CASTING TECHNOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT
SAND PREPARATION AND SAND
MOUNDING TECHNIQUES

Done By: 114113073 to 114113083
Second year Production Engineering
2013-2017, NIT Trichy


8/28/2014

Casting Technology Assignment 114113073 - 114113083

CONTENTS



SAND PREPARATION

A. Constituents of Moulding Sand
B. Sand Preparation and Conditioning
C. Properties of Moulding Sand


SAND MOULDING TECHNIQUES

A. Green-sand Moulding
B. Dry-sand Moulding
C. Loam Moulding
D. Carbon dioxide Moulding
E. Resin Sand Moulding/Shell Moulding








Casting Technology Assignment 114113073 - 114113083
SAND PREPARATION

A. CONSTITUENTS OF MOULDING SAND:........................................................



1. Silica sand: It forms the bulk of the foundry
sands and imparts refractoriness and other
properties to the moulding sand.




2. Binders: Binders give cohesiveness and strength
to the sand to enable it to retain the shape of the
mould after the withdrawal of the pattern from the
sand. Binders may be organic type (such as linseed
oil, molasses, dextrin, pitch or resins) and inorganic
type (such as clay or cement). Clay binders include
bentonite, limonite, fire clay etc. Clay binders are
used for both green-sand and dry-sand moulding.
Increased clay content adds to strength, hardness
and toughness of the sand but reduces flowability and permeability of the sand.........
.
. ..............
3. Additives: These are used to improve the properties of the sand, either by improving
the existing properties of the sand or by imparting new properties to make the sand
mixtures more useful. Common additives are: coal dust, when present(up to 10%) in the
moulding sand, reacts with oxygen present in sand pores at the time of casting and
produces a reducing atmosphere of CO
2
at the mould-metal interface, which gives smooth
castings. Cereal flour improves strength and collapsibility of the sand (to allow free
contraction of casting). Silica flour increases hot strength of mould and decreases metal
penetration into mould walls and thus gives smooth castings. Both dextrin and molasses
improve dry strength (after baking the mould) and decrease metal penetration into the
mould walls.
,

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Additives like wood flour, cereals and cellulose when added to moulding sand work as
cushion materials since they burn and forms gases during casting, thereby giving rise to
space to accommodate expansion of casting during its cooling. For example, wood flour and
saw dust reduce expansion defects in grey cast iron castings by promoting mould wall
movement and collapsibility. The grey cast iron expands (up to 2.5%) during solidification
and cooling, because of the period of graphitization that occurs during the final stages of its
solidification.



4. Water: Adding water to moulding sand is called tempering. Water imparts workability
to the sand for making the mould. Binders, such as clays, give green strength to the sand
due to the presence of water. A green-sand mould may contain water around 5% whereas
the sand for making a dry-sand mould has higher water content, up to 10%. Too high water
causes blow holes in the castings. Low water moisture sands are weak in green strength
and produce defects such as scabs or roughness on the surface of castings.

Properties of moulding sand are affected by size, type and distribution of sand grains,
amount of binding and additive materials and moisture contents. Amount of water added
to moulding sand is further governed by the type and amount of sand constituents and the
condition in which the mould sand is to be used, for example, moulding sand for dry-sand
mould has initially (before baking) more water contents than that of green-sand mould.
Normally water content varies from 3% to 10%.



Effect of water (moisture) on
permeability is shown in (i) and on
the strength is shown in (ii) in the
figure aside. .

Casting Technology Assignment 114113073 - 114113083

B. SAND PREPARATION AND CONDITIONING: .

As mentioned earlier, none of the naturally available sands possesses the desired qualities
to the required degree for being considered as a good moulding sand. By the process of
blending or mixing varieties of sands together and by adding binding materials or additives
to this mixture, a new suitable sand mixture is produced for foundry purposes. .
.

New sands as well as used floor sand (which have been used several times in making
moulds) are properly prepared and mixed in a suitable ratio, for example, the ratio of used
floor sand (old) to new sand may be more for light castings but it decreases for medium and
heavy castings. . .


Conditioning of the sand is essential. Proper conditioning means uniform distribution of
clay bond and other additives over sand grains, even distribution of proper moisture and
sorting out of foreign matter like nails, and other metal pieces (which might have been used
for strengthening previous mould walls) by riddling and a thorough mixing and other
additives with hand shovels. Modern foundries have appropriate equipment for
conditioning of the sand such as circular pan sand mixer using rotating stone wheels and
paddles. Testing of sands is also carried out for strength, permeability, moisture content,
etc. to predict its performance during use.



C. PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND: .

Good moulding sand possesses the following characteristics, which are determined by the
various constituents present in a particular moulding sand mixture.

1. Refractoriness: This refers to the sand's ability to withstand the temperature of the liquid
metal being cast without breaking down. For example some sands only need to withstand
650 C (1,202 F) if casting aluminium alloys, whereas steel needs sand that will withstand
1,500 C (2,730 F). Sand with too low a refractoriness will melt and fuse to the casting.

Casting Technology Assignment 114113073 - 114113083
2. Chemical inertness: The sand must not react with the metal being cast. This is especially
important with highly reactive metals, such as magnesium and titanium are used.


3. Permeability: This refers to the sand's ability to exhaust gases. This is important because
during the pouring process many gases are produced, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, and steam, which must leave the mould otherwise casting defects, such as blow
holes and gas holes, occur in the casting. Note that for each cubic centimetre (cc) of water
added to the mould 16,000 cc of steam is produced.


4. Surface finish: The size and shape of the sand particles defines the best surface finish
achievable, with finer particles producing a better finish. However, as the particles become
finer (and surface finish improves) the permeability becomes worse.


5. Cohesiveness (or bond): This is the ability of the sand to retain a given shape after the
pattern is removed.


6. Flowability: The ability for the sand to flow into intricate details and tight corners
without special processes or equipment.


7. Collapsibility: This is the ability of the sand to be easily stripped off the casting after it
has solidified. Sands with poor collapsibility will adhere strongly to the casting. While
casting, metals that contract a lot during cooling or with long freezing temperature ranges
are used, sand with poor collapsibility will cause cracking and hot tears in the casting.
Special additives can be used to improve collapsibility.


8. Availability/cost: The availability and cost of the sand is very important because for
every ton of metal poured, three to six tons of sand is required. Although sand can be
screened and reused, the particles eventually become too fine and require periodic
replacement with fresh sand.








Casting Technology Assignment 114113073 - 114113083



SAND MOULDING TECHNIQUES



Basic Process


There are six steps in this process:


1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mould.
2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mould cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mould and remove the casting.










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Green Sand Moulding
These expendable moulds are made of wet sands that are used to make the mould's shape.
The name comes from the fact that wet sands are used in the moulding process. Green
sand is not green in colour, but "green" in the sense that it is used in a wet state (akin to
green wood). Unlike the name suggests, "Green sand" is not a type of sand on its own, but
is rather a mixture of:

Silica sand (SiO
2
), or Chromite sand (FeCr
2
O),
or zircon sand (ZrSiO
4
), 75 to 85%, or olivine,
or Staurolite, or graphite.
Bentonite (clay), 5 to 11%
Water, 2 to 4%
Inert sludge 3 to 5%
Anthracite (0 to 1%)

There are many recipes for the proportion of clay, but they all strike different
balances between mouldability, surface finish, and ability of the hot molten metal to de-
gas. Due to presence of moisture, the mould lacks permeability and strength and this may
result in defects such as blowholes and pinholes in casting. Despite this drawback this is
most popular and used in almost 90% of the sand castings because of greater adaptability
and economical operation. The defects are kept under control by keeping moisture low.

The coal typically referred to in foundries as sea-coal, which is present at a ratio of
less than 5%, partially combusts in the presence of the molten metal leading to off gassing
of organic vapours. Green Sand for non-ferrous metals do not use coal additives since the
CO created is not effective to prevent oxidation.

The choice of sand has a lot to do with the temperature that the metal is poured. At
the temperatures that copper and iron are poured, the clay gets inactivated by the heat in
that the montmorillonite is converted to illite, which is non-expanding clay.

Silica is the least desirable of the sands since metamorphic grains of silica sand have
a tendency to explode to form sub-micron sized particles when thermally shocked during
pouring of the moulds. These particles enter the air of the work area and can lead to
silicosis in the workers. Iron foundries spend a considerable effort on aggressive dust
collection to capture this fine silica.

Often additives such as wood flour are added to create a space for the grains to
expand without deforming the mould like Olivine, Chromite, etc. They are used because
they do not have a phase conversion that causes rapid expansion of the grains, as well as
offering greater density, which cools the metal faster and produces finer grain structures in
the metal.
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Dry Sand Moulding


This method is used when the mould requires greater strength to withstand the
weight of a large volume of metal or if a hard surface is required to avoid surface erosion.
The mould is prepared with specially processed sand and is then dried in an oven. This is a
mixture of:

Moulding sand
Burnt facing sand
Clay
Cinders( Boiler ash)
Moisture

The layer of facing sand surrounding the mould cavity is made up of fine moulding
sand, river sand of fine grained variety, a bond such as pitch or flour and water. The water
content in the dry sand mix is kept as high as 6-8% so that green properties are satisfactory.

After the mould is ready, it is dried in an oven maintained at 200-300 degree Celsius,
until all moisture is eliminated. Alternatively hot air may be circulated.

The castings from dry sand are flawless. They are shrink proof and more rigid and
strong. However the higher costs involved limit the application of this method to large
castings where the maximum depth of pouring is more than 1200mm and where a faultless
and well-finished casting is essential. Dry sand moulds possess higher resistance to cooling
contraction and so are unavailable for light and intricate castings of metals such as steel,
chills may be used to overcome this problem.





Casting Technology Assignment 114113073 - 114113083
CO
2
Moulding:

CO
2
Casting is a kind of sand casting process. In this process the
sand moulding mixture is hardened by blowing gas over the mould.
This process is favoured by hobby metal casters because a lot of cost
cutting can be done. In addition, one can be sure of getting
dimensionally accurate castings with fine surface finish. But, this
process is not economical than green sand casting process. The image
aside shows the finished product.

Process: The mould for CO
2
Casting is made of a mixture of sand and liquid silicate binder
which is hardened by passing CO
2
gas over the mould. The equipment of the moulding
process includes CO
2
cylinder, regulator, hoses and hand held applicator gun or nozzle.
Carbon dioxide moulding delivers great accuracy in production.

Any existing pattern can be used for the moulding purpose which can be placed in the
mould before the mould is hardened. This method helps in producing strong mould and
cores that can be used for high end applications. If the process is carefully executed then
casting can be as precise as produced by the shell casting method.

Carbon dioxide casting is favoured both by the commercial foundry men and hobbyist
for a number of reasons. In commercial operations, foundry men can assure customers of
affordable castings which require less machining.

The moulding process which can be fully automated is generally used for casting
process that require speed, high production runs and flexibility. In home foundries this is
one of the simplest processes that improve the casting quality.

Applications: CO
2
casting process is ideal where speed and flexibility is the prime
requirement. Moulds and cores of a varied sizes and shapes can be moulded by this
process.

Advantages: This process has many advantages in comparison to other forms of castings
some of them are as follows:
Compared to other casting methods cores and moulds are strong
Reduces fuel cost since gas is used instead of to other costly heating generating
elements
Reduces large requirement for number of mould boxes and core dryers
Provides great dimensional tolerance and accuracy in production
Moisture is completely eliminated from the moulding sand
This process can be fully automated.
Casting Technology Assignment 114113073 - 114113083
Loam Moulding:

Loam is one type of clay which is made with sand mixed with water to form a thin
plastic mixture from which moulds are made. Loam sand also contains ganisters or fire clay.
The loam must be sufficiently adhesive so that it can
cling to the vertical surface. It always requires special
provision to secure adequate ventilation. The object is
opened out pores in the otherwise compact, closely
knit mass, by artificial means. There are various kinds
of organic matter such as chopped straw, and
particularly horse manure, is mixed up with the sand, a
typical loam sand mixture is given below:

Silica Sand
Clay
Coke
Moisture

This applied as plaster to the rough structure of the mould usually made of brick work
and the exact shape is given by a rotating sweep around a central spindle. Cast iron plates
and bars are used to reinforce the brick work which retains the moulding material. Loam
moulds also are prepared by the use of skeleton pattern made of wood. The surfaces of
loams are blackened and are dried before being assembled.

Loam moulds are employed chiefly in the making of large casting for which it would
be expensive to use full pattern and ordinary flasks equipment. Objects such as large
cylinders, chemical pans, large gears, round bottoms, kettles and other machining parts are
produces in the loam moulding.

Highli ghts:
Has about 50 per cent sand grains and 50 per cent clay.
Still practiced in some shops, particularly in making huge
manganese- bronze propellers.
No pattern is required, as sheet-steel sweeps are so
shaped that they generate proper casting contour as the sweep
arm is moved back and forth over a fixed spindle.
The chief advantages of this process are savings in pattern
cost and storage; pattern storage alone is an important and
expensive item in most foundries.
Is slow and laborious, and special moulders are required;
all work must be done by hand as the process is very much an art.
Casting Technology Assignment 114113073 - 114113083
Resin Sand Moulding/Shell Moulding:
The shell moulding process is a precision sand casting process capable of producing
castings with a superior surface finish and better dimensional accuracy than conventional
sand castings. These qualities of precision can be obtained in a wider range of alloys and
with greater flexibility in design than die-casting and at a lower cost than investment
casting.
The feature of this process is the use of fine-
grained, high purity sand that contributes the
attributes of a smooth surface and dimensional
accuracy to moulds cores and castings alike. In
conventional sand moulding the use of such fine
sand is precluded because it would dramatically
reduce mould permeability. However, the
distinguishing feature of the shell moulding
process is that the mould is literally a shell (10mm thick). It was the ability to produce such
a thin shell mould, which made the process a revolutionary development in metal founding.
The coincident development of plastics, like Bakelite, which were based on thermosetting
resins such as phenol formaldehyde, provided the basis for shell moulding.
In shell moulding the fine sand is coated with a thermosetting resin which provides
the relatively high strength required enabling a thin section, or shell, mould to be produced.
The requirement that the mould should accurately replicate the pattern detail and
dimensions if a precision casting is to be produced is also met by the shell moulding
process. This is achieved because the resin bond is developed whilst the mould is in contact
with a heated pattern plate. Furthermore, the mould is separated from the pattern without
the need to enlarge the cavity, as is the case in green sand moulding. These features apply
equally to the production of cores by the process.
Advantages:
lower capital plant costs
good utilisation of space, low sand to metal ratio
lightweight moulds which are readily handled and have
good storage characteristics
skilled labour is not required
shells have excellent breakdown at the knockout stage
lower cleaning an fettling costs
Disadvantages:
the raw materials are relatively expensive
the size and weight range of castings is limited
the process generates noxious fumes which must be effectively extracted