotions or insights or sense of ultimacy it can
be made to carry fr those who treat it as absolute. To understand it --
just as to understand the syllable OM fr Hindus, or the Qur an fr Mus-
lims, or any mythone must ask oneself how much transcendence it can be
made to carry fr those who have chosen its particular shape to represent
the pattern of their religiousness . This it seems to me is the great hope
and promise of the closing decades of the twentieth century of the Chris-
tian ra. In the world of Science and technology we are mn of one culture
seeking to understand and to exploit our environment; bt in our endea -
vour to understand ourselves and the mystery of this hfe in which we live
and move and have our being, we are mn of many traditions who are only
now beginning to appreciate and to explore and to benefit from the rich
diversity of insight we possess. In this connection I have to say how very
much my colleague in the Department of Philosophy, Professor Raymond
Klibansky, regretted his inability to accept the invitation to be present on
this occasion. As president of the Institut International de Philosophie he has
taken an especial interest in the proposal to establish this House in which
the study of philosophy will go forward on. a comparative basis, and he
has asked me to express his warmest good wishes fr this venture, and his
earnest hope that he may at som future date be able to visit both this
House and La Socit Iranienne de Philosophie et des Sciences Humames of
which you M. le Recteur have the honour to be President.
Philosophy is the daughter of religion, bt i f the mother is worthless
the daughter is nt to be trustcd. Despite, however, the neglect int which
philosophy has fallen in the West, and despite the apparent decline in sig-
nificance of all the great religions of the world, I am quite unconvinced
that these great ventures of the humn spint have played their part and
may now be dismissed. I do nt bebeve that the Christian religion w 11 be
east aside by our children and our grandchildi en as they go forth int the
universe; I do nt believe that Islam will cease to speak deeply and saiis-
STANLEY B. FROST
fyingly to those who will live in worlds as yet unknown and unexplored ;
I do nt believe that Buddhism has spoken its last word to mankind in a
technological age; I do nt believe that Hinduism has made its last daring
speculation in a universe robbed of its surprises by science; bt I do believe
that the great religions will come to talk creatively and fruitfully one with
another, and that each of us, following his own truth, made more lumi -
nous by the illumination cast upon it by other mens faith, may come to
a closer understanding of that Truth which most of us call God.
The question, however, inevitably presents itself and cannot be evaded:
will any or all of these religions and their philosophies lead us to the
Ultimate Truth ? Or are they all false and foolish fancies, which can only
mislead and delude? In the story of mans physical development, biologists
are beginning to recognise an end-directedness which, while they can nt
call it teleology, they have to describe as teleonomy: that is, an order
which implies a telos, a goal. In historiography, we are returning to the idea
of a purpose and a meaning in the progressive history nt of any parti -
cular empire or race bt of mankind as a whole. In the physical universe,
Science has demonstrated that law and order are written plainly fr all to
see. The great sweep of evolution in which we are all caught up is , we
are being forced to recognise, directed to som end, som purpose, som
goal, the exact natr of which is as yet undisclosed to us. Bt I cannot
believe that all the insights, the speculations, the inspirations, of the mn
of religior and the mn of philosophy through five thousand years of humn
questioning are without a similar significanc.e. I am convinced that in them
als there will be found an unfoldmg purpose and that like the pieces of
a jig-saw puzzle they will become meaningful when we pt them together.
It is the particular form of religions faith which is appropriate to, and in-
deed is called fr, by our times to believe that man s spiritual quest will be
crowned with success as fully and indeed perhaps even more significantly
than mans scientific quest. In religion and in philosophy we have to journey
hopefully, believing that we shall indeed arrive. As the Urdu poet Aymen
has written :
ADDRESS.
c That He be beyond madness and wisdom let it nt be thus!
men, let there be no further veil beyond the veil !
We have to penetrate the veil of myth and symbol believing in the
Reality that lies behind, and believing that the last veil will be withdrawn
at least sufficiently fr us to know that we have found Truth.
Mn may conquer disease, and transplant hearts, and explore ocean
depths and colonise the galaxy, bt i f he cannot find an answer to the ques-
tion c Who am I ? then he is a lost child crying in the dark. The an -
swer I believe can only be found in the great religious traditions and in
the philo.sophies which spring from them . It is therefore a splendid thing that
one more meeting piac of East and West has been established here in Mc
Gill House in '1eheran, a house where the mn from the East and the mn
frorn the West may both be at home, and therefore may talk freely one
to another. I warmly congratulate all who have conceived, supported and
realised this idea, and I declare the House to be open to all who share its
quest.
MYSTIQUE ET HUMOUR
CHEZ SOHRAWARD, SHAYKH AL - ISHRQ,
Confrence donne V Institut franco-iranien de Thran le 19 Novembre 1969
Pr
Henry Corbin
Directeur d Etudes 1 Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes (Sorbonne) ,
Ve Section,et Directeur du Dpartement d Iranologie de 1 Institut frangais de
Recherche en Irn
'
Le texte qu on lira ci-dessous est celui d une confrence prononce a Vlnstitut fran-
gais de Tehern, le 19 novembre 1969, sous la prsidence de M.Andr Michel, con-
seiller culturel prs VAmbassade de Franc.
J e me rjouis tout particulirement d en voir le texte publi dans la premiere
livraison du prsent Bulletin, cr cette publication souligne de la fagon la plus heu-
reuse Vesprit de collaboration clos, des Vorigine, entre la dlgation Thran de
ITnstitut d tudes islamiques de V Universit McGill et notre Dpartement dTranologie
de Vlnstitut franco-irnin de vingt-cinq Cet esprit de collaboration f i t closion spon-
tanment, non ps simplement en raison de liens d amiti personnelle, mais en raison
du f a i t que depuis bientt vingt-cinq ans notre Dpartement dTranologie s'est consacr
spcialement a Vtude de la philosuphie irano-islamique, entendue au sens le plus large
du mot. C est un champ eVludes o les chercheurs ont t jusqu ici peu nombreux,et
o nous avons a poursuivre des tches d une actualit d autant plus urgente. Le f a i t que
nos collgues et amis de V Universit Mc GUI se sont a leur tour, avec la collabora
tion de nos collgues iraniens, engags dans la mrne voie, nous confirme, pr leur
renfort, que cette voie tait la bonne. La publication des oeuvres de Sohrawardi con-
stitua les prmices de nos recherches,et il semble qu elle ait marqu un point de dpart,
un appel aux recherches en philosophie iranienne. Puisse la publication ici-mme du
prsent texte, mettre galement sous le patronage du Shaykh al-Ishrq les prmices de
la collaboration que nous nous proposons de dvelopper.
Une simple remarque encore: le prsent texte est publi ici sans poiter de rj-
rences bibliographiques. On trouvera les plus importantes dans le recueil des OEuvres
persanes de Sohrawardi annonc ici des le dbut.
II arrive tout chercheur de commettre un jour o u l autre quelque im-
prudence. G est ainsi que j en ai commis une rcemment, au cours d une
conversation qui ne semblait pourtant recler aucun pril. II marriva, parce
qu il tait question de mystique, demettre l un ct de l autre deux mots
qui, premiere vue, semblent pourtant assez trangers l un l autre. Ce
fut suffisant pour que leur association imprvue, un peu paradoxai, bau-
cha, puis prcisa, puis finit pr imposer ce que l on appelle un sujet de
confrence.
Vous avez bien voulu venir ici pour entendre parler de mystique... et
dhumour. Pour justifier ce que ces deux mots peuvent avoir a fair l un avec
lautre, il faudrait commencer pr mettre parfaitement au clair ce que signi-
fient l un et l autre. Ce serait dj la une entreprise redoutable exigeant la
mise en oeuvre de grands moyens historiques, philosophiques, techniques. Je
prfre n envisager quune simple causerie au cours de laquelle vous verrez
vous-mmes pourquoi ces deux mots - mystique et humour -- s taient ti'ou -
vs unis l un lautre au cours de la conversation laquelle je viens de
fair allusion.
Vous dire quel en tait le thme, c est d emble vous annoncer que
notre causerie de ce soir, en sn dbut tout au moins, sera le prolongement
d une confrence donne ici mrne l an dernier la mrne poque. Nous
nous tions entretenus de la vie et d un aspect de l oeuvre de Shihboddin
Yahy Sohrawardi, au V I e/ X I I e sicle, celui que toute la tradition iranienne
salue comme le Shaykh al-Ishrq, le maitre de cettc thosophie de la Lumi-
re qui se donne elle-mme le nm de sagesse orientale, au sens m-
taphysique non ps gographique du mot oriental, parce qu elle est i l l u -
minative, et illuminative parce qu elle est orientale. C est de Sohrawardi
qu il tait question dans l imprudente conversation que je viens de dnoncer;
MYSTIQUE ET HUMOUR CHEZ SOHRAWARDI
17
ce fut donc lui, en premier et dernier lieu, le responsable de mon imprudence,
et je devrais lui en vouloir. Et pourtant j e ne puis lui en vouloir, cr sn
oeuvre reprsente pour le philosophe oiientaliste que je suis, un amour de
jeunesse, et parce que finalement c est lui qui m a guid comme pr la main
jusqu en ce pays d Iran, il y aura bientt vingt-cinq ans. En changejai con-
sacr un certain nombre dannes de ma vie la restitution et l inter -
prtation de ses oeuvres; il y a donc entre lui et moi un lien irrmissible,
et j'espre que ce lien aura t un point de dpan pour le renouveau des
etudes sohrawardiennes.
II reste que c est lui que nous allons demander raison du raopro-
chement des deux mots :mystique et humour. Sans doute y aurait-il dautres
mystiques qui nous pourrions le demander. Mais c est ce grand philoso -
phe et mystique irnin que nous allons nous adresser principalement et cela
pour trois grandes raisons.
1) La premiere est l importance de sn oeuvre qui a domin lhorizon
de la philosophie et de la spiritualit en Irn, pendant plusieurs sicles,et
qui semble promise de nos jours une renaissance. Je vous dirai dans un
instant trs brivement pourquoi. 2) La seconde aison est que, tout pro-
chainement, grce aux soins diligents de notre minent ami, le professeur
Xasr, Doyen de la Facult des Lettres de l Universit de Thran, un troi-
sime volume de ses oeuves va paraitre comme volume 17 de la Biblio-
thque Iranienne publie pr notre Dpartement d Iranologie de 1 Institut
fran^ais de recherche en I r n . Ce volume considrable rassemble en un cor-
pus toutes les oeuvres crites en persan pr Sohrawardi, un magnifique et clair
persan du X I I e sicle. La parution d un tel volume n est ps seulement une
date pour la bibliographie iranienne, mais pour les tudes philosophiques
comme telles, cr tous les philosophes sauront gr au professeur Nasr du
labeur qu il a consacr cette dition,et j e puis annoncer que mrne le
lectcuir qui ne lit ps le persan, supposer qu il y en ait,pourra tirer profit
de ce vaste ouvrage, puisque nous y donnons un ample rsum en frangais de
chacun des quatorze traits quil contient. Ce volume vient donc sn heu-
i 8
HENRY CORBIN
re, voire lgrement en retaid sur sn heure, et c est la troisime raison que
j ai vous donner. 3) Ge volume de ses oeuvres en persan aurait d
paraitre, en effet, i l y a dj deux ans, sil ny et eu les dlais d impression,
toujours imprvisibles. Cr, c est il y a deux ans, exactement au calendrier
islainique lunaire,le 5 Rajab 1387, correspondant au 10 octobre 1967 et au
18 Mehr 1346, du calendrier solaire irnin, que nous aurions d clbrer le
hit centime anniversaire de la mrt en martyr du Shaykh al-Ishrq,
l ge de trente-six ans,enla citadelle dAlep,le 5 Rajab 587, correspondant au
29 juillet 1191. Nous sommes donc tout juste en retard de deux ans.Quand
il sagit de hit sicles, l cart est minim, surtout pour des philosophes et
des mystiques habitus pr vocation n envisager les choses que sut sperie
aeternitatis. II reste que la parution prochaine de ce volume nous permet,
spcialement ce soir, de commmorer ensemble ce huitime centenaire,et je
crois que le sens de cet anniversaire se propagera en rsonances lointaines
dans le coeur de nos amis iraniens.
Ces quelques mots m obligent dj vous en dire, ou vous en rappe-
ler davantage, concernant l oeuvre de Sohrawardi, puisque ce sont quelques
pages de cette oeuvre qui nous feront comprendre la conjonction ncessaire
et salutaire - un moment donn de la mystique et de l humour.
Feut-tre certains d entre vous se rappellent-ils que, l an dernier, nous
avions essentiellement tudi dans l oeuvre de Sohrawardi l indication du pas-
sage de l pope hroique l pope mystique. Ce passage est sans doute
un fait capital de la culture spirituelle iranierme; nous le vrifions dans un
grand nombre de ces popes mystiques si caractristiques du gni irnin;
trop de noms seraient nommer ici depuis Attr, cA s s r de Tabriz, Jrni
et tant dautres jusqu Nr cAl-Shh. J espre depuis longtemps avoir un
lve qui je pourrais confier le sin dune recherche approfondie et com-
parative entre le c.ycle de l pope mystique iranienne et le cycle de notre
propre pope mystique en Occident mdival. Sans doute ce ne peut tre
la qu un travail de maturit, mais il atteindrait vrannent en profondeur le
point de contact de nos deux cultures. Ici mrne nous avions tudi le pas
sage en question dans quelques pages que vous retrouverez dans l dition
MYSTIQUE ET HUMOUR CHEZ SOHRAWARDI
19
des oeuvres persanes de Sohrawardi.
II y avait, propos du Graal de Kay Khosraw, le magmfique rcit
du Graal d un mystique khosrawni. Kay Khosraw est pour Sohrawardi une
figure exemplaire des souverains extatiques de l ancien Iran, tel point qu il
est le hros ponyme des Khosrawniyn comme ayant t, dans 1 Irn pr-
islamique, les prcurseurs des Ishrqiyun ( les adeptes de la thosophie de la
Lumire de notre shaykh). Et puis il y avait les pisodes du Shh- Nmeh
dnt un rcit initiatique de Sohrawardi, celui qui port comme titre L -
archange empourpr ( Aal-e sorkh) nous suggre le sens mystique: l pisode
de la naissance de Zl, l enfant dnt la ehevelure port encore la trace du
monde de la lumire dnt il vient, et qui typifie l me jete dans le d -
sert de ce monde: puis l pisode de la mrt d Esfandyr, le hros de la fi
zoroastrienne, li au motif eschatologique de Simorgh. Cr peut-on voir Si-
morgh sans mourir? Et tout cela faisait regretter que Sohrawardi n ait ps
eu le temps de traiter ainsi dun bout l autre le Shh-Nmeh de Ferdawsi,
et de nous apprendre le lire, l aide de cette hermmeutique symbolique
qui s appelle le t wl, de la mrne manire que tous les spirituels lisent le
Qorn l aide de la mrne hermneutique. Mais l-mme nous voyons
surgir une claire indication concernant le sens de sn oeuvre,et concernant
aussi la manire dnt il sy est pris pour la raliser.
Le sens de sn oeuvre, le Shaykh al-Ishrq l a elairement lormul plu-
sieurs reprises: ressusciter la thosophie mystique des sages de l ancien Irn,
concernant la Lumire et les Tnbres,- une sagesse qui pour lui tait pro-
fondment diffrente de toutc philosophie dualiste, et pour la restauration de
laquelle il dclarait, explicitement et consciemment, navoir eu aucun pr -
dcesseur. Mll Sadr Shrzi, sn plus grand interpi t, le salue encore au
X V I e sicle comme le rsurrecteur des doctrines des sages de l ancienne
Perse. Quelque trois sicles donc avant le grand philosophe byzantin G-
miste Plthon, Sohrawardi labore une doctrine o se conjoignent les tradi-
tions d Herms, de Platn et de Zoroastre, le prophte de l ancien Irn. On
peut dirc qu il a opr cn quelque sort le rapatriement en Irn de ces
20
HENRY CORB1N
sages que la rencontre de la sagesse grecque et de la sagesse iranienne a
fait dsigner ailleurs comme les Mages hellniss. Mais comment a-t-il
russi ce rapatriement? Justement rinterprtation mystique des pisodes du
Shh-Nmeh auxquels j ai fait allusion, nous le montre: l aide de cette com-
prhension spirituelle que connote pr excellence le terme de tawil comme
hermneutique des symboles, donc avec les ressources que lui offrait l Islam
spirituel, la spiritualit de l Islam mystique. Le t wil, c est reconduire une
chose sn origine, sn archtype: c est dceler sous l apparence extrieu-
re de la lettre, ou de tout phnomne, le sens sotrique, c est--dire le
sens cach, la vrit intrieure. G est pr la vrit intrieure que communi-
quent entre elles les hautes connaissances de toutes les sagesses. II y a, certes,
chez Sohrawardi, quelque chose comme le sentiment d un oecumnisme spi
rituel, pour employer un mot frt usit de nosjours, mais d un oecumni
sme dnt le fondement reste sotrique, c est--dire cach, c est--dire int-
rieur. S il dit se raliser - mais il est dj ralis secrtement - c est pr
les hauts sommets, ou pr les profondeurs, non ps au niveau des viden-
ces exotriques communes, toujours vulnrables, cr tant accessibles tous
et supportant des intrts immdiats, elles sont accessibles aussi toutes les
passions comme toutes les trahisons.
D o, chez notre Shaykh al-Ishrq,une conception si rigoureuse de la
philosophie que, si elle ne dbouche ps sur une exprience mystique, c est--
dire sur une ralisation spirituelle personnelle, toute recherche philosophique
est vaine et strile. Inversement, toute tentative d atteindre l exprience
mystique en l absence d une srieuse formation philosophique, risque de
s garer dans le dsert des illusions et de la folie. D o, le point de dpart non
moins rigoureux de toute recherche philosophique, formul comme tant la
connaissance de si. Gela ne veut ps dire la connaissance, pour chacun de
nous, de ses petits dfauts et de ses grandes vertus. Ce n est ps cela qu
entend le philosophe. Ce que veut dire la connaissance de si, c est prcn-
dre conscience de ce quimplique le fait d un sujet qui se connait si -
mrne, qui a conscience de soi-meme. Autremcnt dit, c cst sveiller si-
MYSTIQUE ET HUMOUR CHEZ SOHRAWARDI
mrne, tout ce qu implique une petite plnase comme c.elle-ci: je me con-
nais moi-mme, j ' a i conscience de moi-mme. Ce j e qui s exprime ainsi est
mis en prsence de moi-mme, dun Soi-mme quj est autre que ce j e pv
int la premiere personne, puisque celui-ci le prend comme objet de sa
connaissance. Si dilfrent mrne, que ce Si lui apparat d une substantialit
mfmiment plus stable et peimanente que celle de ce j e qui le dcouvre et
qui se rfre lui,- dcouverte qui, au terme de sn closion, peut abou -
tir la vision intrieure de ce Si, qui alors apparat comme le maitre 111-
trieur, le guide personnel. La dcouverte est si bouleversante, les effets s en
propagent si profondement dans toutes les dimensions de la vie, que ce qui
la rcapHule au mieux, c'est la clbre sentence: Gelui qui se connait soi-
mme, connait sn Dieu . C est une sentence sur laquelle ont t crits
bien des livres en Islam, cr elle y formule la plus haute exprience intrieu
re de 1homme spirituel . Justement, un certain nombre d oeuvres de Soh
rawardi ont pour objet de dcrire cette rencontre intrieure et les condi -
tions qui la preparent.
Nous constatons ainsi que cette spiritualit est oriente vers une certame
conception de l homme, dnt lidai, le cas-lmite, est formul dans la
dsignation de l Homme Parfait ( al-Insn al-Km; dj les Iiermtistes
disaient anthrpos teleios). L' Homme Parfait, c est celui qu en terminologie
mystique on dsigne encore comme lePle (Ojotb), le ple mystique, celui
que la masse des hommes en gnral gnore et ne peut quignorer, alors
que sans Pexistence de ce ple, mrne secrte, l espce humaine ne pourrait
ps persvrer dans l tre et s abimeraic dans un cataclysme final, cr c est
pr lui que communiquent encore le monde suprieur invisible et le monde
de notre ralit quotidienne. En terminologie sh ite, nous savons que ce terme
de ple, ou de ple des ples, dsigne l Imm cach. Aussi bien, chaque
fois que le terme est employ, it est difficile de ne ps dceler au moins
quelque chose comme un crypto-shPisme. Et c est peut-trele sens ultim du
procs que l e s c olmi d Alep intentrent notie Sohiawardi, lorsque, sans
sembarrasser des distinctions philosophiques subtiles que prmppose la pro-
phtologie, ils lui reprochrent de soutenir dans ses livres que Dieu pouvait,
HENRY CORBIN
nimporte quel moment de nimporte quel temps, crer un prophte. Notre
shaykh ne leur rpondit ps, malheureusement, avec l humour dnt tmoig-
nent certaines pages de ses livres, mais avec l imptuosit de sa fougue juvnile.
Peut-tre se sentait-il protg pr l amiti d al-Malik al-Zhir, gouverneur
dAlep et le propre fils de Salheddn (le Saladin des Croiss). Mais nous nous
demandons encore quel motif Tavait entran dans ce funeste voyage Alep,
o il ne retrouvait ni le climat spirituel de l Iran, celui de sn pays natal
de Sohraward,ni celui qui l avait accueilli chez les princes seljoukides dAna-
tolie. A trois reprises, les olam dAlep intervinrent auprs de Saladin pour
obtenir sa mrt. A trois reprises Saladin dut menacer de disgrce sn pro
pre fils al-Malik al-Zhir, s il continuait de protger sn ami. Et c est ainsi
que le Shaykh al- Ishrq mourut martyr dans la citadelle dAlep, le 5 Ra
jab 587/29 juillet 1191. II tait tout juste, je le rappelai tout l heure,g
de trente-six ans.
Malgr sa jeunesse il nous a laiss une oeuvre considrable, une oeuvre
qui, tout au long des sicles, a nourri la vie philosophique et spirituelle de
ses disciples, les Ishrqyn, ceux que l on appelle aussi les platoniciens de
Perse. Et cette oeuvre nous apparat assez riche en intentions restes ina -
per^ues, pour stimuler de nos jours des questions qui soient en rupture avec
celles dnt nos contemporains n ont que trop l habitude, nous aider dans un
dsarroi et un dsordre intellectuels gnraliss, en nous pcimettant daccder
un continent de l me qui, pour beaucoup aujourd hi, est un continent
perdu.
Je ne ferai que vous dire en deux mots de quoi cette oeuvre se com-
pose: dans l ensemble se distingue une ttralogie d oeuvres philosophiques
puissantes , dnt le sommet est constitu pr le grand Livre de la Tho-
sophie orientale, celui qui contient la Somme de la pense de notre shaykh,
et dnt il nous dit lui-mme quil eut l intuition d un seul coup, lors
d une journe merveilleuse, bien quil lui fallt ensuite de longs mois pour
la rdiger. Et puis il y a un certain nombre d oeuvres de moindre tendue:
les unes philosophiques, mais au sens sohrawardien du mot, c est--dire que
MYSTIQUE ET HUMOUR GHEZ SOHRAWARDI 2 3
leur philosophie aboutit immanquablement un memento de la vie spirituel-
le; les autres proprement mystiques, dnt certaines sontrdiges en forme
de rcits d initiation personnelle, les autres en forme de paraboles ou d his-
toires symboliques. Les unes sont en persan, d autres en arabe. Ce sont les
traits rdige.s en persan que vous trouverez bientt runis dans le volume
publi en commmoration du huitime centenaire de sa mrt.
Ici, nous touchons au centre de notre entretien, mais ce centre, nous
ne pouvions Fatteindre qu en parcourant les quelques avenues que j ai tent
de vous dessiner grands traits.
Je viens d voquer la forme que revtent les traits mystiques de Soh
rawardi, et je vous avais precdemment indiqu que c est dans certaines pa-
ges de ces traits que nous trouvons l attestation d un humour sui geneas
Alois il me faudrait peut-tre commencer pr rpondre aux deux questions
poses au dbut: qu'est-ce que la mystique? qu est-ce que l humour? Q ue s
tions redoutables, auxquelles je ne suis mrne ps certain quune rponse
satisfaisante puisse tre donne. Je ferai simplement remarquer tout d abord
que le terme de mystique est hlas! un des mots les plus profans, les plus
galvauds de nos jours, employ avec une lgret et une mconsciencc d-
1 isoire, en des occasions ou en des domaines dans lesquels il na absolument
rien voir, si l on en connait vritablement le sens. Et je ne crois ps tre
le premier formuler cette protestation. Prcisons donc que nous l employ-
ons ici dans sn sens rigoureux, tel quil ne peut tre usit que dans un con-
texte religieux ou mtaphysique, et tel que le comporte sn tymologie grec-
que. Mystikos, c est ce qui est cach, invisible aux facults de perception sen-
sible, insaisissable au niveau des vidences communes et pr les organes de
la perception commune. Mystique est, quant au mot et quant aux faits, essen-
tiellement associ mystre, ce qui dans l antiquit s est appel religions a
mystres et dnt les initis sappelaient des mystes ( mystres dEleusis, de
Mithra etc.). Le mot grec mystikos est donc l quivalent de btin, ghayb,
niakhfi , mahjb, penhdn etc.
Mros alors,quest-ce que pntrer mystiquement dans le monde du mystre?
24
C est une pntration qui ne saccomplit ni pr les facults de perception sensible
ni pr l entendement rationnel,et pourtant c est une pntration qui a bel
et bien une porte notique, c est--dire cognitive ( et c est cela que cor-
respond en persan l emploi du mot erfn). C est une pntration qui nous
arrache toutes les vidences sur lesquelles vit la conscience commune; si
nous appelons celle-ci conscience de veille, pour le mystique au contraire,
cette prtendue conscience de veille n est quun lourd sommeil, le sommeil
de l ignorance et de l aveuglement spirituel. Ce qui apparait au commun
des hommes comme le monde du jour devient alors le monde de la nuit, et
inversement. Les organes de pntrationqu on les dsigne comme vision in
trieure, lumire du coeur, imagination active, centres du corps subtil etc.
sont gnralement atrophis et paralyss chez 1homme ordinaire de nos jours,
qui ne s en fait mrne plus aucune ide. Cette pntration est vritable-
ment une pntration dans la quatrieme dimension, celle que Sohrawardi dsi
gne pr un terme persan qu il avait forg lui-mme: N-koj-bdd, le pays
de non-o, mais ce terme nous ne pourrions ps le traduire pr utopie
sans commettre le pire des contre-sens. C est bien un pays (bad), un pays
rel, mais dnt il est impossible de fixer les coordonnes sur nos cartes go-
graphiques, parce quil y a un hiatus entre le monde extrieur ou exotri-
que et le monde intrieur ou sotrique, qui est le Malakt, le monde de
lAme. C est un pays o, aux rapports de distance locale, se substituent les
rapports de distance entre tats intrieurement vcus. Pour atteindre ce
pur espace de l Ame, il faut, comme disent nos mystiques, sortir de la crypte
cosmique, merger au-dehors. Aucune fuse, si perfectionne soit-elle,ne nous
en rapprochera donc jamais. Cr,qui plus est,les mondes subtils, les tres de
lumire auxquels s unit le plerin mystique, taient la depuis toujours; seul
notre aveuglement spirituel nous empchait de les voir. Comme le dit Soh
rawardi, s il arrive que la vue soitrendue l aveugle-n et qu il voie pour
la premiere fois le soleil, demandera-t-il au soleil: pourquoi n tais-tu ps
la auparavant?
Pr ces quelques mots, je crois suggrer pourquoi il est capital quune
MYSTIQUE ET HUMOUR CHEZ SOHRAWARDI
25
culture spirituelle dispose dune mtaphysique et d une thorie de la con-
naissance qui fasse droit ces mondes, intermdiaires entre l intelligible et le
sensible, et nous pouvons dire quavec la philosophie de Ylshrq, la culture
iranienne a dispos d'une telle mtaphysique et d une telle thorie de la
connaissance. Nous en avons eu,certes, l quivalent en Occident, mais il y
a peut-tre un peu plus de trois sicles que nous l avons plus ou moins
perdu,et c est I un aspect de la tragdie de notre philosophie. G est contre
un aspcct correspondant de cette tragdie, que Sohrawardi a voulu tablir
une sauvegarde,en imposant toute vocation mystique une solide formation
philosophique. Cr si l homme ne peut ps se passer d un contact avec le
Malakid, il ne peut tenter sans pril, dans certaines conditions culturelles,
de rejoindre un monde dnt on lui a coup l accs. II import de voir bien
en face, pour lui fair face, ce pril auquel est expos le mystique qui
s aventure vers N-koj-bd. Ce pril est,en bref, celui que les psychiatres de
nos jours dsignent comme la schizophrnie sous ses multiples aspects,et qui
est l impossibilit pour le visionnaire de distinguer entre le monde intrieur
de ses visions et le monde de la ralit quotidienne. II ne se passe ps de
jours,hlas! sans que les informations ne nous en fassent connaitre de lamen-
tables exemples. Sans mrne aller jusqu ce cas-limite, il peut arriver que
le privilge d une exprience supranormale dtermine chez le sujet ce que
les psychologues de nos jours encore appellent inflation du moi, complexe de
supriorit... Alors voici que l exprience qui et d fair de l hom.me un
renoneiateur et,par l-mme, un guide pour les autres hommes, l veille aux
ambitions mondaines ou polibques dnt ti devient le jouet, bref tout le con-
traire de ce qui fait un derviche. Tel est ce que l on peut appeler le pril
subjectif encouru pr le mystique dnt la prparation est insuffisante.
II en est un autre, que nous pouvons appeler le pril objectif. Le premier
pril surmont, si le mystique veut dciire sn exprience, dcrire ce quil a
vu et entendu, les mondes et les vnements dnt il a t le tmoin, com-
ment le fera-t-il sans violer le secret? sans exposer ce secret Pincompr-
HENRY CORBIN
hension, la moquerie, la drision des ignorants? sans,pr consquent, li-
vrer le trsor qui lui a t confi, aux mains de quelqu un qui en est in-
digne, nen tant ps l hritier? Bref, comment le pourra-t-il, sans violer ce
qui, dans la tradition sotrique occidentale,s est appel la discipline de Var-
cane ? Et nous savons, comment et pourquoi, sous le nm de taqiyeh, cette
discipline est prescrite pai les Imms du sh^isme; nous savons combin Soh
rawardi en a eu le souci, tel point quil avait invent pour sn grand
Livre de la Thosophie orientale une criture secrte. Un de ses rcits
mystiques, l Epitre sur l tat d enfance, nous montre le plerin-novice par-
lant tourdiment de secrets mystiques un inconnu qui finit pr le rudo-
yer et le traiter de fou; plus grave encore, cette indiscrtion a pour cons-
quenee quil perd la prsence de sn shaykh, c est--dire de sn guide in-
trieur; il ne peut plus le retrouver.
Eh bien! c est le moment de nous poser la question, en quoi l humour
a-t-il affaire la mystique? Tout dabord, j e crois que du consentement gn-
ral il n y a aucune dfinition possible de lhumour, et l on a depuis long-
temps renonc en tenter une dfinition qui en sit vraiment une, mrne
nos amis britanniques qui, pourtant, sont particulirement au fait de la ques
tion. Je ne vais donc ps m y essayer vainement mon tour. Mais,sil n est
ps de dfinition satisfaisante de la chose, peut-lre est-il possible de cons-
tater certains de ses effets. Je suggrerai donc que l humour implique la
capacit de prendre un certain recul, une certaine distance, vis--vis de soi-
mme et des choses; et grce ce recul,il implique la capacit de sembler
ne point prendre tout fait au srieux ce qu en fait,intrieurernent, au fond de
soi-mmej on prend, et l on ne peut que prendie, terriblement au srieux,
mais alors sans en trahir le secret. Faute de cette prisc de distance l -
gard de la chose,on risque d en devenir le capf et la proie. Grce elle,
en revanche, si l on est capable de prendre cette distance, voici que la cris-
pation du visage, le geste pathbque, l'att tude dfensive, voire agressive,vont
fair piac un sourire, peine esquiss peut-tre.
Cette brve indication sur laquelle je ne veux ps m appesantir, peut
MYSTIQUE ET HUMOUR CHEZ SOHRAWARDI 27
suffire dj, je l espre, nous fair entrevoir que le rapport entre mystique
et humour consiste en ce que l humour est peut-tre la sauvegarde du mys-
tique,en ce sens qu il le prserve du double pril que je dcrivais,il y a un
instant, comme pril subjectif et comme pril objectif. Et c est au tmoig-
nage de Sohrawardi lui-mme que nous pouvons en appeler.
Plus exactement, pour le premier cas,ce sera le double tmoignage d -
Avicenne ( Ibn Sin) et de Sohrawardi, puisque l exemple que je vais vous
proposer, sera emprunt au Rcit de l Oiseau compos en arabe pr le
philosophe Avicenne et que Sohrawardi traduisit en persan. Comme rcit
mystique,ce Rcit de l Oiseau est un petit chef-d oeuvre d Avicenne; vous
pouvez en trouver une traduction frangaise dans un livre sur Avicenne, qui
a dj une quinzaine d annes,et o j ai essay d en montrer la piac dans
le cycle des rcits avicenniens, de le situer dans le contexte de ce qu aurait
t la philosophie orientale dAvicenne, si le manuscrit de celle-ci navait
t dtruit pendant le sac d Ispahan et si Avicenne avait eu le temps de le
rcrire. Mieux encore, il convient de situer ce rcit dans le cycle qui
s est dvelopp autour de ce symbole de l Oiseau depuis Ghazl jusqu
la grande pope mystique de Attr. Les origines en sont lointaines. La
premiere rfrence qui nous vient l esprit est le Phedre de Platn,o l me
est imagine la ressemblance d une Energie dnt la natr serait d tre
un attelage ail que mn sur sn char un aurige galement pourvu d ailes.
Et c est encore la magnifique image de la procession cleste des mes la
suite des Deux et de la chute de certaines d entre elles. II est de la
natr de l aile, ecrit Platn,d tre apte mener vers le haut ce qui est
pesant, en l levant du ct o habite la race des Dieux,et entre toutes les
choses qui ont rapport au corps, c est l aile qui a le plus largement part
au divin. Voil pour le symbole de l oiseau dnt il y a d autres magnifi-
ques exemples, pr exemple dans certains psaumes manichens.
Prenons maintenant le rcit dAvicenne traduit pr Sohrawardi. L exor-
de cn est pathtique. N y aura-t-il personne parmi mes frres, demande
Pautetu*, pour me prter un peu 1oreiUe, afit? que j e lui confie une part
de ma tristesse?...Frres de la Vrit! Dpouillez-vous de votre peau, comme
se dsquame le serpent... Aimez la mrt, afin de rester des vivants. Soyez
toujours en vol; ne vous choisissez aucun nid dtermin, cr c est au nid
que l on capture les oiseaux... II y a ainsi deux magnifiques pages sur ce
tn. Puis le narrateur raconte sn histoire: comment un groupe de chas-
seurs tendirent leurs filets et le firent captif avec toute une troupe d oiseaux
dnt il faisait parti; comment dans sa captivit il oublia tout: sn origine,
sn appartenance un autre monde,et finalement perdit mrne conscience
des liens qui l entravaient et de l troitesse de sa cage. Puis, voici quil
aper^oit un jour dautres oiseaux qui avaient russi a se dlivrer; comment
0
il finit alors pr les rejoindre; comment ensemble ils prirent leur envol,
franchirent les hauts sommets, parcoururent les hautes valles de la montagne
de Qf, c est--dire de la montagne psychocosmique, au prix d efforts pui -
sants; comment ils retrouvrent leurs frres aux alentours de la Cit du Roi,
et comment l-mme ils furent reus pr celui-ci dnt la beaut les frappa
de stupeur; comment ensuite s accomplit leur retour, cette fois en compa-
gnie du messager du roi,porteur d un ordre pour ceux qui avaient nou le
lien et qui peuvent seuls le dnouer. - Je ne puis insister sur aucun dtail,
mais uniquement sur le soudain changement de tn qui intervient la fin
du rcit.
Le lecteur tait emport pr la contemplation de celui qui est tout
entier Visage que tu contemples, tout entier une Main qui donne, et voici
que soudain le narrateur, se substituant davance aux sceptiques quiaccueil-
leront sn rcit avec une douce ironie,se met crire ceslignes: Plus d un
parmi mes frres vont me dire: Tu dois avoir l esprit un peu drang;il
faut mrne que tu sois devenu compltement fou. Voyons! tu ne t esjamais
envol; cest tout simplement ta raison qui s est envole. Aucun chasseurn a
jamais fait de ti sn gibier; c est bel et bien tn bon sens que lon a
chass. Et puis, comment un homme s envolerait-il? Et comment un oiseau
se mettrait-il parler?-Non, vraiment,il faudrait te mettre au rgime; bire
2 8 HENRY CORBIN
MYSTIQUE ET HUMOUR CHEZ SOHRAWARDI 29
de la tisane, prendre des bains chauds, fair une inhalation d huile de n-
nuphar, surveiller tn alimentation; ps de surmenage,et surtout ps deveil-
le noctur'ne prolonge. Nous t avons toujours connu comme un homme de
bon sens. A te voir ainsi dtraqu, quel souci nous nous faisons. Nous en
sommes nous-mmes compltement malades...
Je crois que ces lignes dans lesquelles se donne libre cours l humour
du mdecin Avicenne, ont une vertu exemplaire; le mystique a pari, il a
tent de dire sn aventure. Mais il sait davance comment les gens raison-
nables vont l accueillir; ils raccueilleront comme beaucoup d historiens de
la philosopliie ont accueilli les noplatoniciens, Proclus, Jamblique et leurs
mules. Que va-t-il se passer ? S il essaye de fair front, en opposant argu-
ment argument, il vadevenir infiniment vulnrable; il ne convaincra aucun
des sceptiques, mais peut-tre se convaincra-t-il lui-mme,de plus en plus,de
l excellence de sn cas. Et le voil perdu, frustr, bon peut-tre pour fair
un schizophrne. Q u en revanche il sit capable de prendre ce recul,de for-
muler lui-mme d avance,en toute clart de conscience, ce que les sceptiques
et les agnostiques vont lui opposer; alors,ce qui chez ces derniers et t une
critique ngative, agressive, devient chez lui un triomphe de 1 humour,grce
auquel il glisse entre les mains des sceptiques. L humour est sa double sau -
vegaide, cr en mrne temps quil le prmunit contre toute ivresse et toute
inflation du moi, il efface les effets de ce qui et pu tre une violation de
la discipline de l arcane. Seul comprendra celui qui en a la capacit et
qui est digne de comprendre; les autres n y verront rien. Mais il aura tout
de mrne, envers et contre tout, transmis sn message. C est donc simultan-
ment que le mystique trouve sa sauvegarde contre le pril subjectif et le
pril objectif qui le menacent. Et cette sauvegarde, il la trouve en parlant
le langage des symboles. Et il arrive que ce langage sit,comme chez Avi -
cenne, comme chez Sohrawardi, inspir pr un humour suprieur.
Mais alors qu est-ce au juste qu un symbole? Pour le dire de fagon ri-
goureuse, le mieux est de nous reporter a la signification du mot grec sym-
bolon. Le verbe symballem, en grec, veut dire agglomrer, joindre ensemble.
Deux hommes, pr exemple,se trouvent tre pr hasard des htes de tren -
contre. Avant de se sparer, ils brisent en deux un anneau ou un tesson
dargile; chacun en prend une moiti; c.hacune des deuxpices sera alors le
syrnbolon de l autre. Cr les annes et les annes pourront alors passer, avec
tous les changements qu elles amnent, mais il suffira que celui qui se trou-
ve en possession d un syrnbolon le conjoigne avec l'autre, pour se fair recon-
natre de celui qui est en possession de cet autre comme ayant t l hte de
jadis ou, sn dfaut, sn reprsentant ou sn ami. Dans le cas de nos m-
taphysiciens mystiques, chaque syrnbolon appartient sn univers respectif:
le monde invisible du Malakt dune part, le monde visible de la percep
tion sensible d autre part. Tous deux ensemble, le syrnbolon de l un et le sym-
bolon de l autre forment une unit suprieure, une unit intgrale. Cr le
fait quici un syrnbolon se conjoigne avec l autre, annonce que le monde visib
le symbolise avec le monde invisible,si nous parlons la langue que savait en
core parler Leibniz. L-mme est la source de la clbre sentence de Goe
the, dans la finl du second Faust: Tout l phmre n est qu un symbole
( disons mrne: rien de moins quun symbole). Nous saisissons immdiate -
ment la diffrence entre le symbole et ce qui sappelle couramment de nos
jours allgorie. L allgorie en reste au mrne niveau d vidence et de per
ception. Le symbole garantit la correspondance de deux univers qui sont
des niveaux ontologiques diffrents: il est le moyen,et le seul moyen,de pn-
tration dans l invisible, dans le monde du mystre, dans l sotrique.
Loisque je disais tout lheure l importance pour une culture de dis-
poser dune philosophie qui garantisse la fonction des symboles,la validit on-
tologique, objective, du monde intermdiaire entre l intelligiblc et le sen
sible, c est cela que je faisais allusion. L ide de cette rgion intermdiaire
prsuppose la triple articulation du rel au monde de l Intelligible, ( jba -
rt), monde de l me ( malakt), monde matriel, triade laquelle corres-
pond la triade anthropologique: esprit,me corps. Du jour o l anthropologie
philosophiquc en est rduitc une dyade, q u el onclise amc et corps, ou que
Fon dise esprit et corps, c en est fini de la fonction notique, cogmtive, des
3 O HENRY CORBIN
symboles. Or, cette triade, abolie en Occident depuis le I X e sicle, ny a
subsist que dans les coles philosophiques ou thosophiques que l on qualifie,
a tort sans doute, de marginales. Le cartsianisme ne connait plus que la
pense et l tendue. II n y a plus que les perceptions sensibles et les con-
cepts abstraits de rentendement. C est alors l immense monde de l Imagina-
tion, en propre le monde de l Ame,qui est vou la dchance; il est iden-
tifi avec Vimaginaire, avec l iirel.
II est trs frappant de voir avec quel sin Sohrawardi et les Ishrqyn
ont veill une mtaphysique de FImagination. Parce qu ils en reconnais-
sent le rle ambigu,ils la maintiennent solidement axe entre l intelligible et
le sensible. Au service de l intelligible, cest--dire de l lntelligence ( le Kos
en giec), sa fonction est de prsenter Ylde voile sous la fotme de l Image,
c est--dire du symbole. Les personnages et les vnements dune parabole
sont tous des symboles, et c est pourquoi une parabole est aussi la seule
histoire qui sit vraie. En revanche, lorsque l Imagination se laisse entire-
ment captiver pr les perceptions sensibles, voletant de l une l autre, elle
est littralement dsaxe et se perd dans Firrel. Dans le premier cas,
FImagination active est l organe de pntration dans un monde rel, qu il
nous faut dsigner de sn nm propre, savoir Yimaginal; dans le second
cas, FImagination ne secrte plus que de Yimaginaire. Dans le premier cas
FImagination est, pour Sohrawardi, Farbre cleste mergeant au sommet Si-
nai, auquel les sages cueillent les hautes connaissances qui sont le pain
des Anges. Dans le second cas, elle est Farbre maudit dnt pari le Qorn.
II est beaucoup question de nos jours de civilisation de l image; je erois
que sur ce chapitre, nos philosophes, Ishrqyn et autres, ont beaucoup
nous apprendre. Certes, c est un chapitre trs complexe, propos duquel je
crains de paraitre obscur force de concision. Mais le temps ne me permet
de retenir que Fessentiel. Nous sommes ici la source du gni sohrawar-
dien, la source d une inspiration qui lui permet de passer d un registre
l autre, comme au grand orgue, je veux dire de nous prsenter en sym-
boles et paraboles de rcits initiatiques, ce qu il expose pr ailleurs, dans
ses grands livres, sous forme thorique et systmatique.
MYSTIQUE ET HUMOUR CHEZ SOHRAWARDI 3 1
De leur ensemble je ne retiendrai que trois exemples, pris dans un trai-
t de Sohrawardi qui a non point la forme d'un rcit continu, mais celle
dune rhapsodie, enchainant la suite l un de l autre plusieurs rcits symbo-
liques. Nous y voyons apparatre le peuple des tortues, le peuple des fes,le
peuple des chauves-souris. Bien entendu, il ne s agit ps de zoologie, mais
dautant de symboles de ceux qui,parmi les humains, sont les ignorants spi-
rituels, les aveugles de l me. Ils sont reconnaissables sous leur forme symbo-
lique, parce que leur forme intrieure cache, pr consquent leur forme
vraie, symbolise avec celle - la. Et toute la diffrence est la, pr rappport
la mise en scne de leur vie quotidienne qui ne fait connaitre que leur
forme apparente. Se montrant sous leurs formes symboliques, ils nous appa-
raissent tels quils sont en ralit dans le monde imaginal, tels que leur ig-
norance ou leur ecit les fixe dans une relation toute ngative avec. le Mala
kt, avec le monde de l Ame. Gest leur vrit,ou plutt leur fausset int
rieure qui clate, projete sur l arrire-fond des vidences qui les dpassent,
et c est I que se donne libre cours l humour d'un grand mystique comme
Sohrawardi.
I 11 premier exemple: ce qui est en cause,c est N-koj-bd, le pays du
Non-o , hors des dimensions de l espace sensible. On peut crire ce
propos un savant trait de mtaphysique sur l hypcrespace. Mais il peut ar-
river aussi que la doctrine soitvcue au point de ne plus tre une thorie,
mais de devenir un vnement rel de l me. On a alors le mystique aux
prises avec le peuple des tortues. Le peuple des tortues obscrvait un jour
du rivage les volutions dun oiseau multicolore la surface de la mer :
tantt il plongeait, tantt il reparaissait. L unedes tortues de demander: Cet
oiseau est-il de natr aquatique ou de natr arienne? Une autre tortue
de rpliquer: Sil n tait ps aquatique,quaurait-il fair avec l eau? Mais
une troisime de dire: Sil tait aquatique,il ne pourrait ps vivre hors de
l eau. II v avait au milieu des tortues un sage juge qu elles interrogrent.
II leur d i t : Observez-le bien. S il peut vivre hors de l cau,c est que l eau
ne lui est ps nccssairc. A preuve le poisson qui, lui, ne peut ps vivre hors
32 HENRY CORBIN
de l eau. L-dessus, un grand souffle de vnt s lve; l oiseau aux belles
couleurs prend sn envol et disparait dans les nues. Les tortues vont-elles
comprendre? Non ps, elles commencent pr demander au sage de sexpli-
quer. Celui-ci leur rpond allusivement, en leur citant quelques sentences
de grands spirituels, culminant dans la dclaration du mystique al-Hallj
propos du Prophte: I1 a clign l'oeil hors du om, c est--dire sa vision in
trieure l a enlev aux dimensions et orientations de l espace sensible. Les
tortues entrent alors en fureur: Comment, demandent-elles, un tre qui
est localis dans l espace, sortirait-il du lieu? Comment se soustrairait-il aux
directions et coordonnes spatiales? ( rappelons-nous la finl du Rcit de
l Oiseau). Le Sage de leur rpondre: Mais c est prcisment pour cela que
j e vous ai racont tout ce que je viens de vous dire. Alors les tortues,
indignes, lui jettent des pierres et de la terre: Va-t-en! Nous te des-
tituons, nous ne te reconnaissons plus comme juge.
Un second exemple. Cette fois,ce qui est en cause, c est le rapport du
jm' et de la nuit. Ce qui apparat comme le jour aux aveugles de l me,
n est que tnbres pour celui qui a la vue spirituelle; et mversement, ce qui
est pour lui le plein jour,n est que nuit dangereuse et menagante pour ceux
qui n ont ps la vue spirituelle. C est ainsi qu'une huppe ( la huppe, l oi-
seau du sage Salomon) fit halt, au cours de l un de ses voyages, chez le
peuple des fes. Or, tout le monde le sait: la huppe a une vue pergante,
tandis que les fes sont compltement myopes. La huppe passe la nuit
bavarder avec les fes; au lever du jour, elle veut se remettre en route .
Mais les fes s y opposent avec violence: Malheureuse! qu est-ce que cette
mnovation? Depuis quand se met-on en route pendant qu il fait jour? La
huppe protestc que c est prcisment pendant quil fait jour,qu il convient
de se mettre en marche. Les fes de rpliqucr: Mais tu es compltement
folle! Comment verrait-on quelque chose pendant qu xl fait jour,le jour tant
obseur, alors que le soleil passe pr la rgion des tnbres? - Mais c est tout
le contraire rplique la huppe. La discussion s envenime, les fes pressent
la huppe de s cxpliquer,et nous entendons alors celle-ci formuler la profes-
sion de fi d un grand mystique: Quiconque voit pendant le jour,ne peut
MYSTIQUE ET HUMOUR CHZ SOHRAWARDI 3 3
que tmoigner de ce quil voit. Me voici, moi, je vois! Je suis dans le monde
de la prsence, dans le monde de la vision directe. Le voile a t lv .
Les surfaces qm rayonnent, je les per^ois comme autant de rvlations, sans
tre entam pr le doute. Alors les fes, ulcres du comportement de cet
oiseau qui prtend y voir clair en plein jour,se ruent,de l ongle et du bee,
sur les yeux de la huppe,linterpellant pr drision : Eh! celle qui-voit-
clair-pendant-le-jour. La huppe comprend enfin que c est sans issue: ce qui
est pour elle le plcm jour des mondes spintuels suprasensibles, n est que
tnbres qu- dsorientent ceux qui ne voient rien dautre que ce que voient
leurs yeux de chair. Elle comprend que les fes vont la tuer, puisqu elles
s attaquent ses yeux, c est--dire sa vision intrieure,et qu'un mystique
ne pourrait survivre en ce monde, s il vnit tre priv de sa puissance de
vision intrieure. Elle comprend quil faut en revenir la discipline de
l arcane, conformment au sage prcepte: Ne pari aux gens qu en fonction
de ce qu'il sont capables de comprendre. Alors, pour se dlivrer de ses en-
nemies, elle leur dit: Bjen entendu, je suis comme vous. Comme tout le
monde, je ne peux rien voir tant quil fait jour. Comment y verrais-je clair
en plein jour ? Alors les fes, tranquillises, cessent de la tourmenter. Jusqu
l instant o elle russit partir,la huppe contrefit la ccit, quoique cela lm
fit souffrir mille tourments dans l me. Cr il est dur de ne pouvoir dire
dautres les merveilles que l on voit. Mais, nous rappelle l auteur,il est une
li divine qui ne souffre ps d exception: Divulguer le secret divin devant
des indignes est un erime d impit ( kofr). Et c est cela mrne qui fonde
la ncessic de l sotrisme.
Un troisime exemple enfin, dnt le motif accentue le rcit que nous
venons de lire. Laparabole de notre shaykh met cette foisen scne un peuple
de chauves-souris et un innocent camlon. Comment tait ne la querelle
entre eux,on nous le laisse penser. Toujours est-il que la haine des chau
ves-souris contre le camlon devint telle , qu elles projetrent une expdi-
tion la faveur des tnbres de la nuit, afin de fair prisonnier le cam
lon et de tirer vengcance de lui, en le tuant d une manire ou d'une au-
tre. Ainsi irent-elles, et elles russirent entrainer leur pauvre ennemi dans
34 HENRY CORBIN
MYSTIQUE ET HUMOUR CHEZ SOHRAWARDI 3 5
leur maison de malheur. Elles le gardrent prisonnier toute la nuit; au ma-
tin elles se concertrent. Comment chtier ce camlon ? Quel genre de
mrt lui infliger? Dans leur jugement de chauves-souns il ne peut ps y
avoir de peine plus terrible que de devoir supporter la vue du soleil. En
consquence, elles dcident que tel sera le chtiment qu elles infligeront au
camlon: le forcer contempler la lumire du soleil. Mais ce que leur j u
gement de chauve-souris ne pouvait ps mrne pressentir, c est que tel tait
justeinent le genre de mrt que le pauvrc camlon dsirait de Dieu. Et
voici que l auteur coupe la dlibration des chauves-souris pr deux des
distiques les plus clbres du mystique al-H<illj: Tuez-moi donc, mes
amis. En me tuant vous me ferez vivre, cr pour moi c est vivre que de
tnourir et mouiir que de vivre. Lorsque le soleil parut, les chauves-
souris jetrent le camlon hors de leur maison de malheur, afin quil fiit
chti pr le rayonnement du soleil. Ce qu elles ne pouvaient ps savoir ,
c est que ce qui leur apparaissait elles comme une torture, tait en fait
pour le camlon sa rsurrection.
Trois paraboles mystiques la fois trs semblables, vous le voyez,et trs
diffrentes. Elles mettent en oeuvre les ressources propres de l humour sohra-
vvardien, un humour qui finalement est le masque d une profonde tristesse,
tristesse de l homme qui a compris, devant sn impuissance surmonter
l incapacit de comprendre chez la plupart des hommes, parce que cette
incapacit est le secret du destin, et que ce secret-l aucune crature
humaine ne peut le dnouer. J avais pris la prcaution de vous rappeler qu il
n y a aucune dfinition possible de l humour. A vouloir analyser de trop
prs l humour sohrawardien, nous risquerions coup sr d en perdre la pr-
sence.
Ce que nous pouvons faire,en revanche, pour timr, cest de suivre notre
shaykh sur la voie des symboles. 11 a su en crer de merveilleux, parce qu
il avait la visiorr intrieure des figures avec lesquelles ils symbolisaient. II
fant peut-tre qu un honim atteigne au somrnet de la maturit spirituelle -
celle-ci n est nullement lie i age de l tat-civil- pour tre capable de crer
ses propres symboles. Ce sommet, c est cette connaissance de si qui, nous
lavons rappel,est au principe et au terme de la spiritualit du Shaykh al-
Ishrq. Cr latteinte cette connaissance de si clt en une exprience
visionnaire dnt la mmoration revient tout au long de ses rcits. Et cette
exprience visionnaire est configuratrice du plus beau symbole de ce Si
a la qaete duquel s en va le philosophe,ce Si qui est sn Moi transcendant,
sn Moi cleste avec lequel symbolise le Moi terrestre. Ce symbole,c est la
Figure de lumire,dune beaut resplendissante, sur la vision de laquelle
s ouvrent ou sachvent plusieurs des rcits mystiques de Sohrawardi, savoir
la Figure de lAnge qui chez les philosophes avicenniens est la Dixime des
Intelligences hirarchiques, lAnge de l huinanit et qui chez les thologiens
est appel l Esprit-Saint. Chose remarquable, cette mrne Figure a polris
galement en Occident, la vision intrieure de ceux que l on appelle les
fidles d amour, principalement les compagnons de Dante, qui avaient lu
Avicenne et qui avaient lu Averros; c est cette Figure de lAnge de la
connaissance qu ils donnaient le nm de Madonna Intelligenza.
Chez Sohrawardi, cette Figure de l Ange rencontr au cours des rcits
dinitiation est toujours dsigne comme celle d un shaykh. Or , l un des
commentateurs de ces rcits mystiques ( Mosannifak) se demande: pourquoi
un shaykh? Cela n a rien voir avec l ge ni la vieillesse, puisque, pres-
que toujours, sont souligns les traits juvniles de l apparition. Et le com-
mentateur d expliquer que shaykh veut dire morshed, guide spirituel, et que
les Ishrqyn ( les philosophes et les spirituels de l cole du Shaykh al-Ish-
rq) nont point dautre morshed que cet Ange de la connaissance. C est ki
mrne, dit-il,ce qui les diffrencie des soufis, lesquels posent la ncessit d un
shaykh ou dun maitre humain; chez les Ishrqyn, celui-ci ne saurait tre,
en tout cas,qu un intermdiaire momentanment ncessaire. Cr leur shaykh,
leur morshed ou guide spirituel c est l Ange lui-mme, l Ange de leur vision
et de leur nostalgie. Nous pouvons donc dire que cette exprience de l Ange,
chez les Ishrqyn, est frt proche de l exprience qui, dans l cole deNajm-
oddin Kobra,, est celle du guide intrieur personnel, du mailre invisible,
36 HENRY CORBIN
celui que Pon appelle shaykh al-ghayb, ostd- e ghaybi. Et c est pourquoi aussi
cette Figure de lumire qui domine l horizon intrieur du mystique, est pr
excellence le symbolon, la Figure avec laquelle symbolise sn tre personnel le
plus intim; il est le Si atteint dans la connaissance de si, pr le sujetqui
n en est que la contre-partie terrestre. L-mme nous touchons une expri-
ence intrieure si fondamentale, que nous pourrions l illustrer pr un grand
nombre de textes; toute la gnose valentinienne pourrait tre cite l appui.
Du mrne coup,c est en quelque sort l actualit de Sohrawardi qui
se laisse entrevoir. Je m excuse d employer ce mot actualit en pareil cas,
cr il est vraiment trop louid d associations fcheuses. Disons plutt prsence,
urgence... Ce disantje pense un homme, dramatmge et romancier, mrt
rcemment, qui premire vue peut paraitre aussi distant que possible de
notre Sohrawardi, mais dnt certaine page m inspire le rapprochement sur
leqael je voudrais conclure notre entretien. Je pense ici Audiberti, dnt
le nm dit certainement quelque chose la plupart d entre vous,et dnt
l oeuvre trs diverse a des admirateurs non moins divers. Mais, quil ft un
mystique,et quelque peu un visionnaire,c est ce dnt conviendra, dans une
mesure ou une autre,tout lecteur dun livre tel que celui qm port comme
titre: Les tombeaux ferment mal. Pourtant, c est un autre pisode ,
contenu dans un autre livre, que je pense,le livre qui sintitule Dimanche
mattend. L pisode auquel je pense a pour scne une glise d entre les
glises de Paris, un monument dnt il est permis de ne ps admirer sans
rserve l architecture, savoir l glise Saint-Sulpice, mais qui contient deux
trsors: ses grandes orgues et dans la premire chapelle latrale, droite
en entrant, l immense peinture d Eugne Delacroix, reprsentant le com-
bat de Jacob avecTAnge. C est cela mrne qui sans doute, dans mon in -
conscient, m a suggr le rapprochement, quoique l exprience de lAngesoit
chez Sohrawardi un combat pour l Ange plutt quun combat avec l Ange .
Mais, sans avoir lu Sohrawardi, Audiberti avait coutume, chaque fois qu il
passait dans le voisinage, d entrer dans l glise pour mditer quelques in -
stants devant le tableau de Delacroix,une mditation qui chez lui tournait
MYSTIQUE ET HUMOUR GHEZ SOHRAWARDI 3 7
facilement une exprience de visualisation . Voici comment il achve le
rcit dune de ses visites:
Jacob et l Ange aprs stre, ironiques, penchs sur mon dsarroi, re-
prennent leur pose... Le froid me gagne, l glise se vide. Dehors la pluie lus-
tre la piac. Entre les auts arrtes ( arrtes mais non condamnes ) mar-
che une grande jeune fiile botte, coiffe d une toque,au manteau gris sans
manches, remplaces pr des espces dailes d toffe, les yeux bleus trs obli-
ques, les cheveux blonds. Je la regarde merveill. Mais j y pense... Vous me
croirez si vous voulez, je me prcipitai dans l glise.
L Ange, tait toujours la...
Eh bien! nous avons encore ici un exemple de lhumour sui generis qui
est le propre d un mystique quelque peu visionnaire. Comment lui tait-il
possible de nous dire ce quil avait vu, non ps seulement cru voir, sinon en
nous avouant quil tait rentr dans l glise pour s assurer si l Ange de De-
lacroix tait toujours la.
Ici, toute rflexion philosophique fait halt, cr elle dtruirait ce qui
fait prcisment le prix de cet humour.
II ne nous reste qu une chose fair en nous sparant, c est de nous
rappeler ce vers de Rimbaud:
J ai vu parfois ce que l homme a cru voir.
3 8 HEORY CORBIN
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF
METAPHYSICAL THINKINC IN ISLAM
Public lecture given at the Fifth East - West Philosophers3Conference that was held
Hawaii, June -July i g 6g
By
Toshihiko Izutsu
Professor at McGill University, Institute of Islamic Studies Montreal
Guest Professor at Keio University, Tokyo
What I am going to say might seem to have no direct connection with
the main theme of this conferenre. 1 In reality, however, the problems I am
going to deal with are nt irrelevant to the problem of alienation even
within the confines of Islamic philosophy, particularly with regard to the
existential and metaphysical aspects of alienation. Bt instead of trying to
connect my problems directly to the topic of alienation, I shall rather
explain the basic structure itself of Islamic metaphysics.
I want to bring to your attention one of the most unportant types of
the philosophical activity of the Orientl mind as exemplified by the thought
of som of the outstanding philosophers of Irn. I believe this kind of
approach has som significance in the particular context of East-West en-
counter in view of the fact that the East-West philosoptiers5 Conference, as I
understand it, aims at creating and promotmg a better mutual understand-
ing between East and West at the level of philosophical thinking. It is my
conviction that the realization of a true international friendship or brother-
hood among the nations of the East and West, based on a deep philoso
phical understanding of the ideas and thought s of each other, is one of the
things that are most u rgen ti y needed in the present-day situation of the
world.
Unlike Western philosophy, however, which, broadly speaking, presents
a fairly conspicuous umformiiyof historical development from its pre-Socratic
origin down to its contemporary foims, there is in the East no such his
torical uniformity. We can only speak of Eastern philosophies in the plural.
Such being the case, it is , I think, veiy iinportant that the various
philosophies of the East be studied in a systematic way with a view to arriving
at a comprehensive structnral framework, a kind of metaphilosophy of the
Eastern philosophies, by means of which the major Orientl philosophies may
be brought up to a certain level of structural uniformity.
In other words, before we begin to think of the possibility of a fruitful
philosophical understanding between East and West, we shall have to actu-
alize a better philosophical understanding within the confines of the Orien
tl philosophical traditions themselves.
It is with such an idea in mind that I approach the problem of the
basic structure of metaphysical thinking in Islam.
Islam has produced in the course of its long histoiy a number of out-
standing thinkers and a variety of philosophical schools. Here I shall pick up
only one of them, which is known as the scool of the unity of existence
and which is undoubtedly one of the most important. This concept, unity
of existence, goes back to a great Arab mystic-philosopher of Spain of the
eleventh and twelfth centunes, Ibn c Arabi ( 1165-1240). It exercised a tre-
mendous influence upon themajority of Muslim thinkers, particulary in Irn,
in the periods extending from the thirteenth century down to the i6th-i7th
centuries, when the tradition of Islamic metaphysical thinking found its
culminating and all-synthesizing point in the thought of Sadr al-Din Shirzi,
commonly known as Mll Sadr (1571-1640).
Thus the scope of my talk today is a very limited one, both histon-
cally and geographically. Bt the problem I am going to discuss are those
that belong to the most fundamental dimension of metaphysical thinking m
generl. Moreover, I would like to point out that the unity of existence
school of thought is nt, fr Islam, a thing of the pst. On the contrary ,
the tradition is still vigorously alive in present-day Irn. In any case, I only
hope that my presentation of the problems will shed som light on the posi-
tion occupied by Irn in the philosophical woild of the East.
As one of the most salient features of the Iranian thought in the periods
which I have just mentioned we may begin by pointing out an unremit-
ting search fr something eternal and absolute beyond the world o rela-
tive and transient things. Formulaled in this way, it may sound a truism;
42 TOSHIHIKO TZUTSU
in fact it is a feature commonly shared by almost all religions.
The nnportant point, however, is that this problem was raised 111 Islam
in terms of the reality of existence. Existence ( wujd) is here the central
key-term.
In order to elucidate the rel significance of this idea in its historical
context I must explain briefly what is usually known in the West as the
thesis of the accidentality of existence attributed to Avicenna, or Ibn Sin
(980-1037). This notorious thesis was attributed to Avicenna first by Ibn
Rushd (1126-1198), or Averros, a famous Arab philosopher of Spain of the
twelfth century, and then in the West by Thomas Aquinas who followed Aver-
roes in the understanding of Avicennas position. In the light of what we
now know of Avicenna s thought, their understanding was a misinterpreta-
tion. Bt the Avicennian position as misinterpreted by Averros and Thomas
played a very important role nt only in the East bt als in the history
of Western philosophy.
In fact, from the earliest phase of the historical development of Islamic
philosophy, the concept of existence ( wujd), as a heritage from Greek
philosophy, was the greatest metaphysical problem the Muslim thinkers
had to face. The problem was first raised explicitly by Frbi (872-950),
and it was presented in an extraordinary form by Avicenna when he declared
that existence is an accident ( c arad) of quiddity ( mhyah).
The most important question which we must ask here is : What did
Avicenna really intend to convey by the abnve-statement? I must first clar-
ify this point.
We constantly use in our daily conversation propositions whose subject
is a noun and whose predicate is an adjective: fr example: The flower
is white, This table is brown etc. On the same model we can easily
transform an existential proposition like: Ihe table is or The table
exists i nt The table is existent. Thus transformed, existence is just
an adjective denoting a quality of the table. And the proposition The
table is existent stands quite on a pr with the proposition The table is
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 4 3
brown, fr in both cases the subject is a noun denoting a substance called
table, while the predicate is an adjective indicating grammatically a prop-
erty or accident of the substance.
It is on this level, and on this level only, that Avicenna speaks of ex-
istence being an accident of essence. Otherwise expressed, it is at the
level of logical or grammatical analysis of reality that it makes sense to
maintain the accidentality of existence. However, neither Averros nor Thomas
Aquinas understood the Avicennian thesis in that way. They thought that
existence in the thought of Avicenna must be a property inhering in a
substance, nt only at the level of logical or grammatical analysis of reality
bt in terms of the very structure of the objective, external reality. That is
to say, existence according to Avicenna must be a predicamental or cate-
gorical accident, understood in the sense of ens in alio, something existing
in something else, i. e. a rel property qualifying rel substances, just
in the same way as other ordinary properties, like whiteness existing in a
flower, coldness existing in ice, or brownness existing in a table.
It is clear that the Avicennian position, once understood in such a way,
will immediately lead to an absurd conclusion; namely, that the table would
have to exist before it becomes existent just as the table must exist before
it can be brown, black, etc. This is, in fact, the gist of the criticism of the
Avicennian thesis by Averros and Thomas.
Avicenna was well aware of the danger that his thesis might be misinter-
preted in this way. He emphasized that we should nt confuse existence
as an accident with ordinary accidents, like brown, white, etc. He empha
sized that existence is a very peculiar and unique kind of accident, fr the
objective reality which is referred to by a proposition like The table is
existent presents a completely different picture from what is naturally sug-
gested by the propositional form of the expiession.
However, Avicenna himself did nt clarify the structure of the extra -
menti, objective reality which is found beyond what is meant by the log
ical proposition. The problem was left to posterity.
In the periods subsequent to Avicenna, this problem assumed supreme
44 TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
importance, and a number of divergent opinions were pt forward.
I be philosophers belonging to the school of thought which I am going
to talk about, chose to take a position which might look at first sight very
daring or very strange. They asserted that, in the sphere of external reality,
the proposition: The table is existent as understood in the sense of
substance-accident relationship turns out to be meanmgless. Fr in the realm
of external reality there i s , to begin with, no self-subsistent substance called
table, nor is there a rel accident called existence to come to inhere
in the substance. The whole phenomenon of a table being qualified by
existence turns int something like a shadow-pictuie, something which is
nt wholly llusory bt which approaches the natr of an illusion. In this
perspective, both the table and existence as its accident begin to look
like things seen in a dream.
These philosophers do nt meanto say simply that the world o f reality
as we perceive it in our waking experience is in itself unreal or a dream.
Nor do they want to assert that the proposition: The table is existent
does nt refer to any kind o f external reality. There certainly is a
corresponding piece o f reality. The only point they want to make is that
the structure o f external reality which con'esponds to this proposition is to-
tally different from what is normally suggested by the form of the proposi
tion. Fr in this domain existence is the sole reality. Table is bt
an inner modification of this reality, one of its self-determinations. Thus in
the realm of external reality, the subject and the predicate must exchange
their places. The table which is the logical or grammatical subject of
the proposition: The table is existent, is in this domain nt a subject;
rather, it is a predicate. The rel subject is existence, while table is
bt an accident determining the subject int a particular thing. In fact
all the so-called essences, like being-a-table, being-a-flower, etc. are in
external reality nothing bt accidents that modify and delimit the one
smgle reality called existence int innumerable things.
Such a vision of reality, however, is nt accessible to humn conscious-
ness as long as it remains at the level of ordinary everyday experience.
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 4.5
In order to have access to it, according to the philosophers oi this schoolj
the mind must experience a totl transformation of itself. The consciousness
must transcend the dimension of ordinary cognition where the world of being
is experienced as consisting of solid, self-subsistent things, each having as its
ontological core what is called essence. There must arise in the mind a
totally different kind of awaxeness in which the world is revealed in an en-
tirely different light. It is at this point that Iranian philosophy turns conspi-
cuously toward mysticism. So much so that a philosophei like Mll Sadr
comes to declare that any philosophy which is nt based upon the mysti-
cal vision of reality is bt a vain intellectual pastime. In more concrete
terms, the basic idea here is that an integrl metaphysical world-view is pos-
sible only on the basis of a unique fim of subject-object relationship.
It is to be remarked in this connection that, in this variety of Islamic
philosophy as well as in other major philosophies of the East, metaphysics
or ontology is inseparably connected with the subjective state of mn, so
that the selfsame Reality is said to be perc.eived differently in accordance
with the different degrees of consciousness.
The problem of the unique form of subject-object relationship is discus-
sed in Islam as the problem of ittihd al- lim wa-al-maHm, i.e. the unifica-
tion of the knower and the known. Whatever may happen to be the ob-
ject of knowlege, the highest degiee of knowledge is always achieved when
the knower, the humn subject, becomes completely unified and identified
with the object so much so that there remains no differentiation between the
two. Fr differentiation or distinction means distance, and distance in cog-
nitive relationship means ignorance. As long as there remains between the
subject and object the slightest degree of distinction, that is to say, as long
as there are subject and object as two entities distinguishable from one an-
other, perfect cognition is nt realized. To this we must add another obser-
vation concerning the object of cognition, namely that the highest object of
cognition, fi the philosophers of this school, is existence.2 And accord
ing to Mll Sadr who is one of the most prominent figures of this school
46 TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 4 7
the rel knowledge of existence is obtainable nt by rational reasoning
bt only through a very peculiar kind of intuition. This latter mode of cog-
nition, in the view of Mll Sadr, consists precisely in knowing exist-
ence through the unification of the knower and the known, i.e. know
ing existence nt from the outside as an object of knowledge, bt
rom the inside, by man s becoming or rather being existence itself, that
is, by man s self-realization.
It is evident that such unification of the knower and the known
cannot be realized at the level of everyday humn experience where the sub
ject stands eternally opposed to the object. The subject in such a state grasps
existence only asan object. It objectifies existence as it objectifies allother
things, while existence in its reality as actus essendi definitely and per-
sistently refuses to be an object . An objectified existence is bt a dis-
tortion of the reality of existence.
Haydar moli,3one of the greatest Iranian metaphysicians ofthe iqth
century Says: When mn attempts to approachexistence through his weak
intellect ( c aql daHf ) and feeble thinking {ajkr rakikah), his natural blind -
ness and perplexity go on bt increasing.
The ccmmon people who have no access to the transcendental experi
ence of Reality are compared to a blind mn who cannot walk safely with-
out the help of a stick in his hand. The stick giving guidance to the blind
mn here symbolizes the rational faculty of the mind. The strange thing a-
bout this is that the stick upon which the blind mn relies happens to be
the very cause of his blindness. Only when Moses threw down his stick were
the veils of the phenomenal forms removed from his sight. Only then did
he witness, beyond the veils, beyond the phenomenal forms, the splendid
beauty of absolute Reality.
Mahmd Shabastari, an outstanding Iranian mystic philosopher o the
I3th-i4th centuries, Says in his celebrated Gulshan-e Rz (\r114A
Throw away reason; be always with Reality,
Fr the eye of the bat has no power to gaz at the sn.
Reason trying to see the absolute Reality, says Lhiji in the Gommen-
tary, 4 is just like the eye trying to gaz at the sn. Evn from a far, the
overwhelming effulgence of the sn blinds the eye of reason. And as the
eye of reason goes up to higher stages of Reality, gradually approaching rhe
metaphysical region of the Absolute, the darkness becomes ever deeper until
everything in the end turns black. As mn comes close to the vicinity of
the sacred region of Reality, Lhiji remarks, the brilliant light issuing forth
from it appears black to his eyes. Brightness at its ultimate extremity be
comes completely identical with utter darkness. That is to say- to use a less
metaphorical terminology - existence in its absolute purity is to the eyes
of an ordinany mn as invisible as sheer nothing. Thus it comes about that
the majority of mn are nt even aware of the light in its true reality.
Like the mn sitting in the cave in the celebrated Platonic myth, they re-
main satisfied with looking at the shadows east by the sn. They see the
faint reflections of the light on the sereen of the so-called external world
and are convinced that these reflections are the sole reality.
Haydar moli, 5divides <cexistence in this connection int (i) pure, abso
lute existence as pure light and (2) shadowy and dark existenc,e: light
( mer) and shadow ( z i l l ). Seen through the eye of a rel metaphysician,
shadow als is existence. Bt it is nt the pure reality of existence .
The ontological status of the shadowy figures, i.e. the objectified forms
of existence which, at the level of norml everyday experience, appear
to the humn consciousness as solid, self-subsistent things is, according to
Mll Sadr, 6 like that of a mirage falsely presenting the image of water,
while in reality it has nothing to do with water. However, the phenome-
nal things, although they are of a shadowy natr in themselves, are nt
wholly devoid of reality either. On the contrary, they are rel i f they are
considered in relation to their metaphysical source. In fact even in the em-
pirical world, nothing is wholly unreal. Even a mirage is nt altogether un-
real in the sense that its perception is induccd by the actual existence of
a wide streteh of dcsert land. Bt in a metaphysical perspeotive, the desert
48 TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
iand which is the empirical basis of a mirage must itself be regarded as
something of the natr of a mirage, if it is compared with the ultimate
grounid of reality.
This Islamic approach to the problem of the reality and unreality of
the phenomenal woild will rightly remind us of the position taken by Veda-
nta philosophy as represented by the celebrated dictum of Shankara which
runs: The world is a continuous series of cognitions of Brahman (Brah-
rna-pratjayasantair jagal . Fr Shankara too, the phenomenal world is Brahman
or the absolute Reality itself as it appears to the ordinarv humn con
sciousness in accordance with the natural structuie of the latter. In this res-
pect, the woi'ld is nt a pure dlusion, because under each of the phenom
enal forms there is hidden the Biahman itself, just as a rope mistakenlv
perceived as a snake in darkness is nt altogether unreal because the per
ception of the snake is here induced by the actual existence of the rope .
I'he phenomenal world becomes unreal or false ( jagan rthy 1 only when
it is taken as an ultimate, self-subsitent eality. It is nt at all false and
illusory aua Brahman as perceived by our non-absolute consciousness.
Likewise m Islamic philosophy, the phenomenal world is rel in so far
as it is the absolute truth or Reality as perceived by the relative humn
mind in accordance with its natural structure. Bt it is false and unreal if
taken as someting ultimate and self-subsistent. A true metaphysician worthy
of the name is one who is capable of witnessing in every single thing in
the wcrld the underlying Reality of which the phenomenal form is bt a
self-manifestation and self-determination. Bt the problem now is: How' can
such a vision of Reality be obtainable as a matter of actual experience ?
To this crucial question the Islamic philosophy of existence answers by
saying that it is obtainable only through an inner witnesssing ( shuhd ,
tacting ( dhawq), presence ( hudr), or illumination ( ishrq .
Whatever these technical terms exactly mean, and to whatever degree
they may differ from one another, it will be evident in any case that such
an experience of Reality is nt actualizable as long as there remains the
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 49
subjct of cognition as a subject, that is to say, as long as there remains
in mn the ego-consciousness= The empirical ego is the most serious hind-
rance in the way of the experience of seeing by self-realization. Fr the
subsistence of the inchvidual ego places of necessity an epistemological dis
tance between mn and the reality of existence, be it his own exist-
ence. The reality of existence is immediately grasped only when the em
pirical selfhood is annihilated, when the ego-consciousness is completely dis-
solved int the Consciousness of Reality, or rather, Consciousness which is
Reality. Hence the supreme importance attached in this type o philosophy
to the experience called fan\ meaning literally annihilation, that is , the
totl nullification of the ego-consciousness.
The phenomenal world is the world of Multiplicity. Although Multipli-
city is ultimately nothing other than the self-revealing aspect of the absolute
Reality itself, he who knows Reality only in the form of Multiplicity knows
Reality only through its variously articulated forms, and fails to perceive the
underlying Unity of Reality.
The immediate experience of Reality through self-realization ,
consists precisely in the immediate cognition of absolute Reality before it is
articulated int different things. In order to see Reality in its absolute in-
determination, the ego als must go beyond its own essential determination
Thus it is certain that there is a humn aspect to the experience of
f a n f f inasmuch as it involves a conscious effort on the part of mn to pur-
ify himself from all the activities of the ego. Abd al-Rahmn Jrni, a fa-
mous Iranian poet-philosopher of the fifteenth century, says, keep yourself
away from your own ego, and set your mind free from the vision of
others. 9 The wordothers here means everything other than absolute Real
ity. Such efforts made by mn fr the attainment of f m a are technically
called tawhd, meaning literally making many things one or unifi-
cation, that is, an absolute concentration of the mind in deep meditation.
It consists, as Jrni explains, in mans making his mind cleansed (takhlis)
of its relations with anything other than absolute Reality, whether as objects
50 TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 5 1
of desire and will or as objects of knowledge and cognition. So much so
that in the end even the consciousness of his own fan must disappear from
his consciousness. In this sense the experience of annihilation ( j an )involves
the annihilation of annihilation ( fan' -ye fcuia), that is, the totl disap-
peaiance of the consciousness of man s own disappearance. 10 Fr even the
consciousness of fan'1is a consciousness, of something other than absolute
Reality. It is significant that such an absolute fan wliere there is nt even
a trace o the /rca -consciousness, which, be it remarked in passing, evident-
ly finds its exact counterpart in the Mahayana Buddhist conception o shnya-
t or nothingness, is nt regarded as merely a subjective state realized in
mn bt is at one and the same time the realization or actualizadon of
absolute Reality in its absoluteness.
This point cannot be too much emphasized, fr if we fail to grasp it
correctly, the very structure of Islamic metaphysics v'ould nt be rightly un
derstood. Fan' is certainly a humn experience. It is mn v :ho actually
experiences it. Bt it ls nt solely a humn experience. Fr when he does
experience it, he is no longer himself. In this sense mn is nt the subject
of experience. The subject is rather the metaphysical Reality itself. In other
words, the humn experience of fana' is itself the self-actualization of Reality.
It is, in Islamic terminology, the preponderance of the self-revealing aspect
of Reality over its own self-concealing aspect, the preponderance of the z-
hir, the manifest, over the btin, the concealed. The experience of fan is
in this iespect nothing bt an effusion ( fay4) of the metaphysical light of
absolute Reality.
The force of the self-revealing aspect of Reality is constantly making it
self felt in the things and events of the phenomenal world. Otherwise there
would be no phenomenal v orld around us. Bt there, in the phenomenal
world, Reality reveals itself only through relatve, and spatio-temporal forms.
In the absolute consciousness of a mystic-metaphysician, on the contrary, it
reveals itself in its origial absoluteness beyond all relative determinations.This
is what is technically known as kashf or mukshajah, i.e. the experience of
unveiling.
Fan as a humn experience is mans experiencing the totl annihila-
tion of his own ego and consequently of all things that have been related
to the ego in the capacity of its objects of cognition and volition. This ex
perience would correspond to a spiritual event which is known in Zen Bd -
dhism as the mind-and- body- dropping- off 12 ( shin j i n datsu raku), i. e. the
whole unity of mind-body, which is no other than the so-called ego or
self, losing its seemingly solid ground and flling off int the bottom of met-
aphysico- epistemological nothingness. However, neither in Zen Buddhism
nor in Islam does this represent the ultimate height of metaphysical expe
rience.
After having passed through this crucial stage, the philosopher is sup-
posed to ascend to a still higher stage which is known in Zen as the
dropped- off- mind-and-body ( datsu raku shin j i n ) and in Islam as the ex
perience of baq> or survival, i. e. eternal remaining in absolute Reality
with absolute Reality. At the stage of fan5 the pseudo-ego or the rela
tve self has completely dissolved int nothingness. At the next stage mn
is resuscitated out of the nothingness, completely transformed int an abso
lute Self. What is resuscitated is outwardly the same old mn, bt he is a
mn who has once transcended his own determination. He regains his nor
ml, daily consciousness and accordingly the norml, daily, phenomenal
world of multiplicity again begins to spread itself out before his eyes. The
world of multiplicity appears again with all its infinitely rich colors. Since,
however, he has already east off his own determination, the world of mul
tiplicity he perceives is als beyond all determinations. The new world-view
is comparable to the world-view which a drop of water might have i f it
could suddenly awake to the fact that being an individual self-subsistent
drop of water has been bt a pseudo-determination which it has imposed
upon itself, and that it has in reality always been nothing other than
the limitless sea. In a similar manner, the philosopher who has attained to
the state of baq'' sees himself and all other things around him as so many
determinations of one single Reality. The seething world of hecoming turns
in his sight int a vast field in which absolute Reality manifests itself in
5 2 TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
myriad different forms. This vision of reality has produced in Islam a typ-
ically Orientl metaphysical system based on a dynamic and delicate in-
terplay between unity and multiplicity. I want to discuss som aspects of
this problem in what follows.
At this point I would like to repeat what I have previously said: name-
ly, that in this type of philosophy metaphysics is most closely correlated with
epistemology.
The correlation between the metaphysical and the epistemological means
111 this context the relation of ultimate identity between what is estab -
lished as the objective structure of reality and what is usually thought to
take piac subjectively in humn consciousness. It means, in brief, that there
is no distance, there should be no distance between the subject and ob-
iect. It is nt exact enough even to say that the state of the subject es-
sentially determines the aspect in which the object is perceived, or that one
and the same object tends to appear quite differently in accordance with
different points of view taken by the subject. Rather the state of conscious
ness is the state of the external world. That is to say, the objective struc
ture of reality is no other than the other side of the subjective structure
of the mind. And that precisely is the metaphysical Reality.
Thus to take up the problem of our immediate concern, fan and
baq, annihilation and survival, are nt only subjective States. They
are objective States, too. The subjective and the objective are here two di-
mensions or two aspects of one and the same metaphysical structure of
Reality.
I have already explained the subjective fana and baq . As to the ob
jective f a n , it is als known as the ontological stage o f unification ( jam*,
meaning literally gathering or all-things-being-put-together ), while the
obiective baq is called the stage of the unification of unification ( jam al
jam*), separation after unification ( f a r q b a d al-jam ), or second se-
paration ( farq thdn). I shall first explain what is really meant by these
teohnical terms !3.
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 5 3
The word separation ( farq ) primarily refers to the common-sense
view of reality. Before we subjectively attain to the stage of fana we
naturally tend to separate the Absolute from the phenomenal world. The
phenomenal world is the realm of relativity, a world where nothing is ab
solute, where all things are observed to be impermanent, transient, and cons-
tantly changing. This is the kind of observation which plays an exceedingly
important role in Buddhism as the principle of universal impermanence. The
world of multiplicity, be it remarked, is a realm where our senses and rea
son fulfil their norml functions.
Over against this plne of relativity and impermanence, the Absolute
is posited as something essentially different from the former, as something
which absolutely transcends the impermanent world. Reality is thus divided
up int two completely different sections. This dichotomy is called separa-
tion {farq). The empirical view of reality is called separation als be
cause in this view all things are separated from one another by essential
demarcations. A mountain is a mountain. It is nt, it cannot be, a river.
Mountain and river are essentially different from one anothei.
The world of being appears in a completely different light when looked
at through the eyes of one who has reached the subjective state of fan'1.
The essential demarcations separating one thing from another, are no longer
here. Multiplicity is no longer observable. This comes from the fact that
since there is no ego-consciousness left, that is to say, since there is no epis-
temological subject to see things, there are naturally no objects to be seen.
As all psychological commotions and agitations become reduced to the point
of nothingness m the experience of fan\ the ontological commotion that has
hitherto characterized the external world calms down int an absolute Still-
ness. As the limitation of the ego disappcars on the side of the subject, all
the phenomenal limitations of things in the objective world disappear from
the scene, and there remains only the absolute Unity of Reality in its puri-
ty as an absolute Awareness prior to its bifurcation int subject and object.
This stage is called in Islam gathering (jam() because it gathers to-
54 TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
gether all the things that constitute the phenomenal world and biings them
back to their original indiscrimination. In theological terminology this is said
to be the stage at which the believer witnesses God, and God alone, without
seeing any creature. It is als known as the stage of God was, and there
was nothing else. This stage would correspond to what the Taoist philoso-
1
pher Chuang Tzu calls chaos ( hun tun). *4
The next stage which is the ultimate and highest is that of baq. Sub-
jectively, this is the stage at which mn regains his phenomenal conscious
ness after having experienced the existential annihilation of its own self . The
mind that has completely stopped working at the previous stage resumes
its norml cognitive activity. Gorresponding to this subjective rebirth, the phe
nomenal world als takes its rise again. The world once more unfolds it
self before the man s eyes in the form of the surging waves of Multipli
city. The things that have been gathered up int unity are again sepa-
rated from one another as so many different entities. This is why the
stage is called separation after unification or the second separation.
There is, however, an important difference between the first and the sec
ond separation . In the first separation , which is the pre-fan stage
both subjectively and objectively, the innumerable things were definitely sep-
arated from one another, each being observed only as an independent, self-
subsistent entity. And , as such, they are made to stand opposed to the
Absolute, again as two entirely different ontological domains between which
there is no internl relationship. At the stage of the second separation,
too, all phenomenal things are unmistakably distinguished from one another
through each one of them having its own essential demarcation which is
peculiar to itself. And this ontological dimension of Multiplicity qua Multi
plicity is als unmistakably differentiated from the dimension of Unity.
The second separation, however , is nt sheer Multiplicity, because
at this stage all the essential demarcations of the things, although they are
clearly observable, are known to be nothing other than so many self-deter-
minations of the absolute Unity itself. And since the unity annihilates in
its own purity all ontological differences, the whole world of being is here
THE BASIC STRUCTUSE OF METAPHHSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 55
found to be ultimately reducible to one single metaphysical root. From such
a viewpoint, what can be said to exist in the rel sense of the word is
nothing bt this unique metaphysical root of all things. In this sense the
Multiplicity which is observable here is Unity. The only important point
is that unity at this stage is unity with inner articulations. And this stage
is called gathering of gathering ( jam al-jamc) fr the very reason that
the phenomenal things that have all been once reduced to the absolute uni
ty of totl annihilation at the stage of f a n , i.e. the primary gathering ,
are again separated and then again gathered together in this new
vision of Unity.
Thus the difference from this particular point of view between the Unity
at the stage of f a n i.e. gathering and the Unity at the stage of baq or
gathering of gathering consists in the fact that the Unity at the stage of
fan is a simple, absolute Unity without even inner articulation, while the
Unity seen at the stage of the gathering of gathering is an internally
articulated Unity. And Reality as observed at this latter stage is philosoph-
cally a coincidentia oppositorum in the sense that Unity is Multiplicity and Mul
tiplicity is Unity. It is based on the vision of Unity in the very midst of
Multiplicity and Multiplicity in the very midst of Unity. Fr as Lhiji re-
marks, unity or the Absolute here serves as a mirror reflecting all pheno
menal things, while Multiplicity or the phenomenal things fulfil the function
of a countless number of mirrors, each reflecting in its own way the same
Absolute - a metaphor which is singularly similar to the Buddhist image of
the moon reflected in a number of different bodies of water, the moon it
self ever remaining in its original unity despite the fact that it is split up
int many different moons as reflections 15.
He who has reached this stage is known in the tradition of Islamic phil
osophy as a mn of two eyes ( dhu c.1- aynayn). He is a mn who, with
his right eye, sees Unity, i.e. absolute Reality, and nothing bt Unity, while
f i
with his left eye he$ees he multiplicity, i.e. the world of phenomenal things. What
is more important about this type of mn is that, in addition to his simul-
taneous vision of Unity and Multiplicity, he knows that these two are ulti
mately one and the same thing. Such being the case, he recognizes in every
5 6 TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
one of the actually existent things two different aspects: the aspect of
f a n and the aspect of baq . It goes without saying that the terms fan
and baq are here taken in the ontological sense, although they are nt unre-
lated to the subjective experience known respectively by the same appella-
tions.
The aspect of f a n is the aspect in which a thing is considered as some
thing determined, individualized, and essentially delimited. In this aspect every
existent thing is properly non-existent, a nothing. Fr the existence
it seems to possess is in reality a borrowed existence; in itself it is unreal
( btil) and subsists on the ground of Nothingness.
The aspect of baq', on the contrary, is the aspect in which the same
thing is considered as a reality in the sense of a determined form of the
Absolute, a phenomenal form in which the Absolute manifests itself. In this
aspect, nothing in the world of being is unreal.
Every concretely existent thing is a peculiar combination of these nega-
tive and positive aspects, a piac of encounter between the temporal and
the eternal, between the finite and infinite, between the relative and the ab
solute. And the combination of these two aspects produces the concept of
a possible ( mumkin) thing. Contiary to the ordinary notion of ontologi
cal possibility, a possible thing is nt a purely relative and finite
thing. As a locus of divine self-manifestation ( tajall), it has another aspect
which directly connects it with absolute Reality. In every single thing, be
it the meanest imaginable thing, the mystic-philosopher recognizes a deter
mined self-manifestation of the Absolute.
This metaphysical situation is described by Mahmd Shabastari in his
Gulshan-e Rz through a combination of contradictory terms as bright
night amidst the dark daylight ( shab- e roushan miyn-e rz-e trik) I. The
bright n i g h t in this expression refers to the peculiar structure o Real
ity as it discloses itself at the stage of the subjective and objective fan in
which one witnesses the annihilation of all outward manifestations of Real
ity. It is night because at this stage nothing is discernible; all things
have lost their proper colors and forms and sunk int the darkness of the
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 5 7
original indiscrimination. This metaphysical night, however, is said to be
bright because absolute Reality in itselfthat is, apart from all considera-
tions of the limitations set by the very structure of our relative conscious
ness is essentially luminous, illuminating its own self as well as all others.
The second half of the above expression reads amidst the dark day-
light. This means, first of all, that this absolute Unity is revealing itself in
the very midst of Multiplicity, in the form of determined, relative things .
In this sense and in this form, the absolute Reality is clearly visible in the
external world, just as everything is visible in the daylight. However, the
daylight in which all these things are revealed to our eyes is bt a phe
nomenal daylight. The things that appear in it are in themselves of the na
tr of darkness and non-existence. This is why the daylight is said to
be dark.
These two contradictory aspects of Reality, namely, light and darkness,
which are said to be observable in everything, bring us directly to the ques
tion: In what sense and to what degree are the phenomenal things rel?
The problem of the reality or unreality of the phenomenal world is
indeed a crucial point in Islamic philosophy which definitely divides the think
ers int different classes constituting among themselves a kind of spiritual
liierarchy. Haydar moli in this connection proposes a triple division: ( i ) the
common people ( awmm) or mn of reason ( dhawu al-(aql), (2) the priv-
ileged people ( khawss) or mn of intuition ( dhwu al-ayn ), and (3) the
privileged of all privileged people ( khawss al-khawss) or mn of reason and
intuition ( dhawu al- 1aql wa-al- ayn ) J7.
The lowest stage is represented by those of the first elss who (do nt
see except) Multiplicity. They are those who are firmly convinced that the
things as they perceive them in this world are the sole reality, there being
nothing beyond or behind it, From the viewpoint of a rel mystic-philoso
pher, the eyes of these people are veiled by the phenomenal forms of Mul
tiplicity from the view of Unity that underlies them. The phenomenal things,
instead of disclosing, by their very mode of existence, Something that manifests
53 TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 5 9
itself through them, function as impenetrable veils obstructing the sight of that
self-revealing Something. This situation is often compared in Islamic philoso
phy to the state of those who are looking at images reflected in a mirror
without being at all aware of the existence of the mirror. In this metaphor
the mirror symbolizes absolute Reality, and the images reflected in it the
phenomenal things. Objectively speaking, even the people of this type are
perceiving the images on the surface of the mirror. There would be no
image perceivable without the mirror. Bt subjectively they believe the im
ages to be rel and self-subsistent things. The metaphor of the mirror hap-
pens to be one of those important metaphors that recurr in Islamic phi
losophy on many different occasions. Another metaphor of this natr is
the sea surging in waves, which, in the particular metaphysical context in
which we are actually interested, indicates that the people notice only the
rolling waves forgetting the fact that the waves are nothing bt outward
forms assumed by the sea. Describing how phenomenal Multiplicity veils and
conceals the underlying Unity of Reality, Jrni says 18:
Existence is a sea, with waves constantly raging,
O f the sea the common people perceive nothing bt the waves.
Behold how out of the depth of the sea there appear innumerable
waves
On the surface of the sea, while the sea remains concealed in the
waves.
I would take this opportunity to point out that Muslim philosophers tend
to use metaphors and similes in metaphysics, particularly in the explanation
of the seemingly self-contradictory relation between Unity and Multiplicity
or Absolute Reality and the phenomenal things. The frequent use of met
aphors in metaphysics is one of the characteristic marks of Islamic philo
sophy, or indeed we might say of Orientl philosophy in generl. It must
nt be taken as a poeuc or na ment. A cognitive function is definitely assigned
to the use of metaphors *9.
This may rightly remind us of Wittgensteins understanding of the con-
cept of seeing as . According to Wittgenstein, seeing as involves a
technique in a way which norml seeing does nt. Ihus one might well
be able to see bt nt be able to see as . He calls this latter case
aspect-blindness. 20
In the same way, to discover an appropriate metaphor in the high do-
main of metaphysics is fr Muslim philosophers a peculiar way of think
ing, a mode of cognition, fr it means discovering som subtle features in
the metaphysical structure of Realiy, an aspect which, no matter how self-
evident it may be as a fact of transcendental Awareness, is so subtle and
evasive at the level of discursive thinking that humn intellect would other-
wise be unable to take hold of it.
This said, we shall continue our consideration of the various stages in
metaphysical cognition. Those of the common people who perceive nothing
beyond Multiplicity and fr whom even the word phenomenon does nt
make rel sense have been said to represent the lowest stage in the hier-
archy. A stage higher than this is reached, still within the confines of the
common people, by those who recognize something beyond the phenomenal.
This Something-beyond is the Absolute or in popular terminology God
which is conceived as the Transcedent. God is here represented as an ab
solute Other which is essenially cut off from the phenomenal world. There
is, in this conception, no inner connection between God and the world .
What there is between them is only an external relationship like creation
and domination. Such people are known in Islam as mn of externality
( ahl-e zhir), i.e. those who see only the exterir surface of Reality. Their eyes
are said to be afflicted with a disease preventing them from seeing the lafnuity
true structure of Reality. The reference is to a disease or deformity peculiar
to the eye called hawal. He who is infected with it always has a double
image of whatever he sees. One single object appears to his eyes as two
different things.
6o TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 6 I
The second elss of people according to the above-given division, ax-e
those who have attained to an immediate vision of absolute Reality in the
experience of fan, both in the subjective and the objective sense, that is,
the totl annihilation of the ego and correspondingly of all the phenomenal
things that constitute the external, objective world. Bt the people of this
elss just stop at this stage and do nt go any further. To state the situa-
tion in more concrete terms, these people are aware only of absolute Unity.
They see everywhere Unity, nothing else. The whole world in their view has
turnd int absolute Unity with no articulation and determination.
Certainly, when these people come back immediately from the experi
ence of fan' to their norml consciousness, Multiplicity does again become
\isible. Bt the phenomenal world is simply discarded as an illusion. In
their view, the world of Multiplicity has no metaphysical or ontological value
because it is essentially unreal. The external objects are nt existent in
the rel sense of the word. They are just floating gossamers, sheer illusions
backed by no corresponding realities. Such a view is in its fundamental
structure identical with the Vedantic view of the phenomenal world in its
popular understanding, in which the notorious word my is taken to mean
sheer illusion or illusion-producing principle.
Just as, this popular understanding does gross injustice to the authentic
world-view of Vedanta philosophy, however, the exclusive emphasis on the
Absolute to the irreparable detriment of the phenomenal world in Islamic
metaphysics fatally distorts the authentic view of its representatives. It is in
this sense that Haydar moli accuses Ismailism of disbelief and heresy 21.
From the viewpoint of the highest mystic-philosopher, even the people
of this type, when they experience the vision of the Absolute, are actually
doing nothing bt perceiving the Absolute as it is reflected in the phenom
enal things. Bt dazzled by the excess of light issuing forth from the A b
solute, they are nt aware of the phenomenal things in which it is reflected.
Just as, in the case of the people of the first elss, the Absolute served as
the mirror reflecting upon its polished surface all the phenomenal things, so
in the prsnt case the phenomenal things serve as mirrors reflecting
62 TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
the Absolute. In either case, mn usually takes notice of the images in the
mirror, and the mirror itself remains unnoticed.
It is at the third stage, that is, at the stage of the privileged of all
privileged people that the relation between the Absolute and the pheno
menal world is correctly grasped as the coincidentia oppositonim of Unity and
Multiplicity. It is, moreover, in this region that the cognitive value of me-
taphorical thinking to which reference has been made earlier is most pro-
fusedly displayed.
Those whose consciousness has been raised to the height o baq' after
the experience of fan&\ experience the relation between the Absolute and
the phenomenal as the coincidentia oppositorum of Unity and Multiplicity. Theo-
logically speaking, they are those who are able to see God in the ^creature
and the creature in God. They can see both the mirror and the images that
are reflected in it, God and the creature at this stage alternately serving
as both the mirror and the image. The one selfsame existence is seen
at once to be God and the creature, or Absolute Reality and the pheno
menal world, Unity and Multiplicity.
The sight of the Multiplicity of phenomenal things does nt obstruct
the sight of the pure Unity of ultimate Reality. Nor does the sight of Unity
stand in the way of the appearance of Multiplicity 22 . On the contrary, the
two complement each other in disclosing the pure structure of Reality.
Fr they are the two essential aspects of Reality, Unity representing the as-
pect of absoluteness ( itlq) or comprehensive contraction ijml) ,
and Multiplicity the aspect of determination ( taqyd) or concrcte expan-
sion ( tafsil). Unless we grasp in this way Unity and Multiplicity in a
single act of cognition we arc nt having a whole integrl view of Reality
as it really is. Haydar moli calls such a simultaneous intuition of the two
aspects of Reality the unification of existence ( tawhid wujdi) and re -
gards it as the sole authentic philosophical counterpart of religious mono -
theism 23. The unification of existence thus understood consists in a fun-
damental intuition of the one single reality of existence in everything
without exception. In the Absolute, which corresponds theologically to God,
it sees existence in its absolute purity and unconditionality, while in
the things of the phenomenal world it recognizes the concrete differentia-
tions of the selfsame reality of existence in accordance with its own in-
ner articulations. Philosophically this is the position generally known as one-
ness of existence ( wahdat al-wujd), which is an idea of central importance
going back to Ibn Arabi.
The particular type of metaphysics based on this kind of existential in-
tuition begins with the statement that the Absolute only is rel, that the
Absolute is the sole reality, and that, consequently, nothing else is rel. The
differentiated world of Multiplicity is therefore essentially non-existent
( (adam). To this initial statement, however, is immediately added another;
namely, that it does nt in any way imply that the differentiated world
is a void, an illusion, or sheer nothing. The ontological status of the phe
nomenal things is rather that of relations, that is, the various and varie-
gated relational forms of the Absolute itself. In this sense, and in this sense
only, they are all rel.
The rise of the phenomenal world as we actually observe it, is due pri-
matily to two seemingly different causes which are in reality perfectly co-
ordinated with each other: one metaphysical, another epistemological. Mta-
<1
physically or ontologically, the phenomenal world arises before our eyes be-
cause the Absolute has in itself essential, internl articulations that are called
stlfn ( sg. shan) meaning literally affairs, i. e. internl modes of being.
They are als called existential perfections ( kamlt), a conception simi-
lar in an important and significant way to Lao Tzs idea of virtues
(te) in relation to the way (tao) 24. These internl articulations naturally
call fr their own externalization. As a consequence, existence sprcads
itself out in myriads of self-determinations.
Epistemologically, on the other hand, this act of self-determination 011
the part of Reality is due to the inhercnt limitations of the finite humn
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 6 3
64 TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
consciousness. The Absolute or pure existence in itself is sheer Unity.
The Absolute remains in its original Unity in no matter how many dif
ferent forms it may manifest itself. In this sense the world of Multiplicity
is essentially of the very natr of the Absolute; it is the Absolute itself.
Bt the original Unity of the Absolute appears to the finite humn consious-
ness as differentiated int countless finite things because of the finitude of
the consciousness. The phenomenal world is the Absolute that has hidden
its rel formless form under the apparent forms which are caused by the
very limitations inherent in the epistemological faculties of mn.
The process here described of the appearance of the originally undif-
ferentiated metaphysical Unity in many different forms is called in Islamic phi
losophy the self-manifestation ( tajalli) of existence. The conception
of the tajalli is structurally identical with the Vedantic conception of adhysa
or superimposition, according to which the originally undivided Unity of
pure nirguna Brahman or the absolutely unconditioned Absolute appears di-
vided because of the different names and forms ( nma-rpa ) that are
imposed upon the Absolute by ignorance (avidy). It is remarkable, from
the viewpoint of comparison between Islamic philosophy and Vedanta that
avidy which, subjectively, is the humn ignorance of the true reality of
things, is, objectively, exactly the same thing as maya which is the self-con-
ditioning power inherent in Brahman itself. The names and forms that
are said to be superimposed upon the Absolute by avidy would correspond
to the Islamic concept of quiddities ( mhiyt, sg. mhyah) which are
nothing other than the externalized forms of the Divine names and attri-
butes ( asma1wa-sift ). And the Vedantic my as the self- determining
power of the Absolute would find its exact Islamic counterpart in the con
cept of the Divine existential mercy ( rahmali wujidiyah).
However, even at the stage of self-manifestation, the structure of Reality
as seen through the eyes of a rel mystic-philosopher looks diametrically op-
posed to the same Reality as it appears to the relative consciousness of an
ordinary mn. Fr in the eyes of an ordinary mn representing the com-
mon-sense view of things, the phenomena are the visible and manifest while
the Absolute is the hidden. Bt in the unconditioned consiousness of a rel
mystic-philosopher, it is always and everyhere the Absolute that is manifest
while the phenomena remain in the background.
This peculiar structure of Reality in its tajalli- aspect is due to what I
have repeatedly pointed out in the course of this lecture; namely, that the
differentiated world of phenomena is nt self-subsistently rel. No phenome
nal thing has in itself a rel ontological core. The idea corresponds to the
celebrated Buddhist denial of svabhva or self-nature to anything in the
world. In this sense, the philosophical slandpoint of the school of the ^one-
ness of existence ( wahdat al-wujd) is most obviously anti-essentialism. All
so-called essences or quiddities are reduced to the position of the fic-
titious. The utmost degree of reality recognized to them is that of bor-
rowed existence. That is to say, the quiddities exist becausc they hap-
pen to be so many intrinsic modifications and determinations of the Ab
solute which alone can be said to exist in the fullest sense of the word.
In reference to the ontological status of the phenomenal world and its
relation to the Absolute the Muslim philosophers have proposed a number
of illuminating metaphors. In view of the abovc-mentioned importance of
metaphorical thinking in Islam I shall give here a few of them. Thus Mah-
md Shabastari 25 says in the Gulshan-e Rz :
The appearance of all things other ( than the Absolute ) is due to
your imagination ( i.e. the structure of humn cognition),
Just as a swiftly turning point appears as a circle.
Concerning these verses Lhji makes the following observation. i he ap
pearance of the w'orld of Multiplicity as something other than the A b
solute is due to the working of the faculty of imagination which is based
on sense perception and which is by natr unable to go beyond the phe
nomenal surface of the things. In truth, there is solely one single Reality
manifesting itself in a myriad of different forms. Bt in this domain sense
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 65
perception is utterly untrustworthy. Fr it is liable to see a mirage as some
thing really existent when it is in truth non-existent. It sees drops of rain
falling from the sky as straight lines. A mn sitting in a bot tends to think
that the shore is moving while the ship stands still. 28 When in the dark a
firebrand is turnd very swiftly, we naturally perceive a burning circle. 'What
is really existent in this case is the firebrand, a single point of fire. Bt the
swift circular movement makes the point of fire appear as a circle of light.
Such, Lhiji argues, is the relation between the Absolute whose state ol Unity
is comparable to a point of fire and the world of Multiplicity which in
its essential constitution resembles the circle produced by the movement of
the point . 27In other words, the phenomenal world is a trace left behind
by the incessant Creative acting of the Absolute.
The philosophical problem here is the ontological status of the circle of
light. Evidently the circle does nt exist in the fullest sense of the word.
It is in itself false and unreal. It is equally evident, however, that the circle
cannot be said to be sheer nothing. It does exist in a certain sense. It is
rel as far as it appears to our consciousness and als as far as it is pro
duced by the point of fire which is really existent on the empirical level of
our experience. The ontological status of all phenomenal things that are
observable in this world is essentially of such a natr.
Another interesting metaphor that has been proposed by Muslim phi
losophers is that of ink and different letters written with it. 28 Letters writ-
ten with ink do nt really exist qua letters. Fr the letters are bt various
forms to which meanings have been assigned through convention. What really
and concretely exists is nothing bt ink. The existence of the letters is m
truth no other than the existence of the ink which is the sole, unique
reality that unfolds itself in many forms of self-modification. One has to cul-
tivate, first of all, the eye to see the selfsame reality of ink in all letters ,
and then to see the letters as so many intrinsic modifications of the ink.
66 TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 6 7
The next metaphor - that of the sea and waves - is probably more im-
portant in that, firstly, it is shared by a number of non-Islamic philosophi
cal systems of the East and is, therefore, apt to disclose one of the most
basic common patterns of thinking in the East; and that, secondly, it draws
attention to an extremely important point that has nt been made clear by
the preceding metaphors; namely, that the Absolute in so far as it is the
Absolute cannot really dispense with the phenomenal world, just as the ex-
istence of the phenomenal world is inconceivable except on the basis of the
existence of the Absolute, or more properly, the existence which is the
Absolute itself.
O f course, the Absolute can be conceived by the intellect as being be
yond all determinations, and as we have seen earlier, it can even be in-
tuited as such, in its eternal Unity and absolute unconditionality. We can go
even a step further and conceive it as something beyond the condition of
unconditionality itself. 2^
Bt such a view of the Absolute is an event that takes piac only in
our consciousness. In the realm of extra-mental reality, the Absolute cannot
even fr a single moment remain withoui manifesting itself.
As Haydar moli says 3, the sea, as long as it is the sea, cannot sep-
arate itself from the waves; nor can the waves subsist independently of
the sea. Mreover, when the sea appears in the form of a wave, the form
cannot bt be different from the form of another wave, fr it is absolutely
impossible fr twro wraves to appear in one and the same piac under one
single form.
Haydar moli recognizes in this peculiar relationship between the sea
and the waves an exact image of the ontological relationship between the
stage of undifferentiated existence and the stage of the differentiated
world. He remarksS1 : Know that absolute existence or God is like a
limitless ocean, while the determined things and individual existents are
like innumerable waves or rivers. Just as the waves and rivers are nothing
other than the unfolding of the sea according to the forms required by
its own perfections which it possesses qua water as well as by its own
68
TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
peculiarities which it possesses qua sea ; so are the determined existents
nothing other than the unfolding of absolute existence under those forms
that are required by its own essential perfections as well as by its pe
culiarities belonging to it as its inner articulations.
Further, the waves and rivers are nt the sea in one respect, while
in another they are the same thing as the sea. In fact, the waves and rivers
are different from the sea in respect of their being determined and partic-
ular. Bt they are nt different from the sea in respect of their own es-
sence and reality, namely, from the point of view of their being pure water.
In exactly the same way, the determined existents are different from the
Absolute in their being determined and conditioncd, bt they are nt dif
ferent from it in respect of their own essence and reality which is pure
existence. Fr from this latter viewpoint, they are all nothing other than
existence itself.
It is interesting that Haydar moli goes on to analyze this ontological
situation from a kind of semantic point of view. He says32: The sea, when
it is determined by the form of the wave, is called waves. The selfsame
water, when determined by the form of the river, is called a river, and
when determined by the form of the brook, is called a brook. In the
same way it is called rain, snow, ice, etc. In reality, however, there
is absolutely nothing bt sea or water, fr the wave, river, brook,
etc. are merely names indicating the sea. In truth ( i.e. in its absolutely
unconditioned reality) it bears no name; there is nothing whatsoever to in-
dicate it. No, it is a matter of sheer linguistic convention even to designate
it by the word sea itself. And he adds that exactly the same is true
of existence or reality .
There are still other famous metaphors such as that of the mirror and
the image, and that of one and the numbers which are formed by the repe-
tition of one. All of them are important in that each one throws bght on
som peculiar aspect of the relation between Unity and Multiplicity which is
nt clearly revealed by others. Bt fr the particular purposes of the pres-
ent paper, I think, enough have already been given.
The most important conclusion to be. drawn from a careful considera-
tion of the metaphors that have just been given is that there are recogniza-
ble in the metaphysical Reality or the Absolute itself two different dimen-
sions. On the first of these dimensions, which is metaphysically the ultimate
stage o Reality, the Absolute is the Absolute in its absoluteness, that is, in
its absolute indetermination. It corresponds to the Vedantic concept of the
parakrahman, the Supreme Brahman, and to the neo-Confucian idea of
the wu chi, the a Ultimate of Nothingness. Both in Vedanta and Islam, the
Absolute at this supreme stage is nt even God, fr after all God is
bt a determination of the Absolute, in so far at least as it differentiates
the Absolute from the world of creation.
In the second of the two domains, the Absolute is still the Absolute,
bt it is the Absolute in relation to the world. It is the Absolute considered
as the ultimate source of the phenomenal world, as Something which reveals
itself in the form of Multiplicity. It is only at this stage that the name
God - Allh in Islam - becomes applicable to the Absolute. It is the stage
of the paeameshvara, the supreme Lord, in Vedanta, and in the neo-Confu-*
cin woild-view the position of the f a i chi, the Supreme Ultimate which
is no other than the wu chi, the Ultimate of Nothingness as an eternal
principle of creativity.
Such is the position generally known as oneness of existence ( wah
dat al-wujd) which exercised a tremendous influence on the formaiive pro-
cess of the philosophic as well as poetic mentality of the Muslim Iranians,
and whose basic structure I wanted to explain to you this paper. It will
be clear by now that it is a serious mistake to consider as it has often
been done this position as pure monism or even as existential monism .
Fr it has evidently an element of dualism in the sense that it recognizes
two different dimensions of reality in the metaphysical structure of the
Absolute. Nor is it of course right to regard it as dualism, fr the two dif
ferent dimensions of reality are ultimately, i. e. in the form of coincidentia op-
positorum, one and the same thing. The oneness of existence is neither
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 69
monism nor dualism. As a metaphysical vision of Reality based on a pecu -
liar existential experience which consists in seeing Unity in Multiplicity and
Multiplicity in Unity, it is something far more subtle and dynamic than phi
losophical monism or dualism.
It is interesting to observe, moreover, that such a view of Reality, con-
sidered as a bare structure, is nt at all exclusively Iranian. It is, on the
contrary, commonly shared more or less by many of the major philosophical
schools of the East. The important point is that this basic common structure
is variously colored in such a way that each school or system differs from
others by the emphasis it places 011 certain particular aspects of the struc
ture and als by the degree to which it goes in dwellmg upon this or that
particular major concept.
Now, by further elaborating the conceptual analysis of the basic struc
ture, taking int consideration at the same time the major differences which
are found between various systems, we might hopefully arrive at a com-
prehensive view of at least one of the most important types of Orientl phi
losophy which may further be fruitfully compared with a similar type of
philosophy in the West. It is my personal conviction that a rel, deep, phi
losophical understanding between the East and West becomes possible only
on the basis of a number of concrete research works of this natr conducted
in various fields of philosophy both Western and Eastern.
VSbotnotes
1 ) Referencc is to the main theme of the Fifth East-Wcst Philosophers Conferencc:
The Alienation o f Aodern Mn.
2) Cf. Mll Sadr: al-Shawhtd-al-Rubbyah, ed. Jall al-Din Ashtiyni. Mashhad,
1967, p. 14.
3 ) Cf. his Rislnh Naqd al-Nuqd, ed. Henry Corbin and Osman Yahya, Thran
Paris, 1969, p. 625.
4) Muhammad Lhiji: Sharh-e Gulshan-e Rz, T e h r a n , - 1337 A.H ., pp. 94-97.
5) Cf. Jrni al-Asrr wa-Manba ol-Anwr, ed. Henry Corbin and Osman Yahya,
Thran - Paris, 1969, p. 259, p. 261.
6) Cf. al-Shawhid al-Rubtihyak, op. cit., p. 448.
7) Vivecarudotrani- 521.
7 O TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF METAPHYSICAL THINKING IN ISLAM 7 1
8) Cf. S.N.L. Shrivastava: Samkara and Bradley, Delhi, 1968, pp. 45-47.
9) aw ih, ed. M.H . Tasbihi, Tehran, 1342 A.H ., p. ig.
10) Ibid., p. 19.
11) Cf. Nihat Kklik: Sadreddtn Konevi'nin Felsejesinde Allah, Kint ve Insan, Istanbul,
1967, pp. 6-9.
12 ) This and the expression: datsn raku shin j i n appearing in the next paragraph be-
long to the technical terminology of the celebrated Japanese Zen master Dgen ( 1200 -
! 253)-
13) The following description is an elaboration of what Lhiji says about these
technical terms in his Commentary on Gulshan-e Rz (op. cit., pp. 26-27).
14) Fr an analysis of the Taoist concept of chaos see my Eranos Lecture: The
Absolute aad the Perfect Mn in Taoism ( Eranos Jahrbuch X X X V I ), Zrich, 1967, pp.
398-411.
1 5 ) The same metaphor is very frequently used fr a similar purpose in Orientl
philosophy. Thus, to give one more example, Chu Tz, ( 1130-1200 ), famous Confucian
philosopher of the Sung dynasty, remarks, on the problem of how the Supreme Ultimate
( t ai chi) is related to its manifestations in the physical world, that the Supreme Ultimate
in relation to Multiplicity is just like the moon which is reflected in many rivers and lakes
and is visible everywhere without being really divided up int many. ( Cf. Chu Tz T f e i ,
Book 94).
16) Gulshar-e Rz ( op. cit.) v. 127, p. 100. Cf. Lhijis Commentary, p. 101.
17) cf. Jrni al-Asrr ( op. cit.), p. 113, p. 591.
18) f a w ih ( op. cit.) p. 61.
19) On the distinction between the ornamental and the cognitive function of meta
phors, see Marcus B. Hester: The Meaning o f Poetic Metaphor, The Hague-Paris, 1967, Intro-
duction.
20) Wittgenstein : Inveigations, p. 213.
21) Jrni al-Asrr ( op. cit.) p. 217, p. 221.
22) Ibid., p. 113.
23) Ibid., pp. 113-115-
24) Cf. my The Key Philosophical Concepis in Sufism and Taoism II, Tokyo, 1967, pp.
122-123.
25) Gulshan-e Rz (op. cit.) v. 15, p. 19.
26) T o be compared with what the Zen master Dgen says about the same situa-
tion in his Sh B Gn Z ( H l Gn J K An) : I f a mn on board a ship turns his
eyes towaid the shore, he erroneously thinks that it is the shore that is moving. Bt i f he
examines his ship, he realizes that it is the ship that is moving on. Just in a similar way,
i f mn forms fr himself a false view of his own ego and considers on that basis the
things in the world, he is liable to have a mistaken view of his own mind-nature as i f it
were a self-subsistent entity. If, however, he comes to know the truth of the matter
through immediate experience ( corresponding to the experience of fan in Is l a m ) and
goes back to the very source of all things ( correspondmg to the Islamic idea of exis-
tence in its original state of Unity), he will clearly notice that the ten thomand things
( i.e. all phenomenal things) are ego-less ( i.e. have no self-subsistence).
27) Sharh-e Gulshan-e Rz { op. cit.) p. 19.
28) Cf. Haydar moli: Jrni *al-Asrr ( op. cit.). pp. 106-107.
29) This is known as the stage at which existence is conceived as I bi-slmrt maq-
smn, i. e. an absolute unconditionality in which existence is conceived as nt being
determined even by the quality of being-unconditional. The stage corresponds to what Lao
Tz calls the Mystery of Mysteries ( hsiian chihyu hsan) and what Chuang T z desig-
nates by the repetition of the word wu or non-existence, i.e wu wu meanmg non-
non- existence.
30) Jrni al-Asrr ( op. cit.), pp. 161-162.
31) Ibid., pp. 206-207.
32) Ibid., pp. 207-209.
72 TOSHIHIKO IZUTSU
ISLAM AND THE MAKING OF EUROPE
Public Lecture given at the Instvute of Islamic Studies, McGill University, Tehran
Branch. on March 17, 1970
By
W. Montgomery Watt
Professor at University of Edinburgh
,
It is necessary to begin with a word of caution. The topic to be con
sidered here belongs to at least two disciplines, bt it is only in one of
these that I can claim any expertise, namely Islamic studies. In the second
discipline, the history of Medieval Europe, I am very much an amateur.
A more appropriate title fr the lc tre would therefore be Reflec-
tions of an Islamist on the Making of Europe. It will be chiefly concerned
with the period from about 1050 to 1350.
It is convenient at the outset to indicate roughly the line of argu-
ment to be pursued. From the standpoint of Islamic history the spread
of Aduslim rule int Spain and Sicily was part of a great tide of expan-
sion which had carried the Arabs thousands of miles eastwards and west-
wards from Arabia. Though this tide began to ebb shortly after reaching
its farthest limits in western Europe, there followed a period when many
parts of Europe were being drawn int the Islamic economic system, were
adopting Islamic technology and the rts of gracious living, and were stu-
dying Islamic Science and philosophy. All this may be called - to vary the
metaphor - the impact of the Islamic world on western Europe; and a ful-
ler description of this impact will occupy the first half of the lecture. The
second half will then go on to deal with various ways in which western
Europe responded to the impact: the inauguration of the Crusades, the ac-
ceptance of much technology, applied science and scientific theory, and the
reassertion of Christendom as a political and cultural entity distinct from
the Islamic world and opposed to it. In so far as the emphasis is placed
on the European response to the Islamic impact there is an implicit criti-
cism of the common view that the culture of Europe was derived from
that of the Romn empire, at least if that is taken to mean that there
was a gradual process of building up European culture. Instead, the strug-
gle of western Europe with Islam is seen to have been to som extent con-
stitutive of Europes new self-awareness.
i. the impact of the Islamic world.
In the military and political sphere the impact may be said to begin
with the conquest of Spain in the second decade of the eighth century by a
mixed force of Arabs and Berbeis. The conquest was extended to the re
gion of Narbonne in Southern Franc, which had als been under the Visi-
gotliic rulers of Spain. As is well known, in the year 732 a Muslim raiding
army penetrated to a spot between Tours and Poitiers and was there de-
feated by Charles Martel. Before the end of the century the Muslims had
lost their foothold north of the Pyrenees, and in 801 they had to yield
Barcelona to Charlemagne. Thereafter the frontier of Islamic Spain was sta
bilized fr about three centuries, the effective limits of its power being the
fortresses of Saragossa, Toledo and Mrida with their respective marches.
Sicily als came under Muslim rule, bt nt until ftty a century after
Spain. The occupation began in 827 and was nt complete until about
902. Various parts of the Italian mainland were als raided by Muslims
during the ninth century, and the port of Bari on the Adriatic was held
fr about thirty years. There are stories of Muslim raiders penetrating through
the Alpine passes int Central Europe. By the end of the ninth century ,
however, the Byzantines had reestablished their hold on Southern Ttaly and
expelled all the Muslims. Sicily, on the other hand, remained under Islamic
rule until towards the end of the eleventh century.
. In the pst histonans of Europe have tended to think of the Arabs as
yet another body of barbarian invaders, comparable to Goths, Vandals or
Norsemen. In so far as one looks at the actual Arabs and Berbers who
were the first invaders, there is truth in this view. Bt there is als an im
portant difference between the Arabs and all the other in vading peoples.
All these others were on the whole less civilized than the provinces which
76 W. MONTGOMERY WATT
ISLAM AND THE MAKING OF EUROPE
77
had belonged to the Romn empire. The Arabs, however, were represen -
tatives of a vast political and cultural system stretching from the Atlantic
through North Africa and the Fertile Crescent to Central Asia and the Pun-
jab. Moreover this great society was in process of becoming the chief bea-
rer of the whole cultural heritage of the Middle East. Even when it lost
its political unity, its populations ( in so far as they were Muslinis ) con-
tinued to manifest a deep solidarity based on the religion of Islam. The in-
tellectual leaders of this society had made their own the science, medicme
and philosophy of the Greeks, and in various respects had contributed to the
advancement of these disciplines. The intellectual life of the Islamic world
was by no means confined to the heartlands, bt flourished in many pro
vincii centres, nt least in the cities of Islamic Spain from the tenth cen-
tury onuards and at the Sicilian court. Thus the Arab occupation of Spain
and Sicily was the initial or preparatory stage of a process which can
only be described as the impact of a superior culture. The points in which
Islamic culture was superior will be described in more detail presently.
In another respect als the occupation of Spain and Sicily was an ini
tial stage of a process. We might ask fr example how far there was any
awareness of this Islamic impact in northern Franc or Lombardy, in the
Rhineland or Saxony. rl he answer must be that on the surface there was
little such awareness. Xevertheless the western Europeans distant from the
occupied or raided areas had occasional contacts with the Islamic world.
There were the diplomatic missions exchanged b> Charlemagne and larun
ar-Rashid. More significant perhaps was the visit to Cordova in 858 of two
monks of Saint- Germain- des-Prs. Their mission was to bring to Paris the
relics of the patron of their abbey, Saint Vincent of Saragossa; bt these
had disappeared, and the monks contented themselves instead with the bo-
dies of three Christian so-called martyrs , recently executed at Cordova
fr deliberately insulting Islam. In this way certain people in northern
Franc gained an idea - probably distortod - of the difficulty of being a
Christian under Islamic rule.
Another sphere in which the Islamic world made an impact on western
Europe is that of trade and, more generally, material culture. Trade was
nearly always highly esteemed and vigorously fostered in the Islamic world.
Trade contacts with Italy in particular resulted from the occupation of the
North African seaboard. There were Muslim traders at Amalfi in the ninth
century and at Pisa in the tenth. By the end of the tenth century, however-
apparently as a result of Islamic fiscal policy - the transport of goods
across the Mediterranean was largely in the hands of Italians, at first mainly
the Pisans and Genoese, later als the Venetians. The Fatimid dynasty, which
established itself in Egypt in 969, played an important part in fostering trade.
Much of this trade might be regarded as colonial trade, with western
Europe in the position of colony. This description indicates that most
of the European exports to Islamic lands were raw materials, whereas the
imports were consumer goods, often of a luxury character. Among the raw
materials were the slaves who at certain periods were exported in large
numbers through Spain.
Trade was only one way in which western Europe became familiar with
the superior technology and material culture of the Islamic world. The in-
habitants of Spain and Sicily, Christian as well as Muslim, shared in most
of the technological achievements of the Islamic heartlands and had com-
parable standards of material comfort. In agriculture, fr example, many im-
provements were introduced from the Middle East. Devices to raise water
and make it available fr irrigation were brought from Egypt and Syria to
Southern Spain, and may still be seen there occasionally. Such irrigation made
possible the cultivation of much larger aieas. There was als an extension
in the variety of plants grown. Among the new plants introduced by the
Muslims were: sugar-cane, rice, cotton, aubergines, and fruits like oranges,
lcmons and apricots. The quality of other fruits was improved. Where the
mulberry tree grew easily, the manufacture of silk was developed. These agri-
cultural improvements, of course, were limited to certain legions, and were
irrelevant in the harsher northern climates; bt they meant that at least in
Southern Spain many producls were at hancl to make life pleasanter.
78 W. MONTGOMERY WATT
In the rts of navigtion the European sailors seem to have borrowed
many things from the Muslims, who brought to the Mediterranean lands
what they had lerned from seafar-ng in the Indin Ocean. Various de-
tails in the rig of ships seem to have been adopted from the Muslims and
then further developed, especially by the Portuguese and Spaniards, to suit
Atlantic conditions. This was a matter which - after the period with which
we are chiefly concerned - contubuted to making possible the great voyages
of exploration. rl he history of the development of the compass is obseure,
bt it may well be that the Arabs shared with the Europeans in the
process by which a serviceable instrument of navigation was produced.
The Europeans were certainly far behind the Muslims in geographical
knowledge as lat as 1100. William of Malmesbury, in the early twelfth cen-
tury, thought the whole world apart from (Jhristendom and northern Europe
belonged to Islam. Nt much later, however, the Muslim geographer al-Id-
risi, at the Christian court of Sicily, produced a detailed map of the Old
World which was tolerably accurate fr Europe, North Africa and Asia.
This geographical knowledge later helped to direct the voyages of explora
tion. The Muslims had als larger-scale charts of limited areas, and these
contributed to the production of portolans, as they were called, by the
Genoese and others.
In considering the influence of the Islamic world on Europe the most
important aspect of its technology was that it made possible a new style of
gracious living . Som of the agricultural products just mentioned made
possible luxurious meals. From silk and other textiles came rich and beau-
tiful clothing. With the techniques used in other parts of the Islamic world
lovely ceramic ware was produced. It was actually in Cordova in the ninth
century that the secret of manufacturing crystal was discovered. The mine-
rals of Spain, already known to the Romans, were further exploited by the
Muslims; and beautiful and elaborate metal-woik objects were then made
by skilled craftsmen. In the tenth century Cordova had become the rival
of Byzantium in the rts of the goldsmnh, the silversmith and the jewel-
ler. Ivory was carved int wonderful shapes; and wood als was carved and
ISLAM AND THE MAKING OF EUROPE 79
inlaid with ;vory and mother-of-pearl. Spain likewisc became noted fr its
decorative leather-work, nt leastin bookbinding. he existence in the Spa-
nish language of many words connected with building which have been de-
rived from Arabic suggests at the very least that the Arabs introduced im-
provements and refinements in this sphere.
Gracious living, however, meant more than a high level of technical
skill in many fields. It als required the formnon of high standards of taste
throughout the upper strata of society. An important part was played here
by a mn called Ziryab who came from the court at Baghdad in 822 and
spent the iemaming thirty-five years of his life in Cordova. He had sung
and played before Harun ar-Rashid in Baghdad, and he naturally didmuch
to raise the evel of musical appreciation in Spain; bt he als became an
arbiter of fashion and taste in generl. The order of courses we ourselves
obcerve at formai banquets probably owes something to Zii'yab. He insisted
on elegance in the ordering and serving of meals, and his canons of good
form were widely accepted nt merely in these matters, bt als in respect
of appropriate clothing fr various occasions and of hairdressing and other
forms of beauty culture.
The style of gracious living which thus developed in Cordova spread
through Islamic Spain, and there was als something similar in Sicily. It
was so obviously pleasant and delightful that it was adopted as far as pos-
sible by the leaders of society in the neighbouring Christian lands. An ac-
count has been preserved of how a Christian friar, while begging, penetra-
ted int an inner courtyard of the house of a wealthy merchant of Pisa.
The sensuous beauty of the garden, the rich clothing of the young mn
and women there, and the exquisite music, both vocal and instrumental,
made a deep impression on the friar; it was as if fr a moment he had
been transported int fairyland. It is well-known, too, that after the Christian
reconquest of Sicily two of the Christian rulers, Roger II and Frederick II,
retained the Islamic style of life in their courts. It was above all, however,
in Southern Franc that there developed a new courtly culture which subse-
8o W. MONTGOMERY WATT
ISLAM AND THE MAKING OF EUROPE
quently spread to northern Franc and Italy, and then to England and Ger-
many. By its music and poetry this culture helped to soften the rugged-
ness of feudal society. n its origins it is closely linked with the Provengal
poetry of the troubadours. There is room fr som difference of opinion
about the elements which entered int the development of this poetry. Much
of the technical skill of the troubadours doubtless came from the tradition
of popular poetry in Languedoc; bt it is virtually certain that important
ideas and elements of form came to them from the Arabs of Spain. To
sum up, then, it may be asserted that the spread of elegance and refine-
ment among the lite of western Europe was an aspect of the impact of
the Islamic world.
The last aspect of this impact to be considered is that in the intellec-
tual sphere. Under this heading may als be included an improvement in
the material basis of intellectual life, namely, the introduction of paper in-
stead of parchment and papyrus. The Muslims are said to have learned the
art of paper-making from som Chinese craftsmen whorn they made prisoner
in Central Asia about the middle of the eighth century. About the year
800 one of the Barmakid viziers built the fiist paper-mill in Baghdad. Be-
cause paper was much cheaper than Egyptian papyrus, its use spread west-
wards through the Islamic provinces, both fr administrative purposes and
among the writing public, a relatively large body of people and one that
was increasing. The first European document written 011 paper is thought to
be one from Sicily dated 1090, and it was nt until the fourteenth century
that paper-milis were established in Italy and Germany.
Another important borrowing of the Europeans from the Muslims was
the system of numerals commonly known as Arabic. Actually the Mus
lims took them over from Indin sources; bt they were quick to realize
their advantages and adopted them fr all praclical purposes. T he first Eu
ropean to use Arabic numerals is said to have been Gerbert of Aurillac
( Pop Silvester II from 999 to 1003 ), who was interesled in mathema-
tics; bt he had no immediate followers. Traders presumably became fa-
miliar with the ten signs through their Muslim contacts; and itisworth noting
that the mn who effectively introduced Arabic numerals to Europe, Leo
nardo Fibonacci, was the sn of a merchant in charge of a Pisn trading
colony in Algria. Fibonaccis book, Liber abaci, published in 1202, showed
among other things how Arabic numerals made possible the simpliffcation
and extension of arithmetical operations, and thus demonstrated their superi-
ority to the clumsy Romn system hitherto employed.
The field of pure mathematics is essentially distinct from the use ol any
particular system of numerals, though there is obviously a connection. 1 here
were brilliant mathematicians among the Greeks, though their numerical no-
tation was inferior to the Indin. By combining their Greek heritage in
mathematics with the system of numerals derived from India, the Muslims
were able to make important advances. In other branches of mathematics
too they showed great originality of thought, notably in the development
of algebra; algebra is in fact an Arabic word. Omar Khayyam ( d.
1123), though better known fr the poems rightly or wrongly ascribed to
hiin, was a brilliant mathematician and could solve algebraic equations of
the third and fourth degrees.
In the related field of astronomy much work was done by the Mus -
lxms. To begin with they may have been attracted by the supposed prac-
tical uses of asti'ology; bt latterly the dominant concern was scientific. Much
of the genius of the Muslim astronomers lay in making more accurate ob-
servations and in drawing up tables; bt they als discussed matters of
theory, like the natui'e of planetary motion. Nt far removed from astron
omy was the subject of optics, in which an outstanding contribution was
made by Ibn-al-Haytham or Alhazen ( d. 1038) ; this superseded the ear-
lier theory of Euclid and Ptolemy.
Other sciences were cultivated by the Muslims, bt the only one in
which they made notable advances was chemistry. There is no absolute de-
viding line between chemistry and alchemy in the Arabic writings, bt many
of the writers were primarily interested in the science of chemistry and ap-
pi'eciated the need fr experiment. The Muslim contribution to the modern
8 2 W. MONTGOMERY WATT
science is indicated by the use of terms derived from Arabic, such as al-
kali, alembic, aniline and antimony.
In both the practice and theory of medicine the Muslims had gone
considerably beyond what they had inherited from the Greeks. The works
of Galen, Hippocrates and others had been translated int Arabic and their
principles incorporated int medical practice. In addition the Muslims had
made exhaustive studies of pharmacology and had written treatises on par
ticular aspects of medicine; the latter, being backed up by wide personal
experience, were of great value. Much was known about the natr and
urgency of antisepsis; and simple methods of anaesthesia were used to re-
duce pain. There were many hospitals - Cordova in the middle of the tenth
century is said to have had fifty. Hospital patients received medical treat-
ment, and this was often supervised by a resident physician. Clinical in-
struction was a regular part of the training of medical students. All this al
most modern efficiency is in strong contrast to the low level of European
medicine up to the eleventh century. There was virtually no knowledge even
of Greek medical theory, nor of antisepsis and anaesthesia. Hospices fr the
sick gave shelter bt no treatment, there being no resident physicians. There
was no provision fr clinical instruction fr students. An Arabic writer of
the early Crusading period has recorded a story of the treatment of two
Frankidi patients by a Frankish doctoi. The treatment was so crude and un-
scientific that they both died, though Arabic doctors could probably have
cured them. What is noteworthy, however, is the writei s horror at the cru-
di ty; it is the horroi with which a Victorian missionary might have des-
cribed the practice of an African witch-doctor.
To complete this account o f the intellectual achievements of the Islamic
world as these impinged on western Europe it is necessary to say something
about philosophy. This came to the Muslims, along with the sciences just
mentioned, through translations from the Greek. In course o time, however,
the Muslims produced original thinkers o great power, notably al-Farabi
(d. 950), Avicenna or Ibn-Sina ( d. 1037 ) and Averroes or Ibn-Rushd ( d.
1198 . O f these the first two may be described as Neoplatonists, though
ISLAM AND THE MAKING OF EUROPE 8 3
they held that their philosophy was in agreement with the essentials of the
Islamic religion. Fr the main stream of Islamic thought, which was theolog-
ical, they were of course heretics; bt many of their generl philosophical
conceptions and methods of argument were taken int theology. In the
process of adaptation an important part was played by Algazel or al-Gha-
zali ( d. 1111 ) who, before showing the inconsistency and heretical charac-
ter of the views of the philosophers, produced a very lucid summary of
these views. Finally Averroes tried to prove that it was Algazel and nt
the earlier philosophers who had been inconsistent and self-contradictory. He
was an Aristotelian rather than a Neoplatonist, and is noted fr his commen-
taries on som of the works of Aristotle. Both in the Islamic world and in
western Europe the importance of these philosophers lies nt in the number
of those who followed them exactly bt in the stimulus they gave to other
thinkers, especially those in the theological camp.
This concludes the first and longer part of my lecture., in which I have
been describing the impact of the Islamic world on western Europe.
2. The European response to the impact
I now turn to consider how western Europe responded to this impact.
Som aspects of the response have already been mentioned implicitly, 110-
tably the acceptance by som Europeans of luxury goods from the Middle East
and their adoption of a style of gracious living. What remains to be
considered may be brought under four heads: (a) the response in the
intellectual sphere; (b) the reconquest of Spain and Sicily; (c) the Crusades;
( d) the formdon of an image of Islam by scholarly writers. It will be
found that there is a close connection between the last points.
In the intellectual sphere, then, the first task before western Europe was
to study and assimilate what the Muslims already knew and, wbere rele-
vant ( as in medicine), to pt it int practice. Along with the study of
the Sciences went the work of translation int Latin. This may have begun
as early as the ninth century. A translated work 011 astronomy is mentioned
in the tenth century, and early in the eleventh centui y mn were familiar
84 W. MONTGOMERY WATT
ISLAM AND THE MAKING OF EUROPE 85
with the astrolabe in such places as Lige and Lorraine. The medical school
at Salerno benefited from a series of translations from Arabic made by Cons-
tantine the African between about 1060 and 1087. The chief work of trans-
lation, however, was accomplished in Toledo after it feli to the Christians
in 1085. In the twelfth century at Toledo a large number of translations -
mostly of scientific works - were made by Dominic Gundisalvi, Gerard of
Cremona and others. One or two translations came from the Crusading
States in the east. By the thirteenth century many Europeans were proficient
in the scientific disciplines and als in philosophy, which was the slowest
starter. In these fields most of the remaining works of merit were now trans-
lated from Arabic int Latin. Som of these Arabic scientific works, especially
in the field of medicine, continued fr centuries to be regarded as
authoritative, and after the invention of printing appeared in several edi-
tions. The philosophical works of Averroes, it is worth noting, though vir-
tually without influence in the eastern Islamic world, were known to Chris
tian scholars in western Europe soon after they appeared in the lat twelfth
century. To sum up - in the intellectual sphere the Europeans took over from
the Arabs the disciplines they were interested in and in course of time de
veloped these further.
The next matter to be mentioned is the reconquest of Spain and Sicily.
The conquest of Sicily followed on military activities ( as a kind of mer-
cenaries by Norman knights in Southern Italy in the eleventh century. A
Norman principality was established on the mainland, and from this as base
Sicily was invaded in 1060 and completely occupied by io g i . Though Sicily
thus came to be under nominallv Christian rule, there was no religious mo-
tive fr the conquest: on the contrarv it was the Christian conquerors who
adopted the Islamic way of life.
The Spanish Reconquista was very different. In its origins it seems
to have proceeded from the fierce desire fr independence found among
rough mountain peoples. L a t e r , however, the fortitude of spirit necessary fr
maintaining the struggle came largely rom the belief of the Spaniards that
they were fighting to reconquer a part of Christendom from its enemies .
This religious motive was fostered by the pilgrimage to Compostela. After
i i oo, oi course, mens attitudes in Spain came to be influenced by the idea
of Grusade, which had had a mushroom growth north of the Pyrenees. The Re-
conquista had made considerable progress, however, before the First Crusade,
fr in 1085 Toledo in the centre of Spain had been wrested from the Arabs.
I
The next main advance was in the early thirteenth century, culminating in
the capture of Cordova in 1236 and Seville in 1248. This left only the
small kingdom of Granada in Muslim hands, and it eventually feli after the
unin of Aragon and Castile in the later fifteenth century, finally disappear-
ing m 1492.
The modern stud nt instinctively feels that there must be a close con-
nection between the Spanish Reconquista and the growth of Grusading zeal
in western Europe, bt the evidence is slight, and the whole subject would
probably repay further study. Before expressing a view 011 the relationship
I shall first say something about the Crusades and the Crusading movement.
From the standpoint of the Islamic histrin two points are worth empha-
sizing by way of preface to the discussion. Firstly, while the Crusades have
a central piac in European history, they have only a minor piac ux Ts-
lamic history, perhaps comparable to wars on the north-west frontier of In
dia in the nineteenth century. That is to say, they were nt felt as a ser-
ious threat to the Islamic world as a whole, and did nt in any way im-
press themselves on the outlook of Muslims. Secondly, the Islamic histrin
is amazed at the foolhardiness and ignorance of the western Europeans in
launching such expeditions, and sees that such successes as they attained were
largely due to fortuitous circumstances of a temporary character. The Cen
tral question thus becomes: What was this Grusading idea and Crusadmg
spirit which so took possession of the westiem Europeans?
The effective beginning of the Grusading movement is usually held to
be the speech of Pop Urban II at Glermont in 1095, though its roots may
be traced much further back, notably to the activity of Pop Gregory VIT.
There is som obscurity about the precise contents of the speech of Urban.
Som of the oldest accounts piac the emphasis on supporting the eastern
W. MONTGOMERY w a t t
ISLAM AND THE MAKING OF EUROPE
Christians against the infidels, and fr som forty years the Popes had been
concerned to overcome the schism between east and west within the
Church. Thus it was nt the presentation of the Central Crusading idea - the
recovery of Jerusalern from the Saracens - which led to an upsurge of the
spirit, bt ralher an upsurge of the spirit, set off by something else, which
found its most satisfying focus in this Crusading idea. This assertion is nt
of course intended to deny that various social and political forces were als
present. The description of the idea of Crusade as a focus is meant to
indicate that this idea led to activities in which the various secular and re-
ligious forces found an integrated expression. Let us leave the Crusading
idea here fr the moment, and turn to the last aspect of the Ruropean res-
ponse.
This fourth and last aspect is the formation of an image of Islam by
scholarly writers in Latin between about n o o and 1350. There was als
a popular image of Islam, probably formed about the beginnmg of the same
period, and seen, fr example, in the Chanson de Roland. In a popular image
of this kind it is nt surprising to find various crudities. What is surpris-
ing however, is ihat in the picture of Islam elaborated by scholars there
are serious distortions. The points most emphasized by the scholars may be
summarized in the following propositions: Islam is a religion of violence
and has been spread by the sword; Islam is a religion of self-indulgence
especially sexual; Islam is a religion based on falsehood and deliberately per-
verts the truth; Muhammad is the anti-Christ. lassm that it is nt neces-
sary here to explain the distortion in detail. There was obviously a com-
plete lailure by medieval Christians to appreciate the positive religious val-
ues of Islam. The charge of violence is curious in the mouth of those who
were preaching the Crusade, and the charge of converting by the sword
makes no allowance fr the high level of tolerance fr non-Muslims found
in Islamic countries.
It may be suggested that this distortion of the image of Islam is mere-
ly what is to be expected m war propaganda. Bt fr the Christian Isla-
mist the problem is why the scholars lent themselves so wholcheartedly to
elaborating and spreading the image, and why the image has persisted to
the present day; it may be moribund, bt it is by no means dead.
Perhaps the best way to approach this problem is to take stock of the
position in the second half of the eleventh century. By about 1050 western
Europe was poised fr a new movement of self-assertion. Many factors con-
tributed to this - improvements in agriculture, a greater volume of trade,
mcreased social and political stability, a greater cultivation of the intellec
tual life. The successes of Norman knights in Southern Italy and Sicily
gave Europeans fuller confidence in the military efficiency of the knight. In
1085 Toledo feli to a Spanish army despite its redoutable natural position
and its fortifications. It must have been difficult nt to feel a new and
pulsing self-confidence.
On the other hand the leaders of western Europe must have had mixed
feelings as they reflected on the Islamic world. There was much in that
world which they greatly admired - the products of its technology, its style
of gracious living, its poetry, its intellectual achievements. The latter, of
course, were only beginnmg to be known in the eleventh century, fr most
of the translations were made after 1100. Even so there was much admira-
lion. Yet admiration, as is norml in the attitd of the inferior to the
superior, was mixed with hat and fear. A mn or a nation admires
those who are superior, and at the same time hates them because they are
superior. The intense self-confidence of the Arabs generated a high degree
both of aamiration and of hatred among those with whom they came in
contact. Their military prowess was als feared, though probably less so af
ter 1085. There was even fear of the Islamic religion, precisely because it
claimed to supersede Christianity and was gaining converts from the Churoh.
Perhaps as the mihtary danger from Islam decreased the religious danger was
thought to increase. Certainly the clerics who had a hand in directing the
Crusading expcditions towards the eastern Mediterranean must have been
aware of the religious danger, as they remembererl the Spanish martyrs and
saw the attractiveness of Islamic lrfe. All this ineant that, when the move
ment of European self-assertion got under way, it had a negative as well as
83 W. MONTGOMERY WATT
a positive aspect, the negative aspect being self-assertion against Islam. This
was inevitable because o the orce and the extent of the Islamic, impact
and because of the depth of European admiration and hatred.
I f we take it, then, that the movement of the European spirit which
began in the later eleventh century was a movement of self-assertion, both the
Reconquista in Spain and the Crusading fervour in Franc and the surroun-
ding countries are aspects of this self-assertion. As western Europe began to
assert itself, it had to show that it could measure up to the great enemy
which it had long regarded as superior in everything except religion. Even
those churchmen who advocated sending missionaries to the Saracens rather
than crusading soldiers were a part of the movement of self-assertion. Another
aspect of this movement was the formation of the distorted image of
Islam. This image gave western European Christians grounds fr believing
that they were superior to the Muslims. Because their superiority thus lay
in their religion, they tended more and more to identify themselves with the
ideals of their religion. The distorted image of Islam, however, was als in
som ways directed against certain aspects of European life, such as the
adoption by many of the nobility of the gracious living of the Moors .
That the matters criticized in Islam were als faults present among Chris
tians was explicitly recognized by John Wycliffe ( d. 1384) in his closing
years. Doubtless this had something to do with the persistence of the false
image of Islam in our western culture- it was an image of something mn
admired, yet thought they ought to reject and have nothing to do with.
Admiration fr Islamic science and philosophy continued int the thir-
teenth century, though, as the Europeans learned in this spherc from the
Muslims, they developed an independent attitd. After they had mastered
the philosophical techniques in particular, they used these in a kind of
intellectual self-assertion. The Summa contra Gentiles of Saint Ihomas Aqui-
nas is to be seen as a defence of European Christian beliefs against both
Muslims and those who admired the Muslims excessively. The Summa theo-
logica, on the other hand, is rather the positive presentation of Christian
belief in accordance with the highest intellectual standards of the day.
ISLAM AND THE MAKING OF EUROPE 89
The admiration fr Islamic science and philosophy was eventually - af
ter everything of value had been assimilated - replaced at many points by
revulsion. By the end of the fifteenth century it was felt that the study of
Arabic was no longer rewarding, and that its literature was greatly inferior
to that of Greece and Rom. Even Dante (1265-1321), at the beginning of
t
the fourteenth century, though using som Islamic imagery and acknow-
ledging Europe s debt to Arabic philosophy to the extent of piacing Avicenna
and Averroes in Limbo, shows no rel awareness of the extent of Islamic
influence, bt lives mainly in the world of Greek and Latin literature and
of recent and contemporary events. It would nt be too much to say that
by about this time a new image of Europe was emerging. Because it was
formed in contrast to the distorted image of Islam, it was nt free from dis-
tortion in other ways. Apart from the Christian element there was an exag-
gerated identification with Europes Greek and Romn heritage, in its litera-
ry, philosophical and even political aspects. At the same time there was a
virtual denial that Europe was in any way dependent on the Islamic world
Since the sixteenth century Classical literature has played a large part
in European education, bt this is hardly the time and piac to ask whether
the attention to it has been excessive. In this present age, however ,
when the various cultures and civilizations are coming willy-nilly int the
one world, the denial of Islamic influence on Europe is a serious matter .
Fr the future of our relations within the one world it is urgent that we
westerners should fully admit the important role played by Islam in the ma
king of western Europe and the growth of European self-awareness.*
90 w. MONTGOMERY w a t t
* This is substantially the text of a lecture delivered in May 1969 at Harvard
University and als at the University of CaJifornia, Santa Cruz .
SIMNNI ON WAHDAT AL-WUJD
Public Lecture, giveti at the Institute o f Islamic Studies, McGill University, Tehran
Branch, on Mar eh j , i g j o
By
Hermann Landolt
Assistant Professor,
Institute of Islamic Studies
'
.

I am proposing to talk to you this evening about one Iranian mystic

of the so-called Mongol period, Al uddawla-i Simnni , who lived from
659/1261 to 736/1336. More particularly, the topic of my talk is this mystics
critical attitd, or even opposition, to the mystical doctrine of wahdat al -
wujd or, literally translated, unity of being.
The significance of this perhaps somewhat marginal topic will immedia-
tely appear, i f we consider the fact that what Simnni criticized in partic-
ular was the magnificent expression given to this doctrine of wahdat al-wu-
j d or unity of being by the great Arab mystical thinker who lived al
most exactly one hundred years before Simnni, MuhyiTdn Ibn Arabi
( born 650/ 1165 111 Murcia and died 638/1240 inDamascus). Ibn Arabi,
as is well known, was to become the great master fr almost all subsequent
sufis up to the present day and als one of the greatest heretics fr what
the sufis call the ulam-yi z&hir or exoteric theologians. Bt it was nt only
the sufis in the strict sense who egarded I b n Arabi as their great master;
the presence of his influence and even of his sometimes original vocabulary
in the writings of such important later Iranian philosophers as Mull Sadr-
yi Shirzi in the 1 yth century - to mention only the greatest name among
them - cannot be overlooked any more. In short, to attack Tbn Arabi fr
his idea of the unity of being or wahdat al-wujd meant to attack the very
basis of the world-view of generations of Islamic mystics and philosophers
up to our present day. The uniqueness and almost prophetic status of the
Shaykh al-Akbar or Magister Maximus as he used to be called by his friends,
is well summarized in the words of Jrni, the famous 1561 century Persian
poet and sufi, who was als a great admirer of Ibn Arabi, when he writes
about him: The greatest scandal in the eyes of those who condemn the
Shaykh is his book Fuss al-Hikam. They do so either because they simply
follow established opinions without trying to understand, out of som sort of
bigotry, or because of their ignorance of his technical vocabulary, or simply
because of the difficulty of his ideas. As a matter of fact, the truths and
mystical insights which are contained in his works, particularly in his Fuss
al-Hikam and al-Futht al-Makkya, are nt found in any other book and have
nt been exprssed by any of the sufis before him. 1
It is nt very surprising, one inight say, that Ibn cArabi should have
been condemned as a heretic by exoteric theologians like Simnns contem-
porary Ibn Taymiya, who radically opposed any sort of esoterism, distin-
guished unconditionally between the Creator and the creature and found
the only possible approach fr the latter to the former to be pure worship.
Bt what shall we say if such opposition to and even condemnation of Ibn
cArab comes from the side of someone who was himself, as everybody agreed,
a great mystic? Does it nt mean that while criticizing Ibn c Arabis wahdat
al-wujd or unity of being, Simnni was in fact attacking the very basis of
his own mystic endeavours, fr, we may ask, whether A is possible to conceive
of any mysticism at all without assuming ihe perception or realization of
som kind of Unity in Being, including what theologians call Creator and
creature or God and world? Or does it perhaps mean that Simnni had an
alternative solution to offer to the problem of mystical Union ? In other
words, was he one of those bigoted people, to use Jmi s term, who sacri-
ficed a deeper understanding of Truth fr the sake of conforming to the es-
tablished religion, or was he quite to the conirary a rel nonconformist,
whose negative attitd toward Ibn cArabis doctrine, which at his time had
become already something like an established truth among sufis, reveals only
the personal experience of a Creative mind which happened to be different?
There are, of course, no ready- made answers to questions of such a basic
natr. Bt we may at least get a somewhat clearer picture of the problem
itself by studying Simnnis approach to mysticism through his own writings.
Before trying to do so, however, let me first say a few words about his
personality and his background.
As a matter of fact, many aspects of Simnns doctrine have their coun-
terpart in his life, and his life story is a rather extraordinary one. He was
the sn of a well-known aristocratic family of Simnn. His father and two
94 HERMN LANDOLT
SIMNNI ON WAHDAT AL-WUJOD 95
of his uncles being high-ranking officials under the Mongol lkhn Arghn,
it was quite norml fr c A l uddawla himself to enter the service of this
lkhn, which he did at the age of fifteen. He continued in his service
fr twelve years; and it was during this time, that he first came int
contact with mysticism, that is to say, with a particular form of Buddhist
mysticism, fr he used to have frequent discussions with Arghn s Buddhist
court-priests Simnni frankly admits that their spiritual achievements and
mystical powers made a great impression upon him. Bt at the same time
he became more and more convinced, he says, that they could nt possibly
reach the ultimate goal of mysticism - nt because their methods were
somehow deficient or inefficient, bt essentially because the ultimate goal
of mysticism presupposed as its basis the ultimate religion, that is to say,
Islam. Fr us, the interesting point here is that he gained this conviction
through visionary experiences, which were so overwhelming that he 1inally
left the world of Arghn and went to search contact with the sufis.
It may very well be, as has been suggested by MOLE 2, that his later
negative attitd towards Ibn Arab has something to do with this
period of his life, as there is evidence pointing to the fact that he sensed some
thing of a common natr in the Buddhist doctrines which he knew
and wahdat al-wujd. In any case, we can say at this stage that his fervent
adherence to Islam and subsequent critical attitd towards everything
he consdered to be non-islamic or heretical was born out of som kind of
inner drive, since most probably it would have been much easier fr him
to remain in the camp of Arghn.
Furthermore, Simnni rejected nt only Buddhism, bt Christianity as
well, since it represented fr him the danger of hull or incarnationism. Bt
here again, his critique was far above the level of ordinary polemics, be
cause essentially, Christianity or hull meant fr him one particular stage
of mystical experience in which the mystic identifies himself with the divine.
According to Simnns very original doctrine of the Seven prophets of
your being, which has been analyzed in all of its depths by Professor Hen
ry CORBIN the mystic should nt loosc himself in this stage of identi-
fication, which corresponds to the Jesus of your being ; rather, he should
complete the process of his mystical growing - up by passing through that
stage to the higher stage of the Mohaminad of your being , in which
he becomes a pui'e Mirror of divinity. One might equally suggest that Sim-
nnis criticism of Ibn cArabis wahdat al-wujd has something to do with
this; particularly so, because in his answer to a letter written to him
by Abdurrazzq-i Kshni, who tried to show that wahdat al-wujd was the
ultimate stage of mystical achievement, Simnni similarly does nt cntirely
deny the values of wahdat al-wujd, bt says that it is a stage through which
the mystic should pass in order to reach a higher level o truth and cer-
titude, he himself claiming to have passed through this stage and reached
an ultimate end of unity ( iawhid), in which even the image of the Mirror
was completely abolished. We shall elaborate this point a littlc later.
O f course, to criticize an objectively formulated system o thought on
the basis of personal experience is a rather subjective way of examining facts,
we might say; bt this is precisely what Simnni nt only did in cri-
ticizing Ibn Arabs wahdat al-wujd, bt was proud of doing, as he fiankly
admits in the letter I have just been referring to. Kshni had expressed to
him his astonishment about certain points in al-cUrwa, that is to say Simnn s
systematic work on sufi theology, where he als formulates his critique of
Ibn Arabi, as we shall see later, by teliing him that anyone having som
familiarity with logic could nt possibly accept them. Simnns reply to this
objection was a rather short one. Instead of arguing with Kshni he simp
ly stated that he did nt care about logic as long as he had the certi-
tude that his ideas were in agreement with reality or factual truth and that
the sul was at peace. By reality or factual truth ( wqic ), Simnni
most probably means in the first piac the SharVat or exoteric truth of Islam;
bt it is quite clear from the context and als from his use of the term
wqi1fr real or factual, that he als means to say that his views
arc in perfcct agreement with his mystical experience, because wqi1is
closely related to wqi1a, litterally cvent or happening , which in
96 HERMN LANDOLT
Simnni s mystical school is a technical term fr mystical experience
and more particularly visionary experience.
We already have seen that the main motive fr the young Simnni to
leave the service of the Buddhist lkhn Arghn had been visionary expe-
riences. Accoiding to his autobiographical writings, experiences of a similar
natr made him desire to jin one particular sufi order which was famous
fr cultivating such experiences, the Kubrawiya, an order founded around
600/1200 by Najmuddin-i Kubr of Khwrazm. The Kubrawiya order
always had a markedly Iranian character; it is, by the way, still in existence in
present-day Irn under the name of Dhahabya, bt it has, of course, changed
more than its name since the days of its founder and his followers in pre-
Safawi Irn.
After several attempts to jin this order, Simnni finally found his tea-
cher m the person of Nruddin-i Isfaryini, an Iranian sufi who lived and
taught in the city of Baghdad, where he died in 717 / 1317. Isfaryini was
precisely the kind of spiritual director Simnni had been looking fr; fr he
was a celebrated master in the art of interpretation of dreams and visions,
that is to say in that sort of mystical psychoanalysis which was the kubrawi
method of spiritual guidance. As fr mystical speculations about the unity
of being, Isfaryini showed a rather reticent and even sceptical attitd,
to the extent that, according to Simnni, he forbade som of his disciples
to read Ibn ' A r a b s Fuss al-Hikam; and this is , of course, one more fac-
tor to be taken int consideration when one is trying to understand Sim
nnis own attitd.
Bt what in particular, among many things, attracted Simnni to the
Kubrawiya order was the figure of one of the disciples of Kubr, Majduddn-i
Baghddi ( from Baghddak, a vilig in Khwrazm) , who is known fr
having met the famous mystical poet Farduddin-i 'Attr. Baghddi died in
616/1219, that is to say two years before Kubr, and 43 years before Sim
nni was born. Simnni therefore could nt have met him in this world ,
of course. When he once was asked why he had nt chosen to follow B-
yazd-i Bistmi the celebrated sufi of the 3rd/9th century, on the mystical
path, he gave the follow ing account of a vision of Baghddis light: Once,
SIMNNI ON WAHDAT AL-WUJCD 9 7
98
HERMN LANDOLT
at a time when he was preparing himself fr ritual prayer, he saw that
the wall showing the direction to Mecca opened itself, and at its piac there
appeared a large piain, a sky and a star shining like Jupiter. Wondermg
what this could be, he learnt ( somehow during the vision) that it was the
light of Byazid. Then the scenery changed, and he saw another sky, which
was full of light this time, shining like the sn. He learnt the same way
that this was the light of Majduddn-i Baghdd.
In whatever way we may like to interpret this kind of relationship bet
ween two masters, it was in any case extremely important fr Simnni, and
there is definite evidence as to the influence of Baghddis mystical doctri-
nes upon Simnni. In his Arabic work, Tuhfat al-Barara f Vl-Ma sa il al- Ashara,
Baghdd develops Kubr s introspective psychology in such a way as to
anticipate in essence that important point about incarnationism or hull
in Simnnis doctrine, which most probably was one of the reasons fr
Simnni is criticism ot Ibn Arabi s wahdat al-wujd. Now in Baghddi s case,
this could nt very well have been directed against Ibn c Arabi, fr the
simple reason that Ibn cArabis most un - orthodox and famous Fuss al-
Hikam was written in 627 h. or eleven years after Baghddis death, and there
is no reason to think that Ibn Arabi s fame had reached Khwrazm while
Baghdd was alive. In fact, his doctrine clearly has its piac in that typi-
cally kubrawi field of , i f we may again use the term, mystical psychoanal-
ysis, which in itself is entirely indifferent to theological or philosophical
questions. The kubrawi method of spiritual guidance means to lead the dis-
ciple or patient through a scale of visions of different lights up to a
point where he finds guidance in himself and is no more subject to the
danger of confusion between appearance and reality, that is to say between
certain illuminations which the beginner is likely to mistake fr ultimate
truth, and the divine light. Now in the case of Simnni, i f his critique of
Ibn Arab s doctrine of the unity of being is based, as I have suggested,
upon his insistence on the necessity fr the mystic to pass beyond the stage
of identification in mystical experience, that is to say upon his elaboration
of the kubrawi tradition of spiritual guidance which existed quite indepen-
dently from Ibn Arabi s world, this means, I think, that he applied one
system of mystical thought upon another one, fr which it was hardly re-
levant. In other words: he eiiher quite subjectively interpreted I b n Arabis
doctrine of wahdat al-wujd to mean precisely that kind of identification of
appearance and reality which the kubrawi tradition of spiritual guidance
sought to avoid, as we just have seen, or he at least feared that unexperien-
ced disciples could interpret Ibn Arabi that way. In any case, it means
that Simnni s negative attitd over against Ibn Arabi should nt be seen
so much simply as the reaction of a shart a-minded theologian to the daring
propositions o f a haqiqat- minded mystic and philosopher; rather, we should
try to understand his sometimes bittr reactions to wahdat al-wujd in terms
of thejpystical tradition^ to which he belonged, and which spoke, as it were,
another language than that of Ibn Arabi. Most probably, the same mystical
tradition was the background of what later in India Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi
opposed as wahdat al-shuhvd to Ibn Arabis wahdat al-wujd.
To keep all of this background in mind seems indeed necessary when
one is confronted with som of the formulations that Simnni used against
Ibn Arabi, fr they might easily mislead us int seeing them as just another
reaction of conventional theology against any mystical approach. I am re-
ferring n particular to his reaction to this admittedly equivocal praise of
the divme Being in I b n Arabis Futht al-AIakkiya: Praise be to the One
who made things appear and who at the same time is the things! (Sub-
hna mari azhara al-ashytf wa-huwa aynuh !), which Simnni commented up
on by wriing the following int the margin of his own copy of the Fu
tht - a copy which, incidentally, seems to be lost unfortunately, bt which
was still extant in Jmis and even Mull Sadrs time - : O Shaykh! I f
you heard someone saying that the excrement of the Shaykh is identical
with the existence of the shaykh, you certainly would nt accept this from
him; no, you would be angry. How, then, is it possible fr a reasonable
bemg to apply such nonsense to God, the King and Judge? Return to God
by sincere rcpentance, so that you may get out of this dangerous intricacy, fr
SIMNNI ON WAHDAT AL-WUJCD 99
100
HERMN LANDOLT
which even the materialists, the naturalists, the Greeks ( i.e. the philo-
sophers) and the Buddhists have only disdain! Peace upon those who followr
the Right Guidance. Obviously Simnnis sul must have been very trou-
bled when he read that phrase of Ibn Arabis, to be able to react with such
an outburst of disdain and to compare Ibn Arabs unity of being with
such a crude image. Bt let us now see what unity of being really
meant fr Ibn Arabi and his followers, and then, let us see whether Sim
nni really had to offer a different solution on a higher level of argumen-
tation.
First of all, I must mention the fact that the expression wahdat al-wu-
j d or unity of being, which has commonly been used fr centuries to desig-
nate the essential point of Ibn Arabis doctrine, does nt seem to occur
yet in Ibn Arabs own writings. The Central point of his doctrine, accor-
ding to Abdurrazzq-i Kshni, the great commentator whose controversy
with Simnni we mentioned, before, is the fact that Ibn Arabi identified
God with Absolute Being or Absolute Existence {wujd mutlaq).~Eui-
ther one accepts this identification of God and Absolute Being, or he
does nt accept it; there is no intermediate solution, says Kshni. It is
this essential point which Simnni tried to refute and to replace by his own
mystical philosophy, as we shall see.
The identification of God with Absolute Being has a definite
piac in Ibn Arabis world-view. God qua Absolute Being is the first of the
three metaphysical categories, which Ibn Arabi distinguishes as comprehen-
ding everything that cxists in his philosophical treatise Kitb Insha al-Dawd ir.
He there explicitly idem ifies this Absolute Being, which exists through itself
and through which everything else exists, with Allah the Creator, wliom no
thing equals. The second metaphysical category is, as it were, the opposite
of the first; that is to say, it is limited Being ( wujd muqayyad). Ibn
Arabi identifies it with the material Universe and everything it contains. It
is limited Being, because, having no existence in itself, it exists through
the Absolute. Its being created means precisely the same thing as its being
limited or non-absolute, that is to say its essential dependence as an
SIMNNI ON WAHDAT AL-WUJOD I O I
existent upon the Absolute; it does nt involve any temporal anteriority of
the Creator. More interesting from the mystical point of view, and als more
difficult to understand, is the third metaphysical category. It is this catego-
ry about which Ibn Arabi says more than about anything else. He intro-
duces it by saying that it is neither non-being nor being. On the one hand,
it is eternally joined to the first category, or the Absolute, on the other hand
it is als related to the third category, or the World, being the principle
of its manifestation. It is, thus, som sort of intermediary between the first
and the second category, or the essence of all essences or idea of all
ideas ( haqqat al-haqa iq), which may be said to be both God and
the \Vorld or neither God nor the World, bt a third entity, that
which comprehends everything. This category, as is easy to see and has
in fact been established, has many aspects in common with that mysterious
entity which was know in Greek as Logos, and one may therefore call Ibn
Arabs system a logocentric philosophy; fr the basis of any unity of
being or wahdat al-wujd in Ibn Arabis system is precisely the idea which
constitutes the third category. As a matter of fact, that equivocal phrase in
al-Futht al-Makkya which, as we have seen, had drawn Simnni s wrath
upon Ibn Arabi, Praise be to the One who made the things appcar and
who at the same time is the things! must be seen in the same context ,
because it has its piac in a chapter on the Breath of the Compassionate
one ( Nafas al-Rahmn), which is one among many others of Ibn Arabi s
expressions fr the third category. The image lying behind this term JVafas
al-Rahmn is that the things of the World take shape in the Breath of the
Creator who expresses himself through this Breath in the same way that
spoken words ( or logoi) take shape and exist in the breath of the speaker
who expresses himself.
The great problem of this logocentric philosophy or theosophy is, of
course,' the relationship between the three categories, and in particular, the
relationship between the first and the third category, since both, being dif
ferent from the second category or the limited being of the world, are
I O2
HERMN LANDOLT
in som sense absolute. It was this problem which obviously bothered Sim
nni, bt it was als a problem fr generations of Ibn Arabis followers,
because Ibn Arabi himself did nt answer it in clear philosophical lan-
guage bt rather as the great mystic he was. The fundamental idea con-
taining his answer to that question is the idea of theophany or tajalli, which,
as Professor CORBIN 4rightly points out, never should be confused with the
Christian dogma of incarnation of the divine in a concrete, i.e. historically
and geographically limited being. It is based on a sufi tradition accor-
ding to which the prophet Dvid asked his lord: Why did you create the
creatures?, upon which God answered: I was a hidden treasure. I wanted
to be known; thus I created in order to be known . Theophany or di
vine manifestation, then, connotes at the same time the divine act of crea-
tion and the humn act of pntration int that divine activity, or gnosis ,
mystical experience. Both creation and mystical experience are therefore equally
based on that ultimate mythical Image of the divine Vision of Gods
Self or, as we als might say and Ibn Arabi emphasizes at the very
beginning of his Fuss al-Hikam, Gods Vision of the Selves ( or essences,
or archetypes) of his Names. That is to say, there is from the very Begin-
ning, as it were , som kind of intra-divine duality in the Absolute, which,
no doubt, corresponds to that of the first and the third category.
Although the act of theophany is essentially one, Ibn Arabi distinguishes
in it two levels. The visible theophany, tajalli shuhdi, which is divine
manifestation in this present world ( shahda) and in mystical experience
( shuhd), presupposes in the first piac the event of an unvisible or hidden
manifestation ( tajalli ghaybi), that is to say a manifestation taking piaci n
the Unseen (ghayb), which Ibn Arabi als calls theophany of the Essence
(tajalli dhti). This distinction between two levels of theophany corresponds
to the classical sufi-neoplatonic distinction between the spiritual and the
material world, lam al-ghayb and lam al- shahda, which terminology is ta-
ken from the Quranic designation of God as the One who knows both the
Unseen and the Visible (jlim al-ghayb wadl-shahda). Bt fr I b n Arabi the
important point is here that the two levels of theophany which he distin
guishes from a logical point of view are nt different in terms of reality ,
SIMNNI ON WAHDAT AL-WUJD
103
because there cannot be more than One Reality; and this is why, incidentally,
wahdat al-wujd in Ibn Arabs sense is something other than pure and
simple neoplatonism. In reality, according to Ibn Arabi, theophany in visi
ble forms is essential or hidden theophany; fr the divine Essence, just
because it is essentially hidden and absolute, has no other means to show
itself than in the very form of the one to whom it shows itself ( al-mu-
tajall lahu). In other words: because the divine Essence has no form in its
absolute oneness ( ahadiya) and therefore can never appear as such, its form
is identical with the forms ofthe things. All this amounts finally to the per-
haps shocking paradox, that - and I am quoting Ibn Arabi - the really
divine Being ( al-Haqq) is limited through all limits5, because to isolate
the Absolute from the Limited means precisely to limit the Absolute.
There can be little doubt that this paradoxical Absolute which is limited
by all limits is nt in the same way absolute as the first metaphysical ca
tegory, since Ibn Arabi defines the latter, as the absolute Existence which
is nt limited ( al-wujd al-mutlaq alladhi I yataqayyadu). Rather, its abso-
luteness is the same as that of the third category or the haqqa ( Logos )
which is all-inclusive, as we have pointed out.
This double-valued notion of Absolute in Ibn Arabs thought, as
we now can understand, called fr further clarification; and this is exactly
what the commentators tried to do, first Sadruddin-i Qpnyawi and then,
following him , particularly Abdurrazzq-i Kshni ( Simnnis great op-
ponent), by introducing a notion of absolute which originates in the
thought of Ibn Sn ( Avicenna). I am referring to one of the three
aspects of quiddity ( mhya) which was technically known in later philoso
phy as absolutely unconditioned or I bi-shart shay\ A quiddity like ani-
mal fr example is absolutely unconditioned or I bi-shart if it is con-
sidered as being possible to be predicated equally of any particular species,
or as undetermined. This absolutely unconditioned aspect of the quiddity
is the common denominator of its two other aspects, that is to say the as
pects of negative and of positive condition. It is negatively conditioned
HERMN LANDOLT
or conditioned by nothing ( bi-shart I), i f it is considered as being im-
possible to be mixed with anything else, or being exclusively itself, in which
case it cannot be predicated of anything else ; and it is positively con
ditioned or conditioned by something (bi-shart shayj, i f it is con
sidered as being determined by mixture with one particular other quid-
dity, as fr example animal is positively conditioned as mn , if
it is mixed with rational. Now, i f it is possible to apply this tliree-
fold distinction on existence rather than on quiddity - and this is exactly
what Ibn Arab's commentators did - it is easy to see that it must have some
thing to do with Ibn Arabi s three metaphysical categories; and it would seem
that the irst of his categories, which was absolute existence qua non-limited,
best corresponds to the negatively conditioned ( bi-shart I), whereas the
second category, or the limited existence of course is conditioned by
something ( bi-shart shay ), while the third category, which was that para-
doxical and mystcrious Reality which is absolute qua limited by all hmits,
no doubt has something in common with the absolutely unconditioned
aspect of quiddity ( I bi-shart), under which, as we have said, the quid
dity is possible to be predicated equally of more than one thmg. Bt Qon-
yawi and Kshni identified the notion of existence (wujd) itself with this
absolutely unconditioned aspect of I bi-shart, that is to say existence
as such, as being neither conditioned by determination ( ta ayyun) nor by
non-determination ( l-taayyun ). By doing so, they brought something new
int the picture, because it is now existence itself which plays the role of
Ibn cArab s third category or haqqa as an absolutely unconditioned
reality. One might say that it is here fr the first time that the famous
term wahdat al-wujd (unity of being) applies in its most strict sense. As
a matter of fact, according to Kshnis Dictionary o f the Technical Terms o f
the Sufis ( Istilht al-Sfy), nt only is the divine Essence identical with
Existence as such, bt the absolutely unconditioned Oneness of Existence,
which he calls wahda, is als the origin ( manshaj of both the nega
tively conditioned or exclusive aspect of divine Unity ( ahadiya as mea
ning bi-shart I) and the positively conditioned or inclusive aspect of
divine Unity ( whidiya as meaning bi-shart sh a f ) , that is to say of both the
exclusive Unity of the divine Essence considered in its stage before
creation, as it were ( kna Allh wa-lam yakun ma ahu shaf) and of the in-
clusive Unity of the Essence considered together with its Names or after
creation, as it were. True, from the logical point of view, the exclusive uni
ty of the essence precedes all names just as the stage before creation pre-
cedes the stage after creation, bt from the point of view of Existence, which
means Reality, there is no such difference between before and after, because
the Oneness of Existence in its absolutely unconditioned suchness compre-
hends both. We can draw the same conclusion from Kshnis commentary
to the Quranic Sira 112 (Sarat al-Ikhls), that is to say from the Tafsir com-
monly known as the Tafsir o f Ibn Arabi, bt which in reality is Kshni s.
One might venture to say that by applying the philosophical notion of
absolutely unconditioned ( I bi-shart ) on pure Existence, the commen-
tators may have wanted to preclude any interpretation of Ibn Arabs divine
Being as a merely abstract universal which cannot possibly have any concrete
existence. Bt on the other hand, since the absolutely unconditioned
aspect of the quiddity ( l-bi-shart) was usually identified by the philoso
phers with Ibn Sins natural universal ( kulli tab ) , it became rather
difficult this way to sav the transcendence of the divine Being. Mull Sadr,
well aware of this problem, therefore had to emphasize that the compre-
hensiveness of absolutely unconditioned Existence was other than the
relationshitp of he natural universal to its particulars; and, fr an explana-
tion of this otherness, he only could refer back to Ibn Arab s mys
tical notion of the Breath of the Gompassionate ( Nafas al-Rahmn) and
its comprehensiveness.
Corning now finally to Simnns basic thought, 1 think we can under
stand his opposition to any sort of identification of God with any Absolute
Being, whether I bi-shart or bi-shart I - a distinction, by the way, which
he does nt seem to make - out of his basic conviction that divine trans
cendence must be saved at any price. Nevertheless he tries to combine this
SIMNNI ON WAHDAT AL-WUJD i o 5
HERMN LANDOLT
conviction with a world-view based, like that of Ibn Arabi, on the idea of
theophany.
Simnni s conception of theophany is based on a fourfold structure of
existence, which recurs all over in his writings. This fourfold structure has
two aspects, depending on whether theophany means self-manifestation of the
divine being, considered as a cosmic process of creation or existentiation (jad),
or as an individual process on the part of the humn being, in which lat-
ter case it means mystical experience. On this level of mystical experience
the four stages of theophany are, starting from below: i . the theophany in
visible forms ( tajalli sr ) , h y which Simnni means in particular visionary
experiences of humn forms; 2. the theophany of light ( nr); 3. the theo
phany of the idea ( ma;n) and 4., the highest one, the theophany of ((mys
tical taste ( dhawq), which has this name because it cannot be described
at all. All four theophanies, even the lowest one, are rel theophanies in
their own right according to Simnni; that is to say, they do show the di
vine, bt at the same time, Simnni insists, it would be a mistake to con-
fuse that which shows itself with the form under which it appears. The
higher the level of theophany, the more it is removed from the world of
forms and figures, until finally, in the theophany of taste, there remains
no trace of any image at all. Obviously, this aspect of the fourfold theo
phany is another expression of Simnnis theory of the Seven prophets of
your being of which we spoke before and which connotes the idea of a
process of mystical growing up. And i f we suggested there that this idea
could have something to do with his critique of Ibn Arabs wahdat al-wujd,
we must now repeat that in this case his critique was hardly pointed toward
the right address.
As to the other aspect of theophany, theophany as cosmic self-manifes
tation of the divine being or existentiation, its four stages are based on the
distinction between four grammatical levels related to the divine being :
Essence or Subject ( dht), Attributes ( sijt), Acts ( a f l) and Effects or
Traces ( thr). Everything to which the name existence ( wujd)
may be applied, says Simnni, belongs to one of those four categories, be
cause there is nothing existent outside of them; and he even justifies with
this the famous saying Laysa jVI-wujd siwa llh, there is nothing bt God
in Existence, which he attributes to Junayd, the celebrated sufiof Baghdad.
Simnnis favorit image fr the four levels of being is the example of
what happens when someone is writing. There is, in the first piac, the per-
son of the writer, ( shakhsuka l-whid), which corresponds to the Essence. Se-
condly, there is the attribute writerness (al-ktibiya) and the Name wri-
ter ( al-ktib) ; thirdly, there is the act of writing ( al-kitba); and fourth-
ly, there is the Trace or effect of this act, which is the written ( al-mak-
tb).
Although all four levels participate, as we have seen, in one existence
and are therefore in som sense identical with each other, as Simnni ad-
mits, there als is an important difference between all of them. The per-
son precedes its writerness, the writerness precedes its act of writing, and
the act precedes its trace, which means fr Simnni that the direct cause
of the written trace can only be the act of writing, nt the writer or even his
writerness. In other words, the writer is separated from, as well as linked
to, his written trace by his act of writing. The same emphasis on the dif
ference between subject and object reappears even on the higher level of
the attributes, where Simnni retains the theological distinction between at
tributes of essence and attributes of activity, i.e. attributes necessary to the
essence, as fr example Life, and attributes referring to a Creative act, fr
example Lifegiving. Thus, theophany ultimately still depends on an act
of divine will, fr - and I am quoting - : The one who is qualified by
attributes of essence has als attributes of act, whenever he wants to mani
fest himself through them ( idh arda an yat aj ll bih), in order fr the acts
to come forth out of them and fr the traces, which are caused by the
latter, to appear, so that He himself may be known through the theophany7.
However, when it comes to existence, the difference between attributes
of essence and attributes of act seems to be obliterated, and this is perhaps
SIMNNI ON WAHDAT AL-WUJCD i o 7
significant. On the level of the Attribute, Existence is of course an
attribute of essence, since it is necessary to the Essence and coeternal with
it. As such, it is the existence of the One whose existence is necessary (al-
wjib wujduhu), which Simnni calls rel existence ( al-wujd al-haqq) .On
the level of the Act, however, it naturally is preceded by an attribute of act,
to which the corresponding Name is the Existentiator ( al-mjid).
Now, the Act of this Existentiator, which is the act of giving existence
( f i ' l al-jd ), is precisely what Simnni calls Absolute Existence ( al -
wujd al-mutlaq). Therefore, absolute existence according to Simnni is
nt a substantially existing entity at all, since it is the act of existentiation
itself , the missing link as it were, between the Subject of theophany
and its Object. On the level of the Trace, finally, there is neither necessary
nor absolute existence, bt only limited existence, that is to say limited
by its ontological status of causedness and contingency (muqayyad bVl-imkn).
It is clear that in such a view it is impossible to identify absolute
existence with the divine Essence, since it is separated from it by the at
tribute of Rel Existence. Simnni even refuses simply to identify the lat-
ter with the Essence, because, being an attribute, it is preceded by the Es
sence like any other attribute, and does nt subsist by itself. On the other
hand, he admits that existence is nt like any other attribute of the Essence,
bt rather constitutes a special case, since - and I am quoting - because of
its singularity and its closeness to the Essence, the attribute existence
has no other c name than the name c the essence , just like the attribute
Light has only itself as a name, fr Light is the fulfillment of theophany
( karnl al-zuhr), and Existence is the principle of theophany (mabda al-zuhr)^.
One of the questions raised abovc was the problem of whether
Simnns opposition to Ibn Arabi and his school should be considered
as being the expression of an independent approach to mysticism or
as a simple misunderstanding of wahdat al-wujd. Most probably, I now should
say, both answers are correct in a sense. I do think, as I have already said,
xo8 HERMN LANDOLT
that there was misunderstanding on the part of Simnni, when he seerned
to take wahdat al-wujd to mean pure and simple identification of the divine
Essence with particular forms of its manifestation. Bt I do nt think that
the difference of his thought, as we have tried to outline it on the hasis of
his main work al-cUrwa li-Ahl al-Khalwa, could be simply explained away by
calling it merely a difference of vocabulary. It is understandable enough that
many sufis who were followers of Ibn Arabi tried to solve the problem
that way; bt it is rather difficult to accept fr example the solution pro-
posed by a contemporary of Jrni, according to whom Simnni had only
confused the two aspects of the Absolute which were distinguished in Ibn
Arabis school and therefore did nt really oppose Ibn Arabi 9. Rather, I
would guess that Simnni really tried to work out a different approach which
was based on the notion of Act rather than on that of Existence, that is
to say on a dynamic entity rather than on a static one; and it would be
mainly fr this reason, then, that he could nt fully appreciate Ibn Arabi
and particularly his followers who really brought the notion of Existence
int the foreground. At the same time, this interpretation would give us
a clue fr an understanding of the links between Simnns philosophy and
his psychology; fr it may be that it was the same dynamism which made
him conceive of mystical experience as a process of becoming that called fr
the notion of Act as the central notion in his philosophical system.
It is rather interesting to note - this as a final, marginal remark that
Simnnis philosophy of the Act seems to reappcar in the igth century in
another critique of wahdat al-wujd, I mean Shaykh Ahmad-i Ahs s critical
commentary to Mull Sadrs Kitb al-AIah Hr io. Again, Ahsi s critique seems
to be based essentially on the same notion of f i / or Act. I do nt know
yet whether Ahs had read or otherwise known Simnn s work; bt both
seem to represent a common trend of thought which is positively incompa-
tible with wahdat al-wujd in a strict sense; and both, in turn, were criti-
SIMNNI ON WAHDAT AL-WUJOD I o 9
cized by the majority fr nt having really understood what Ibn Arabi or
Mull Sadr wanted to say.*
I I O HERMN LANDOLT
(*) Fr a more detailed study of the same subject, including a Germn translation
of the correspondence between Kshni and Simnni,. see : Dr Briefwechsel zwischen Ksh
ni und Simnni ber wahdal al-wujd, to appear in: Dr Islam 56 C W J l ) , i A - 81
Footnotes
1) Jrni, jYafakt al-Uns ed. TAWHI DI PUR, Tehran 1337 h.sh., p. 547!.
2) M .M O L E , es Kubrawiya erre Sunmsme et S h isme aux hwtieme et neuvrne siecles de
l'hgve, :n: Revue des Etudes Islamiques X X I X , Paris 1961, pp. 61 - 142, esp. p. 81 f.
3") H. C ORBIN, Uintrwrisation du sens enhermneutique soufie nanienne, in Eranos-Jahr-
buch X X V I Zrich 1958, pp. 57-168, esp.p. 144
4) H. CORBIN, imagination cratrice dans le soufisme d Ibn Arabi. Paris 1958.
5) Fuss al-Hikam ed. A.E. A F I F I Caim 1345/1946, p. 68.
6) Ibid. p. n i . Cf. Abdal-Razzq al-Qshni ( = Abdurrazzq-i Kshni), Sharh
al Fuss al-Hikam, Cairo 1321 h.q., p. 131: To consider something as absolute means
to limit it by absoluteness or to limit it negatively ( bi-ma n l-shay ma ahu), whereas the
really divine Being ( al-haqq) is idn cal with al-Haqiqa itself, i. e. it is absolutely un -
conditioned ( I bi-shart shay ), so that it allnwes of both limitation and non-limitation.
Fr this important notion, see below.
7) al- Urwa li-Ahl al-Khalwa, ms. A s cad Eflendi 1583, fl. 8b.
8) Al- Urwa ( op. cit.) fl 8a.
9) Jrni, Nafaht ( op. cit.) p. 533
10) Extracts in H . C O R B I N s French annotations to his edition of Mull Sadr Shi-
rzi, e icre des pnlrations mtaphysiques ( Kitb al-Mash'ir), Bibliothque Iranienne vol. 10,
Thran-T aris 1964.
Errata
3,17 Monteal
: Montreal
10,31 Aymen
: men
15, 8 irnin de vingt-cinq
: irnin.
17,21 oeuves : oeuvres
19,16 hermmeutique
: hermneutique
20,31 Autremont : Autrement
37 GHEZ : GHEZ
38 H E O R Y : HENRY
42,21 problem : problems
47,16 Says : says
49,16 subsitent : subsistent
50, 1 subjct : subject
51,30 origial : original
56,30 hesees he : he sees
58,26 see except : see any thing except
59,10 recurr : recur
60,20 Transcedent : Transcendent
60,21 essenially : essentially
60,26 the lafnuity : the
64, 5 consiousness
: consciousness
64,18 Vedanta that
: Vedanta, that
69, 4
On
: In
69,24 you this : you in this
80, 1
likewisc : likewise
82,28 deviding : dividing
Errata
114
89,25 spherc : sphere
91
WAHDAT : WAHDAT
94, 96; 98 ff. HERMN : HERMANN
94, 5 exprssed : expressed
95., 7 court-priests : court-priests.
95,28 essentially, : essentially
95,32 loose : lose
96,31 litterally : literally
98,15 Simnni is criticism ot : Simnns criticism of
100,15 mentioned, : mentioned
101,14 know : known
101,22 one : One
102, 9 lord : Lord
102,24 unvisible invisible
105,23 he : the
108,26 abovc : above
109,25 MahHr : Mash ir
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4 GENERAL SPACE EDUCATION
A UNIVERSITY EDUCATION AND THE SPACE AGE
Science and technology are the fastest growing activities throughout
the world of today and the univeisities ought to be considered as the
prime source of new knowledge and the highly trained personnel, - so vitai
and essential elements to the advancement of modern aerospace techno
logy.
Som Basic Facts Deserve Attention
1 The aerospace technology complex taken from the preliminary and
theoretical or the mathematical stages to the more complicated develop-
ment and production phase could nt have been a success without scien-
tific background, initiatives and talents of knowledgeable academic staff
and university scientists with profound fundamental knowledge, experience
and technological resources, - without such assets no advancement could
be expected. Once again we are confronted by the well known dilemma
that science and scientists are unintentionally leading the scientific dcvel-
opment and technical projects of the world and in this respect they are
formulating, wliether willingly or otherwise, the destiny of future genera-
tions of mankind.
2 _ Knowledge, Experience and Information are the background and the
nervous system of the community complex called
(<University - Government - Industry
which governs, Controls and guides the most important development
186
projects and activities of the countries. In the pst few years only in USA
som 200 universities were involvd in the space projects absorbing som
tens of thousands of researchers on 1500 research projects.
3 Universities in the developed countries in such adventurous projects
as sending mn to Moon or Mars are rel partners to any humn achieve-
ment in the corresponding fields. Since the implications of such projects
are of utmost importance to the developing countries, - som description
and analyses of the role of universities might be useful.
4 I t c annot be denied that botli in the developed or in the developing
countries the most knowledgeable and talented sections of a community
are naturally concentrated in the academic centers and universities. Based
on this concept only large scientific projects should be carried out under
the guidance and leadership of university professors or senior research
staff. Universities are the technological backgrounds of the nations and
without this cooperation and collaboration very little can be achieved and
this has been proved in the recent successful space missions. While the
trainmg of graduate engineers and scientists in the new scientific fields of
technologies are the greatest responsibilities of the universities, the role of
the senior staff and professors in a consultant or advisory capacity to in-
dustry and governments, in particular to space research projects, cannot
be under estimated.
5 Science policies of the countries are usually designed, formulated,
processed and duly analyzed in Institutes of highei education. This has been
proved in NASA contracts with American Universities and Research
Laboratories and Organizations. It is the obligation of the universities to
meet the generl future research requiremcnts of the communities either
in personnel or project planning and based on such concepts all the
research facilities should be provided at graduate levels, particularly in
the field of aerospace technology.
6 University grants would facilitate the flexibility of the research pro
j e c t s , - a fact evideneed through NASA grants to space research problems,
while guaranteeing the full support and advisory capacity of the profes
sors in handling problems where new challenges are posed by space ex-
ploraon and research and the coherent intricated problems.
- l'he impact of modern space Sciences such as astronomy, astrophysics,
celestial mechanics, cosmology, cosmogony, radio astronomy, laser astro-
nomy, plasma physics, astrophysical plasma, astrodynamics, astro-thermo-
dynamics, astroelectronics, astrobotany, astrobiology, astrobacteriology, astro-
psychology, astrophobia, astrohypnology, astroprobabihty, astrotopology ,
space medicine, space hygiene, space chemistry, space law, space ecology,
space hypersonics, space ultrasonics, space metallurgy, space bionics, space
gerontology, magnetobiology etc. nowadays constituting the major educational
curricula of the universities, can bejudged by the number of papers, thesis
and articles constantly appearing in many countries, they represent a vivid
example of the world academic interest to the development of such Sciences
which will promote the generl cultural standards of community life in
the developed and the developing countries. It is of utmost importance to
visualize that the modern facilities fr data processing and computer tech
nology nowadays at the disposal of the corresponding researchers has in-
creased the efficiency of research results by factors of hundreds and the
competency of the researchers by factors of thousands.
8 It is of grcat interest to conccivc that the inspiration of the youth
in the developed countries to work on space programs in universities and
research institutes may be more crucial and decisive than in the devel
oping countries.
9) Space exploration and research, although at the moment very limited
to the developing countries and much on a smaller scale than the developed
countries, bt the driving element in the countries in the development
are the inspiration of the young generations to tackle the modern global
187
problems on a global scale and the coherent cunosity to find the unknowns
surrounding them.
10 It is practically impossible to effect successfully any space project 111
a developing country without basing it in major part within the frame-
work of the universities and scientific instilutes, although governments and
privt industries will be seriously leading the financial aspect of the pro
ject, bt the driving talents are the university professors and experts.
I f success is to be achieved,
Government-University-Industry Complex
must be vitally concerned with all aspect and particularly the managerial
phase of the programs and without the assistance of university leadership
very little can be achieved or expected.
B - INTERNATIONAL TRAINIIJG FACILITIES IN SPACE SCIENCES
i PROPOSALS BY SOM EXPERTS
Recent proposals submitted by several governments to the United
Nations Commission on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space indicates how
international cooperation might be of utmost value in training and du-
cation on space problems and space results which plays such an impor-
tant role in modern civilized communitics. After analyzing the situation
it has been found that the lack of sufficient trained personnel and experts
was probably the major factor preventmg many countries fiom starting
their own space programs or participating in such international projects.
There are als numerous opportunities fr the samller countries to cooperate
in space projects on a bilateral basis with any one of the space-powers in
which full scale international cooperation is decrned of utmost value.
The opportunities already available in various countries fr education
188
and training in subjects related to peaceful uses of outer space deserves
consideration.
Offers by the US and quite a number of European countries to pro-
\i de a limited number of free fellowships and training courses to applicants
from developing states recommended by UN is being welcomed.
It is admitted that each country has its own specific space educational
and training programs compatible with the community means and require-
ments. A\ hile it is nt possible to devise a unique or comprehensive pro
gram fr all, bt the necessary training courses could be systematically
analyzed and recommended.
2 ANALYSIS OF TRAINING POSSIBILITIES
1) Training courses to be offered at the graduate and post-graduate
levels in space sciences and the related technological developments.
2) Active participation in space science projects and research
3) Training in optical and radio tracking means and facilities.
4) Training in pay-load construction and testing.
5j Training in data processing and analysis.
6 ) Training in space application disciplines particularly in meteoro-
logy, navigation, earth resources, education, communication, cartography,
geodesy etc.
3 SOURCES OF TRAINING POSSIBILITIES
Nowadays through intemational cooperations many educational and
training courses and training programs are available on a bilateral or
multilateral, rginl and intemational basis, and a completo list of such
189
facilities and the curricula offered in different centers and in different coun
tries is available through UN Authorities.
Amongst the most important of such centers are the following:
1) The European Space Research Organization ESRO, offers educa-
tional programs which include scientific progiam fellowships fr experienced
researchers to work in European Space Institutes.
2) European University Student Fellowship fr post-graduate training
in the space disciplines, as well as summer schools in space Sciences and
technology and the special colloquia and symposia.
3) The US National Aeronautics and Space Administration programs
offer the following educational and research facilities:
a International University Graduate Courses on Space Sciences.
b Post-Doctoral Fellowhips on Space Sciences.
c Post Doctoral and Senior Post-Doctoral Resident Research Associates
d Fellowships and training in connection with NASA cooperative
projects with other countries.
4) Soviet Union and East European Programs including symposia ,
seminars and summer schools etc.
5) Space Science Center in Thumba Equatorial Rockt Launching Sta-
tion in India.
6 ) Latin American School on Space Science and Space Physics in
Bariloche, Argentina.
7) World Meteorological Organization facilities in which periodic work-
shops on meteorological satellites are organized.
8 ) Communication Satellites Techniques organized by the Interna -
tional Telecommunication Union.
190
191
c REGION AL TRAINING CENTERS IN SPACE SCIENCES
Rginl training centers liave been organized to offer such courses
which are of great importance to the developing countries with due notice
to their specific requirements.
Som of these facilities could be cited:
1 Ol particular interest is the newly founded Experimental Satellite
Communication Earth Station in Ahmad-Abad, India with the assistance
of the special fund of UN development program. The station promises to
fl the already existing gap by providing one of the most important needs
of the developing countries.
This station will provide practical training courses in operating and
maintaining ground stations and offers two distinct and different training
courses:
a A highly advanced course fr scientists and engineers dealing with
space communication systems.
b Training courses fr maintenance personnel which will cover all
aspects of instrumonration, the equipment and processing used in
communication satellite ground stations.
As a complementary program fr the two forementioned projects,
arrangements have been made with US fr the experimental stations to
carry on tests on the various experimental phases of the courses with satel-
lites launched by the US.
2) The Government of Poland has proposed an intemational training
scheme as the first step towards active intemational space collaborations.
Noting that a shortage of technical specialists was probably the most im
portant handicap. or the simple barrier fr som countries fr participa-
tion in space projects, this proposal has been met with the greatest in-
terst.
Considering the fact that regai dless of whether education and training
of this kind is carried out on a bilateral, rginl or international basis,
it appears that centers established fr this objective in the near future can
assist materially in assuring greater pai ticipation by the developing coun
tries which are already more or less active or will soon appear on the
horizon.
Reports from T E RL S ( Thumba ) and CELPA ( Mar de l Plate) on
training facilities provided reveal continued sponsorship of these ranges
of possibilities, - likewise reports indicate the availability of the San Marco
and Kourou ranges fr cooperative projects and training.
Som universities have organized departments of Space Sciences. The
impact of space exploration on educational curricula in secondary school
education, the complexity and pioneering natr of space efforts has de-
manded research and developments in nearly every engineering and scien
tific disciplines.
NASA Technology Utilization Program is the most active element
in the Technology Transfer.
This program being responsible to bring the technological developments
quickly to the attention of the people in industiies, governments and uni
versities. Space Age is providing the developing countries with means and
facilities to jump over several steps in the traditional ladder leading from
manual maci otechnologies to the automated micromethods.
In order to materialize such concepts, specialized techniques are to be
adopted and consequently new education and training in the various
disciplines are imperative.
This is of particular interest to the developing countries w'here they
suffer from shortage of personnel and expertized staff.
192
193
D SPECIAL INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES
Apart from the facilities available within the frame-work of national
space activities, intemational and rginl organizations als have programs
fr education and training in the fields of the peaceful uses of outer space
such as :
1 UNIT ED NATIONS
Facilities available at the United Nations sponsored Thumba Equa-
torial Rockt Launching Station ( TERLS ) in India.
2 I N T E R N A T I O N A L T E L E C O M M U N I C A T I O N UNION
a Organizes Seminars
b Prepares manuals on subjects of special interest to developing coun
tries.
c Provides fellowships and expert instructors through the United
Nations Development Program ( UNDP).
d Acts as the executing agency fr fifteen training centers, UNDP-
Special Fund Projects, - scattered throughout the world.
e Provides assistance in the provision of training facilities at the
experimental satellite earth station at Ahmed - Abad, India.
3 _ WORLD M E T E O R O L O G I C A L O RG A N IZ A TION
Organizes seminars on the interpretation and use of data obtained by
meteorological satellites.
4 UN I T E D NATIONS E DU CA TIONAL, SGIENTIFIC AND C U L T U R A L
ORGANIZATION
Undertakes a wide rang of activities concerned with the education
and training of scientists at all levels, including summer schools fr young
astronomers.
194
5 INT ERN AT IONAL A T O M I C ENERGY AGENCY
Provides training in fields of relevance to outer space research such
as nuclear physics, nuclear reactors, health physics and waste disposal.
6 EUROPEAN SPACE RESEARCH O R G A N I Z A T I O N
a Provides fellowships fr nationals of member States.
b Organizes scientific round-table conferences, summer schools and
colloquia.
7 INT ER - A M E R I CA N C O M M I T T E E FR SPACE RESEARCH
a Has concerned itself with exchange of infoimation, joint programs
of research, teaching and educational matters.
b Has organized a Latin-American School on Space Physics.
8 PRESENT F A C I L I T I E S ARE INADEQUATE
Available facilities are unfortunatelv rarely suited to the needs of the
developing countries.
Future training programs may therefore require to be undertaken under
the aegis of the United Nations through a committee or commission whose
task would consist primarily in :
a Go-ordinating the training facilities offered by the States leading
in the space efforts.
b Examining the present training needs and providing the necessary
expertized personnel in this domain, if requested.
c Supervising the training programs and suggesting new directions
of training, should the need arise.
d Organizing United Nations sponsored conferences, symposia and
training couises.
195
Publishing or organizing the publications of directories, bibliogra-
phies, abstracts and reviews related particularly to space training
(fellowships, courses, congresses, conferences, etc) .
Providing fellowships and travel grants.
E - S P A C E CONTRIBUTIGNS TO AGRICULTURAL REFORMS
1- THE C R I T E R I A T O APPLY MODERN SPACE SCIENCES
T O A G R I C U L T U R A L PROBLEMS.
The economic development of many countries depends primarily on
agricultural reforms, research and efficient use of natural resources. Natu-
rally such agricultural reforms and development projects involves planning,
designing and programming which necessitates collection of information,
interpretation and data processing and the most efficient utilization of
the results with due consideration to the basic requirements. Such programs
would be only effective, if proper administrative methods and procedures
are applied, such means and implements would be the earth resources
satellites family. In the field of agriculture there are quite a number of
specific applications which deserve consideration and only a brief discussion
of their merts presents cases of utmost interest.
A In mosoon areas such as countries in South-East Asia, the crop
yields are to a large extent dependent on the initial rainfall preceding the
monsoon period. This time-interval varies over several weeks in different
regions and the rainfall pattern occupies areas up to 20 square kilometers.
This rainfall is always characterized by a considerable surface temperature
decrease. Delineating such areas through mapping during the critical rain
fall period can substantially increase the reliability of crop yield predic-
tions and significantly improve crop conditions. Better yield predications
are expected in areas subjected to temperature rises up to 40 C several
da^s to a week after the corn tassels inhibit pollination. Dehncation of
such areas where tasseling occurs and recording temperatures in such areas
will provide better yield predictions.
Rcmotesensois in satellites could be used to detect crop infesta-
tions injuiies by insects and plnt diseases, effects of soil moisture, salinity,
chemical composition and soil textuie and ingredients, furthermore and
of vitai importance is the fact that the proper irrigation time could be
determined.
C Countries with excess or surplus food reserves and agricultural
products are constantly searching a bettei and a more efficient utilization
of such wealth resources. This could be achieved through finding a better
markt or transforming the agricultural products int new products that
could easily be consumed. On the contrary countries with deficiencies on
food supplies and agricultural products are als constantly searching means
and facilities fr more and better and efficient production. In both these
contradictory and rather extreme situations remote-sensors o bio-sensors
on satellites can greatly and tremendously accelerate the collection of data,
help processing and analyzing the results fr the required objectives which
would ultimately promote the national economy, driv far more efficient
and advantageous income from Capital uivestment and a still far more
material and psychological benefit to the deprived masses of population
and in urgent need fr even the most elementary necessities of life.
D In the more highly advanced productive agricultural nations, the
most important and main contribution of the earth resources satellites would
be a timely information on soil, water, meteorological elements and atmos-
pheric conditions which could be ultimately fed through the computers
fr perfect and accurate planning of the future projects. In such cases the
producers have to treat the problems mathematically and the statistical
data will guide them on their future plans and objectives.
197
198
Such computerized techniques will allow them to choose the best crop
yield conditions, the best ingredients of a balanced food-ration fr the
live-stock and animal husbandry, choice of certain artificial compounds
to yield better rich protein value milk and better protein value fr the
meat. The associated and really coherent benefits of such automated data
processing techniques could be used both fr the development plannings and
als equally well fr the resources management.
E Poor soil drainage has been always the greatest handicap and a
constant barrier fr a successful agricultural concern,. The case has prece-
dence in Argentia region called Pampas, where the soil drainage during a
greater part of the growing season is extremely poor and the drainage
properties of the area had never been studied before and never mapped
from the point of view of the practical agricultural requirements. Remote-
sensors on satellites can afford a significant contribution to map all the
standing waters immediately after a heavy rainfall and few days after.
Gomparison of the space-photographs and maps of the area immedi
ately after and then with a time interval of a few days would indicate where
the most serious drainage problem exists, such determinations can only be
made by the contributions of these remote sensors which assess the ground
porosity or otherwise and assist in mapping the areas where immediate
actions are required, such Solutions could nt be obtained otherwise.
2- A PPL IC ATI O N S OF BIO AND REMOTE
SENSOR SATELLITES
It is noteworthy to consider that the remote biosensor suiveys by such
satellites are capable of providing a gieat deal of information on a wide
spectrum in the fields of agriculture such as soil classification, crop condi-
tions, wild life, ichthyology, horticulture, animal husbandry, foiestry, etc.
Som of these results could be briefly expressed as follows:
A - SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND SOIL COMPOSITION
Biosensors can help us on the classification and categorization of the
various soils suitable or otherwise fr cultivation. This recognition is of
great economic importance and their qualitative and quantitative analysis
and understanding offers the highest priority in any agricultural concern.
Biosensors can help us to determine the chemical composition, metallic or
non-metallic constituents such as the percentage presence of the various
salts and base metl elements of Ca, K, P, Fe, Mn and Mg which are
the predominant factors in crop quality control.
B - SOIL CAPABILITIES AND CROP YIELDS
Biosensors can help us to determine the soil capabilities fr the various
crop yields depending on their chemical composition and contents,
texture and grains, the ability or capacity to retain humidity and water
contents and the degree to which evaporation could be allowed and even
with their temperature and the degree of salinity. The ability of such soils
to harboui micro-organisms responsible fr plnt growth and an unders
tanding of their characteristics is of great importance to agriculturalists.
Modifictions of the dominant factors fr the crop yield, compatible with
the existing conditions, will maximize the farming efficiency.
Similarly biosensors can help us determine the specific alterations to
the fauna and flra of ceitain regions with a view to maximize the far
ming and agricultural efficiency and thus draw the most possible advantage
on Capital investment. This applies equally to the best environmental pos-
sibilities fr animal husbandry and hoiticultural problems which in certain
regions, specially in the semi-arid regions, presents the most difficult prob
lems.
C FLOOD CONTROL MEASURES
Biosensors can help us determine flood occurence. Considering the
material loss of such invading floods to crops, forestry, cultivation etc. nt
to mention the most important which is due to land erosion, the contiol
of such flood disasters is of great and vitai importance to countries often
invaded by such natural disasters.
Estimates reveal damages of the order of inillions and millions, which
cannot be compensated nor easily restord. The case is aggravated by the
fact that such natuial catastrophes are nt only a material loss, bt on
occasions, a source of loss to humn life and property. Therefore, an un
derstanding of the causes and effects through these modern forecasts and
prediction techniques will be of utmost material and psychological valuc
to millions and millions of the inhabitants of the developing count ri es
D COMBAT AGAINST CROP DISEASES
Biosensors can help us determine the unhealthy crop conditions and
devise a methodic means of combat against such crop diseases. This deserves
200
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KNG PRESSNO 306

9 1972
This is a reproduction of a book rom the McGill University Library collection.
Title: Majm'ah-i sukhanranlha va maqalah'ha dar barah-i falsafah va irfan-i IslamT
Series: Silsilah-i danish-i Irn! ; v. 4.
Publisher, year: Tihran : Danishgah-i Mak'gTl, Muassasah-i Mutlaat-i IslamT, Shubah-i Tihran, 1971
The pages were digitized as they were. The original book may have contained pages with
poor print. Marks, notations, and other marginalia present in the original volume may also
appear. For wider or heavier books, a slight curvature to the text on the inside of pages may
be noticeable.
ISBN of reproduction: 978-1-77096-178-4
This reproduction is intended for personal use only, and may not be reproduced, re-
published, or re-distributed commercially. For further information on permission
regarding the use of this reproduction contact McGill University Library.
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