International Journal of Impact Engineering 35 (2008) 967976

Determination of physicomechanical properties of soft soils from

medium to high strain rates
A.M. Bragov
a,
, A.K. Lomunov
a
, I.V. Sergeichev
a
, K. Tsembelis
b
, W.G. Proud
b
a
Department of Mechanics, State University, Gagarin Avenue, 23/6 Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Federation
b
Physics and Chemistry of Solids Group, Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge CB3 0HE, UK
Received 2 March 2007; received in revised form 9 July 2007; accepted 10 July 2007
Available online 29 July 2007
Abstract
A method is presented for obtaining materials parameters, for quartz sand, over a wide range of strain rates. This involves the use of a
modied Kolsky bar and plate impact experiments. Data were analysed based on the determination of longitudinal and lateral stresses in
the Kolsky method. These values were combined with the longitudinal stress data from shock experiments to provide a
stresscompression curve. From this curve, other parameters can be determined.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Sand; High strain rate; Shock wave; Hugoniot; Hopkinson bar
1. Introduction
Interest in the study of the behaviour of soft soils and
granular materials under brief, intensive loading has
increased considerably in the last few years. The main
drivers are the need for improved decision making in the
spheres of civil and military applications that include: the
analysis of strong seismic motion, blast wave propagation,
and interaction with surface and underground structures.
Civil construction projects such as dams and channels, use
a signicant amount of explosives in the vicinity of
buildings.
In such conditions the mathematical modelling, used in
the decision-making process, takes on a great signicance.
The models used must adequately describe the soil
behaviour at the appropriate stress level. For populating
and validating such models, estimating their accuracy, an
extensive database on the dynamic properties of various
soils over a wide range of loading intensity and strain rate
is necessary.
The dynamic properties of soft soils in the range of loads
up to 100 MPa and strain rates up to 10
2
s
1
have been
investigated in great detail [15]. The compressibility of
soft soils loaded by shock waves with amplitudes up to
several gigapascals was studied in [6,7]. However, the range
of high dynamic loads (from 50 MPa to 5 GPa) and high
strain rates (10
3
10
5
s
1
) remains relatively unstudied. In
this paper, the dynamic properties of sand were determined
by using the two complementary techniques in a very wide
range of pressure and strain rates.
The dynamic properties of soft soils at a strain rate on the
order of 10
3
s
1
were studied using the modied Kolsky
method [8,9]. This modication allows the measurement of
the uniaxial stressstrain (s
x
e
x
) curve, the volume com-
pressibility (Pr) curve, the pressure dependence of the
shear strength (tP), and the lateral thrust coefcient.
At pressures greater than 1 Gpa, the behaviour is
investigated using a plane-wave shock experiment. These
experiments are usually performed to measure the shock
wave Hugoniot; this relates the particle velocity (U
p
) to the
shock velocity (U
s
) and also links the longitudinal stress s
x
to the longitudinal strain e
x
. In order to construct the
compressibility curve Pr, it is necessary to measure two
components of the stress tensor. In the case of soils, this
requires a robust methodology and is outlined below.
As the stressstrain states in the modied Kolsky
method and in a planewave experiment are similar, the
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doi:10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2007.07.004

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bragov@mech.unn.ru (A.M. Bragov).
results obtained by these methods allow the construction of
a single curve describing the uniaxial compression s
x
e
x
over a wide range of strain rates and load amplitudes.
2. Experimental
The sand investigated was quartz sand with a particle
distribution centred between 150 and 212 mm, where 82%
by mass of the particles lay. The granular composition of
this sand is presented in Table 1. The theoretical maximum
density of the quartz used was 2.55 g/cm
3
; the dry sand
pour density was 1.5 g/cm
3
the sand beds used in the
experiments were 4573% porous.
2.1. Experimentalmodied Kolsky method
The intermediate strain rate experiments were conducted
in the Research Institute of Mechanics of Nizhny
Novgorod State University as part of a wide spectrum of
research into dynamic properties. The experimental set-up
(Fig. 1) successfully allowed the use of a modied Kolsky
method based on the use of the split Hopkinson pressure
bar (SHPB) [10].
Recent dynamic tests on soft soils have met with
considerable success using a modication of the Kolsky
method [1012]. The main difference between the present
test modication and the original SHPB scheme used in
compression tests is that a soil specimen is located inside a
rigid jacket, which connes its radial strain. This cong-
uration is called a passively conned or jacketed test.
The stresses involved in the deformation of a soil
specimen, placed in a metal-conning jacket, loaded in a
SHPB system are shown in Fig. 2. During the jacket-
conned tests, the axial stresses in the soil specimen are
usually not higher than 300 MPa due to the signicant
difference between the impedances of the bars and speci-
men. These stresses must be lower than the yield strength of
the jacket material. The maximum elastic radial strain of
the jacket, using an analysis based on a thick-walled pipe
under internal pressure loading [13], is greater than but of
the same order as the strain seen in these experiments. The
maximum circumferential strains of the jacket, as measured
by the strain gauges, were not more than 0.05%; long-
itudinal strains in some of the specimens were as high as
10%. In such circumstances, the radial strain may be
neglected in comparison to the longitudinal strain.
Effectively, the strain state of the specimen may be
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 1
Fraction of sand mass in various size fractions
Minimum dimension of granule (mm) The granules lie in the range between the size value in that column and the size value in the column to the right
1.6 1 0.63 0.4 0.315 0.2 0.16 0.1 0.063 0.05 o0.05
% Mass of fraction 0.03 0.375 4.425 22.955 18.035 40.09 9.22 3.31 0.42 0.215 0.265
This was obtained by sieving six separate samples of sand taken from different locations within the bulk sample.
Fig. 1. The experimental setup for the Kolsky bar system. For clarity, the dimensional parameters are indicated in Fig. 2.
A.M. Bragov et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 35 (2008) 967976 968
considered one-dimensional and the stress state bi-axial.
Then the main components of the stress and strain tensors
will be
s
1
s
x
; s
2
s
3
s
r
;
1

x
;
2

3
0, (1)
where s
x
and e
x
are longitudinal stresses and strains
obtained using the Kolsky analysis, and s
r
the radial
stresses found in the sample jacket. Inertia plays a minor
role in these strain rates for these samples stresses. This
effect is ignored in these experiments; however, inertia is
important in the shock wave experiments.
To determine the value of radial stress s
r
, an approx-
imation to a thick-walled cylinder was assumed, and
formula (2) was used. The expression relates the stress in
the jacket, s
r
to the internal pressure, P
i
, causing the small
elastic strain in the jacket:
s
r
P
i

1
2R
2
2
ER
2
1
R
2
2

y
, (2)
where E is the Young modulus of the jacket material, and
R
1
and R
2
are the external and internal radii of the jacket,
respectively. The above expression gives the radial stress
component s
r
, based on the circumferential strain (e
Y
).
Having both components of stress in the sample, s
x
(t)
and s
r
(t), allows a wide spectrum of properties of the test
material to be calculated.
The maximum shear stress t will occur at the planes
inclined 451 to the longitudinal axis, and the value on these
planes will be
t s
x
s
r
=2.
The pressure, P, in the specimen can be expressed in terms
of the main stresses as
P s
x
2s
r
=3. (3)
The volumetric strain will take the following form:
y
x
. (4)
Expressions (3) and (4), describe the uniaxial compression
diagram, and allow the volumetric compressibility curve of
soil to be calculated.
The stress and strain levels during the compression
process are determined by
s
i
t s
x
t s
r
t, (5)

i
t

x
t
1 n

2
3

x
t. (6)
By eliminating time as a parameter, it is possible to
construct the major time-invariant characteristic of soil
material in its stress strain curve s
i
e
i
.
The relation between axial and radial components of
stress will be
s
r
t xs
x
t
n
1 n
s
x
t.
The factor of lateral pressure, linking the principal stress
directions is dened as
xt
s
r
t
s
x
t
(7)
and also the dynamic Poisson ratio
nt
s
r
t
s
x
t s
r
t
. (8)
It should be noted that the term dynamic Poisson ratio as
used here refers to a ratio of stresses in a dynamic, inelastic
deformation process, unlike the more classical situation of
a homogeneous material undergoing elastic loading. In the
experiments, the longitudinal strain pulses were measured
in the pressure bars and the shear strains in the jacket. A
typical result is shown in Fig. 3. Computer analysis, using
in-house programmes [14] use these pulses to obtain a set of
parametrical functions ts
x
e
x
s
r
tPYx. After rst
synchronizing, the time bases of the stress pulses,
effectively removing the transmission time along the bars,
then eliminating time it is possible to derive a set of
parameters such as: s
x
e
x
, s
i
e
i
, PY and tP, xP, etc.
Test samples were placed in jackets and capped by circles
of thin paper to prevent the sand falling out. These paper
inserts had little friction with the jacket and did not
inuence the test results. The jackets had a wall thickness
of 10 mm and a 10 mm working length. To centre the ends
of the pressure bars into the sample the jackets had a
thinner section outside of the working length to aid
alignment. The bars were pressed into the sample to make
a good contact, but no static external load was applied to
the samples during the test procedure. Empirical evidence,
supported by numerical simulation, has shown these
sleeves do not inuence the stress deformation of the
jacket. The length of a sample was about equal to the
working length of the jacket. During compression, the
jacket had a uniform expansion along its length [14,15].
Depending on the loading stress investigated, the jackets
were made from either an aluminium alloy or steel. For
stress amplitudes up to 100 MPa, specimens used alumi-
nium alloy jackets, for higher stresses, steel jackets. The
larger deformation of the aluminium alloy, compared with
steel, allows more precise measurements, at small pressures,
of the strain on the external surface of the jacket.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 2. Stress components and parameters in a soil specimen and in the
conned jacket. The terms are dened in the text.
A.M. Bragov et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 35 (2008) 967976 969
2.2. Experimentalplate impact studies
Plate impact experiments were performed using a single
stage light gas gun at the Cavendish Laboratory [16]. This
has a 5 m long; 50mm bore barrel and uses air or helium at a
pressure up to 350 atmospheres as the propellant, achieving
velocities up to 1200ms
1
. The projectiles used in this study
consisted of a plate of copper 10mm thick, 48mm diameter,
mounted on the front of a polycarbonate sabot.
The sample consists of a 3 mm bed of sand inside a cell
made up of copper plates. The cell is in four parts as shown
in Fig. 4. A cover plate 2 mm thick fronts the cell, a
manganin stress gauge is mounted in epoxy between this
plate and the copper plate behind it. This second plate was
either 2 or 3 mm thick. The third plate has a 3 mm recess
into which the sand is loaded. The recessed plate has a
1 mm thick rear face after which a second stress gauge is
located. The rear plate is 10 mm thick copper. The sand
was poured into the recess, the cell was tapped several
times to allow the sand to settle, the sand was then
smoothed off to produce a lled, at-faced sample, level
with the top of the recess, nally, the cover plates were
xed into position. The sand in this sample was not under
external load prior to impact, but was of a well-dened
density.
In these experiments, the sample mount was aligned to
an accuracy of o1 mm, an angle of o1 mrad, to the end of
the barrel using a dial gauge prior to each experiment thus
allowing a highly planar impact. The impact velocity is
measured using a sequential array of shorting pins
mounted at the end of the barrel to an accuracy of 0.1%.
The gauges act in two ways, rstly as time of arrival
sensors and secondly by recording the stress history. The
gauge at the front of the cell records the initial stress in the
copper, followed by the release down to the shock level
produced in the sand. The rear gauge initially records the
stress from the compacted sand into the rear copper block.
Given the high rate of loading, there is little time for bulk
lateral movement of the sand. In non-porous systems, the
material does not have time to move laterally and the
system is dened as being inertially conned. For the sand
in the shock-wave experiments, this effect will act as a
connement. However, just as in the Kolsky system
described above, the lateral strain will be very small. There
will be some small lateral movements within the sample as
the grain pores collapse but no bulk lateral motion of the
material was observed. Overall, the loading system here is
one-dimensional strain in the longitudinal direction with a
bi-axial longitudinal and lateral stress state, again analo-
gous to the Kolsky system.
3. Results
As stated above, for Kolsky experiments at different
load magnitudes, the pressure bars and jackets were made
from an aluminium alloy or high-strength steel. The
parameters of a loading pulse were varied by changing
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 3. Typical initial and reected strain pulses in the pressure bars (pulses 13) and also in a jacket (pulse 4). The levels of the strain are small, within the
elastic limits of the bars and jacket. The longitudinal strain in the much softer sand sample is considerable.
Fig. 4. The cell. All cell components are made from copper (Cu 101).
A.M. Bragov et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 35 (2008) 967976 970
the velocity and length of the striker bar. The experiments
can be divided into three groups:
low striker velocity (V
p
1012 m/s)sample stress up
to 80 MPaaluminum alloy pressure bars and jacket;
medium striker velocity (V
p
1822 m/s)sample
stress up to 150 MPaaluminum alloy pressure bars
and a steel jacket and
high striker velocity (V
p
2834 m/s)sample stress up
to 500 MPasteel pressure bars and jacket.
Overall 810 experiments were conducted in each group.
The major characteristic of soils were obtained using the
analysis dened above. The results in each group were
averaged. In Fig. 5, the average curves of sand compres-
sibilities, from the third group, are shown.
In Fig. 6, the average dependence of shear stress with
pressure tP is given. The curve is practically linear in the
loading part of the cycle and almost linear in the unloading
cycle. This behaviour may be described using a Mohr
Coulomb equation: t C+(tan f)P, where C is the
effectively the shear strength or resistance of the unloaded
material, P is the applied pressure, and tan f gives a
measure of the increase in shear resistance with applied
load, f being called the internal friction angle. It is
necessary to note that the value of the specic coupling, C,
is rather small, indicating a soft material, and so has a large
percentage error associated with it. However, from a
practical viewpoint it can be neglected. In Fig. 6,
tan j 0.64; while the lateral thrust factor was determined
to be x 0.33 (Fig. 7).
The nal results both in s
x
e and Pe axes are shown in
Fig. 8. The results show that the loading of the diagrams is
non-linear especially at higher stresses within the range of
strain rates used. The deformation rate does not strongly
inuence the behaviour as all the responses lie, within
experimental error, on the same curve. The existence of
similar deformation diagrams for soft soil media was
predicted by experts in the eld of soil dynamics e.g.
Lyakhov [2]. The amplitude of the maximum stresses,
achieved on the diagrams, are wholly determined by value
of the loading pulse. No inuence of strain rate on
unloading was found. Comparison of loading and unload-
ing branches leads to the conclusion that the velocity of
waves during unloading considerably exceeds the wave
velocity in the loading cycle, in this range of pressure. Also,
the compressibility of sand decreases slightly with reduc-
tion of particle size for all modes of loading. While overall,
the response is non-linear (see Figs. 5 and 8), the loading
deformation diagrams have two main regions, connected to
the various mechanisms of deformation. The behaviour in
this region is strongly connected to two mechanisms.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 5. Averaged curve of sand compressibility from the Kolsky system
using steel jackets and steel bars, for stress loading up to 500 MPa.
Fig. 6. Dependence of lateral stress with pressure for experiments with
loading stresses of 80, 150, and 500 MPa.
Fig. 7. The characteristic of lateral thrust x for experiments with loading
stresses of 80, 150, and 500 MPaU This gives a value of 0.33 during the
loading part of the cycle.
A.M. Bragov et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 35 (2008) 967976 971
The rst mechanism is produced by the signicant
difference of acoustic impedances of bars and specimen,
this leads to low stress transmission. The particle velocity
within the sample is small (500 m/s) and the sand is very
porous. In the rst stage, the basic mechanism is the
movement of sand particles to ll the pores.
With the removal of pores, the second mechanism
becomes more dominant. The sample is at higher density
so transmits more stress from the bars as there is a lower
impedance mismatch. The particles also begin to interact
intensively with each other. This is accompanied by an
increase of friction at the contact points, elastic deforma-
tion and their partial destruction. Recovered material
shows this fracture of particles during the dynamic loading.
These processes require higher stresses. Therefore in this
second region the compressibility gradually decreases,
while the intensity of stress growth is increased. These
mechanisms coexist over much of the stress range and the
switch between the relative dominance of the mechanism is
not sharp, hence the rounded transition region. Inertia has
only a limited role in this region, given the small particle
size and the low density.
As the stress wave begins to decrease, the specimen
unloads, i.e., the soil decompacts a little. However, the
transition from active loading to unloading is not
instantaneous; it occurs across a range of strains. Such
behaviour can be partially explained by the dynamic
loading of the gaseous component in the pores. Secondly,
internal stresses in the sand particles can overcome the
coherence forces, as soon as the loading is taken off. The
comparison of the loading and unloading branches of the
diagrams allows the conclusion that the velocity of
unloading considerably exceeds the velocity of compaction
waves for all groups.
In the higher rate plate-impact tests, the data gathered
correspond to a region much higher than the low-velocity
Kolsky experiments. In this shock region, the loading wave
induces considerable stress between the grains while
allowing only limited time for grain movement, fracture
is the dominant mechanism. Fig. 9 shows the data from
shots at velocities of 200, 500, and 969 ms
1
using the plate
impact gun with a 10 mm Cu impactor onto copper cells
enclosing a thin sand bed. There are similarities between
the gauge outputs seen in all experiments. The front gauge
shows a rapid rise to a at-topped pulse. The height of this
pulse is dened by the copper Hugoniot as both the
impactor and target cell are copper, the stress level in
the copper increases with impact velocity. The width of the
initial pulse seen in the front gauge is dened by the
thickness of second plate in the target, which determines
how long it takes the release wave returning from the
coppersand interface to reach the gauge.
In some of the front gauge traces, there is a dip
immediately before the steep initial rise. This is due to
capacitative linking between the gauge and the epoxy
surrounding it, which acts as a dielectric, and the copper
plates on either side of the gauge [17].
The rear gauge shows the stress transmitted into the rear
of the copper cell through the sand. Given the granular
nature of sand, a ramp is seen due to the collapse of pores
in the system. The rear gauge trace shows this ramping in
the rst part of its signal (see Fig. 9(a)). As the impact
velocity increases the pore collapse occurs over a shorter
time and the initial ramp seen in the second gauge trace
steepens. In all cases a plateau is reached. This level
corresponds to the stress transmitted by the shock-
compacted sand into the copper. Later, a second rise on
the rear gauge trace is due to stress waves being reected in
the sand-lled cavity due to impedance mismatches
between the sand and the copper cell. This second rise
gives further information on the compressed sand, the full
analysis of which is not entered upon here.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 8. Dynamic curves for dry sand as plotted both in stressstrain (s
x
e) and pressurestrain (Pe) axes. The characteristic for experiments with loading
stresses of 80, 150, and 500 MPa are shownU The curves lie on the same loading path. After reaching a maximum compressive strain, the curves drop in
stress and strain during unloading.
A.M. Bragov et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 35 (2008) 967976 972
Sand is a statistical material and, therefore, some
variation can be expected from sample to sample. How-
ever, a repeat experiment at 500 ms
1
shows excellent
reproducibility, on the loading cycle as illustrated in
Fig. 10.
By combining the shock speed through the sand,
obtained from the time difference seen when the gauge
starts to record a stress, with the density of the sand, it is
possible to derive a Hugoniot of the material. It should be
emphasized that this is an approximation based on a
hydrodynamic response. This assumption is not without
merit as the sand displays very limited strength compared
with the loading pulse.
For the shock-compacted sand, initial tests using a nite
difference hydrocode suggest that using the fully com-
pacted density of the sand gives predictions which match
the stress level of the rst plateau on the rear gauge, thus
indicating the high degree of compaction that has occurred.
It is clear, however, that a model, which takes into account
the kinetics of pore collapse is required in order to describe
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-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Front
Rear
S
t
r
e
s
s

/

G
P
a
Time / s
Initial Ramp
First Plateau
Second Rise
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Front
Rear
S
t
r
e
s
s

/

G
P
a
Time / s
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time / s
0
5
10
15
20
Front
Rear
S
t
r
e
s
s

/

G
P
a
Fig. 9. The output of the gauges from experiments with impact velocities of (a) 200, (b) 505, and (c) 969 ms
1
. The time bases of all experiments are set so
the initial rise of the front gauge is at 0 ms. The stress measured is that in the copper cell.
0
2
4
6
8
10
S
t
r
e
s
s

a
t

R
e
a
r

G
a
u
g
e

/

G
P
a
Time / s
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fig. 10. Reproducibility of plate impact at 500 ms
1
. The rear gauge
traces from two separate experiments are shown.
A.M. Bragov et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 35 (2008) 967976 973
the full process. The Hugoniot obtained is shown below,
Fig. 11, in the stress particle velocity space, together with
the variation of shock speed with particle velocity, Fig. 12.
These data is are agreement with previously published data
on sand [18].
Since the stress states obtained in the Kolsky method
and the plane shock wave experiments are similar, the
combination of the results obtained by these techniques
allows the uniaxial compression curve s
x
e
x
to be
constructed over a wide range of strain rates and load
amplitudes.
In order to construct the compressibility curve Pe based
on the results of a plane shock wave experiment it is
necessary to measure the longitudinal and lateral compo-
nents of the stress tensor. In the case of soils, such lateral
measurements are difcult to perform in the shock regime.
The compaction of the sand produces dramatic variations
in local strain within the sample, eroding stress gauges,
while the effect of inertial connement of the sand does not
allow valid measurements to be made outside of the
shocked material. Therefore, we propose to determine the
pressure P from the obtained shock wave adiabat s
x
e
x
as
follows.
From the available experimental data, it was established
that the relation between the shear strength and the
pressure for soft soils loaded up to 500 MPa is close to
linear [2,3,8]:
t C tan fP, (9)
where C is the cohesion (very small for sand) and f is the
internal friction angle.
If the assumption that this relation is also valid at higher
pressures (up to several gigapascals) and the value of f is
maintained then the pressure can be calculated. Indirect
evidence of the validity of this assumption is provided
by the results of plane shock wave tests, in which two
stress tensor components were determined for a cement
mortar [19].
For uniaxial deformation, we have
P s
x

4
3
t. (10)
Using this formula and the linear relation (10), we obtain
an expression for the pressure as a function of the stress s
x
:
P
s
x
4=3a
1 4=3 tan j
. (11)
Thus, under the above assumption, this expression
provides the relation Pe
x
(or Pr) for shock-wave
compression, using the shock adiabat s
x
e
x
and the
previously determined values of C and tan f. In combina-
tion with the Pe
x
curve obtained using the modied
Kolsky method, this provides the complete Pe
x
relation
for a broad range of load amplitudes.
The coefcients in relation (10), determined using the
modied Kolsky method, are C 0 and tan f 0.643.
The results of plane shock-wave tests [20] gave the
linear shock-wave adiabat, U
s
c
0
+Su
p
, where U
s
is the
shock wave velocity, u
p
is the particle velocity, and
c
0
510.9 m/s, a term associated with acoustic sound
speed and S 1.71 are constant coefcients. Using this
adiabat and expression (10), it is possible to construct a
compressibility curve Pe
x
or Pr.
The complete s
x
e
x
(1, 2) and Pr (3, 4) curves are
depicted in Fig. 13, where curves 1 and 3 represent the
dynamic response obtained using the Kolsky method, while
curves 2 and 4 are the shock wave adiabats constructed
using the results of plane impact experiments. As can be
seen, the results obtained by the two independent methods
are in good agreement and complement each other, thus
signicantly expanding the domain of determination of the
main laws for the deformation of soils.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
S
t
r
e
s
s

/

G
P
a
Up / mm s
-1
Fig. 11. Hugoniot of quartz sand in stress/particle velocity (U
p
) space.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
U
s

/

m
m

s
-
1
Us / mm s
-1
Fig. 12. Shock velocity as a function of particle velocity.
A.M. Bragov et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 35 (2008) 967976 974
4. Conclusions
A method for determining the main parameters in the
high strain-rate compression of soft soils over a wide range
of impact loads and strain rates has been developed. The
experimental data obtained can provide the parameters
and constants necessary for the development of mathema-
tical models of soft soils. The values of the lateral stress in
the shock regime were calculated using parameters
obtained in the lower rate Kolsky method. This is possible
as the upper stresses in the Kolsky experiments overlapped
with the lower stress range of the shock experiments. The
results of this analysis were consistent. It is important to
extend this analysis to other systems, including low-density
solids to see if this is a general result.
In the case of dry sand using these two complementary
techniques, the generalised curves of a dynamic compres-
sibility have been constructed. Several important conclu-
sions can be found in relation to the sand behaviour.
Firstly, the results across a wide range of strain rates show
no abrupt change in behaviour. Secondly, there is little
strain rate dependence in the pressure range studied.
The compaction process involves two mechanisms, grain
movement and grain fracture. A more in-depth discussion
of the compaction processes was given in the main text but
grain movement dominated the response in low-stress
Kolsky experiments. In the higher stress regime, the
response became dominated by grains locking together
and fracturing, this trend continued into the shock regime.
This technique will now be applied to other materials of
geological interest such as loams, clays, and rocks.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by the Russian
Foundation for Basic Research, Project nos. 04-05-
64614a and 04-01-00454a. MoD, QinetiQ, and [dstl] are
thanked for their support of this research. Mr. D. Johnson,
R. Flaxman, and D.L.A. Cross of the Cavenidsh workshop
gave invaluable support. Dr. Stephen Walley of the
Cavendish Laboratory is thanked for his help in editing
this document and providing an extensive set of references.
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Fig. 13. The combined response of sand across the strain rates 10
2
10
6
s
1
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