WELDING TRAINING

PROGRAM
OUTLINE
I.COMPANY ORIENTATION

A. Introduction
B. Safety Standard Practices


II. FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING




A. Introduction to Welding
1. Definition of Welding
2. Applications of Welding
3. Different Types of Welding Processes
4. Basic Tools and Equipments
5. Essentials of Welding
B. Types of Electrode
C. Joint Design and Welding Positions
D. Basic Welding Physics






E. Types of Welding Processes
1. SMAW
2. GTAW
3. FCAW
4. SAW
F. Welding Procedure Specification
G. Welding Defects
1. Causes and Effects
2. Prevention and Repair
H. Introduction to Nondestrutctive Testing
I. Introduction to Destructive Testing


FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING
Welding - the process that
results in joining of metals
through their melting
together by application of
heat, with or without the
application of pressure,
and with or without the
addition of filler metal
APPLICATIONS OF WELDING
Structural Welding
Piping
TYPES OF WELDING
SMAW Shielded Metal Arc Welding
GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding
FCAW Flux Cored Arc Welding
GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
PAW Plasma Arc Welding
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
ESW Electro Slag Welding
OAW Oxy-Acetylene Welding
SW Stud Welding
BASIC TOOLS & EQUIPMENT
Electrodes
Welding Helmet
Other Safety Equipment
Hand Tools
BASIC TOOLS & EQUIPMENT
Electrodes
Welding Helmet
Other Safety Equipment
Hand Tools
ESSENTIALS OF WELDING
Electrode Size

*Based on metal type and thickness
ESSENTIALS OF WELDING
Electrode Angle
&
Travel Speed

ESSENTIALS OF WELDING
Current

*Based on electrode type and size
ESSENTIALS OF WELDING
Arc Length


TYPES OF ELECTRODE
Rutile Electrode
Gives a very stable arc and is easy to strike and re-strike

Cellulose Electrode
High penetrating spray type arc

Basic Low Hydrogen Electrode
Contains a high proportion of basic materials such as limestone and fluorides

Iron Powder Electrode
Exhibits high melting rate, deep penetration and minimum spatter loss

E-XXXX
Electric Arc
Welding
Electrodes
Position
Tensile Strength Coating Characteristic
Example: E-7018
Low Hydrogen, Iron Powder
Flat, Horizontal, Vertical, Overhead
70,000psi Tensile Strength
SMAW ELECTRODE IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
EWX
Electric Arc
Welding
Electrodes
Indicates a GTAW Electrode
Type of Tungsten Alloy
GTAW ELECTRODE IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
Example: EWC20
~2% CeO2
FCAW Electrode Identification
System
EXXT-X
Electric Arc Welding Electrodes
Tensile Strength Times 10,000psi
Usability and Performance
Capabilities
Indicates an FCAW Electrode
Position
FCAW ELECTRODE IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
WELDING JOINT GEOMETRY
J oint
configuration of members
Weld
union between materials caused by heat, and or
pressure
Fillet Butt
Compound
WELDING JOINT GEOMETRY
Edge
Spot
Plug
WELDING JOINT GEOMETRY
WELDING JOINT GEOMETRY
Edge
Open & Closed Corner Lap
WELDING JOINT GEOMETRY
Tee
Cruciform
Butt
TYPES OF JOINT PENETRATION
Included angle
Root Gap
Root Face
Angle of
bevel
Root Face
Root Gap
Included angle
Root
Radius
Single -V Butt Single - U Butt
TYPES OF JOINT PENETRATION
SINGLE BUTT WELD PREPARATIONS
Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials, or when access from both sides is restricted
DOUBLE BUTT WELD PREPARATIONS
Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, or when access from both sides is
unrestricted
The root gap is used for electrode accessibility to the root of the joint, the smaller the angle of bevel
the larger the root gap is required to achieve good penetration.
BUTT JOINTS
The root gap must be increased as the bevel angle decreases
BUTT JOINTS
A double-V butt joint will cut down the amount of welding by one half in comparison to a single-V butt joint

BUTT JOINTS
A single-V butt joint is used on thinner materials and where access to one side only is possible e.g. pipe lines
A single-V butt joint is also more simpler to prepare
Single-V with backing strip/bar
BUTT JOINTS
- A backing strip or backing bar is used mainly to support the root and to prevent burn throughs from
occurring
- May be used for large root gaps and reduced bevel angles
- It also allows for a feather edge to be used, no root face required
- A backing strip usually forms part of the weld and a backing bar is usually removable
BUTT JOINTS
A double-V butt joint cuts down the amount of filler material required
A double-V butt joint reduces the amount of distortion and makes possible alternating the weld passes
on each side of the joint.
A double-V butt may require the joint to be turned over to complete the other side and access to both
sides is required
U and J preparations may also be used to reduce distortion and may also be used as double
preparations
BUTT JOINTS
U and J preparations give a more uniform and even distribution of weld metal throughout the depth of
the joint and reduce distortion and residual stresses
On thicker sections the U and J preparations require less weld metal again reducing distortion and
saving welding cost
Main disadvantages of these preparations is that they require costly machining and may suffer from
lack of side wall fusion
TRANSITION JOINTS
Transitioning is carried out to reduce the wall thickness on a joint that has two different plate/pipe
thickness to match the thickness of the thinner plate/pipe.
The transition may be applied by a pneumatic beveling machine or by a disc grinder and it is a normal
requirement to have a minimum length four times the thickness of the misalignment or four times the
thickness of the thinnest plate
The transition may be applied to the inside or outside of the joint, in the case of a pipeline it is
normally applied to the inside
TRANSITION JOINTS
Abrupt changes in material thickness, causes stress concentrations and low fatigue strength
A smooth transition is required to reduce the chances of fatigue cracking
A taper of less than 1 in 4 is recommended for maximum fatigue strength
TRANSITION JOINTS
Joints a) and b) are the most common types of transitioning with c) being used to facilitate non-destructive
testing
WELDING POSITIONS
WELDING POSITIONS
WELDING POSITIONS
Electric Current (I)

Flow of electric charge through an electric conductor
Electric charge flows when there is voltage present across a
conductor
Unit: Ampere (A)
BASIC WELDING PHYSICS
Voltage (V)

Electrical Potential Difference
Difference in electric potential energy of a unit test charge
transported between two points
Unit: Volts (V)
BASIC WELDING PHYSICS
BASIC WELDING PHYSICS
Power (P)

Rate at which energy is transferred, used or transformed
Power = Current X Voltage P = IV
Unit: AV = watt
BASIC WELDING PHYSICS
Power (P)

Rate at which energy is transferred, used or transformed
Power = Current X Voltage P = IV
Unit: AV = watt
BASIC WELDING PHYSICS
Heat Input (Q)

Heat supplied by the welding process
Q = k x V x I x 60 where k = thermal efficiency
v x 100 v = travel speed

Process k
SMAW 0.8
FCAW 0.8
SAW 1.0
GTAW 0.6
WELDING PROCESSES
WELDING PROCESSES
Welding is regarded as a joining process in which the work pieces are in atomic contact
Solid state processes
Forge welding
Friction welding
Fusion welding processes
MMA (SMAW)
TIG/TAG (GTAW)
FCAW
Sub-arc (SAW)

FUSION WELDING FACTORS
The four essential factors for fusion welding
1. Fusion is achieved by melting using a high intensity heat source
2. The welding process must be capable of removing any oxide and
contamination from the joint
3. Atmosphere contamination must be avoided
4. The welded joint must possess the mechanical properties required by
the specification being adapted
ARC WELDING SAFETY
Before continuing with the welding processes section, there are 2 safety
related terms that should first be understood.
Duty Cycle relates to the current carrying capacity of all conductors,
based on a 10 minute cycle i.e. 60% duty cycle means it can carry the
specified current for 6 minutes in 10 then must rest for 4 minutes. A 100%
duty cycle has no rest period requirement.
ARC WELDING SAFETY
Fume or gas Exposure Limit Effect on Health
Cadmium 0.025Mg/m
3
Extremely toxic
General Welding Fume 5Mg/m
3
Low toxicity
Iron 5Mg/m
3
Low toxicity
Aluminium 5Mg/m
3
Low toxicity
Ozone 0.20 PPM Extremely toxic
Phosgene 0.02 PPM Extremely toxic
Argon

No OEL Value
O
2
air content to be controlled
Very low toxicity

OEL/MEL (Occupational or Maximum Exposure Limit) which is used in
reference to fume exposure such as that caused in arc welding. The value
may be in PPM or mg/m
3
depending on a particulate fume, or a gas. Typical
values in EH/40 are
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
Parent material
Electric Arc
Gas shield
Molten weld pool
Solidified slag
Penetration
Build up of weld metal
Electrode
covering
Electrode
core wire
uses a consumable electrode coated in flux to lay
the weld

the flux coating disintegrates, giving off sparks that
serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of
slag, both of which protect the weld area from
atmospheric contamination
Welding position has a big effect on weld quality.
More welder skill is required to weld in the overhead position
(4G), when compared to down hand position (1G)
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
In the down hand position (1G) the welder can drag the tip of
the electrode along the joint. In the case of vertical (3G) and
overhead welding (4G) the welder always gauges the arc length.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
Current (amps) primarily controls depth of penetration, the
higher the current the deeper the penetration. If the current is
too high this may lead to high spatter, undercut and the
possibility of burn-through.
Arc length is another important consideration in weld quality. If
the arc length is too short the arc will become unstable and
may short circuit. If the arc length is too long, this causes high
spatter and incorrect shielding from the atmosphere.
SMAW BASIC EQUIPMENT
Power source
Holding oven
Inverter power
source
Electrode holder
Power cables
Welding
visor/filter glass
Return lead
Electrodes
Electrode
oven
Control panel
(amps, volts)
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
Welder controls
Arc length
Angle of electrode
Speed of travel
SMAW VARIABLE PARAMETERS
Voltage
The arc voltage in the SMAW process is measured as close to the arc as possible. It is
variable with a change in arc length
O.C.V.
The open circuit voltage is the voltage required to initiate, or re-ignite the electrical arc and
will change with the type of electrode being used e.g 70-90 volts
Current
The current used will be determined by the choice of electrode, electrode diameter and
material type and thickness. Current has the most effect on penetration.
Polarity
Polarity is generally determined by operation and electrode type e.g DC +ve or DC -ve
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
The four electrode covering types used in SMAW welding
Rutile - general purpose
Basic - low hydrogen
Cellulose - deep penetration/fusion
Iron Powder
SMAW PREPARATION AND CHECKING
The welding equipment
A visual check should be made on the equipment to ensure that it is in good
working order
The electrodes
Checking should be made to ensure that the correct specification of electrode is
being used, the electrode has the correct diameter and in good condition. In the
case of basic fluxed electrodes, ensure that the correct heat treatment is being
carried out before use
e.g Baked at 350C, holding 150C, quiver temps 70C
Cellulose and rutile electrodes do not require pre-baking but should be stored in
a dry condition.
OCV open circuit volts
A check should be made to ensure that the equipment can produce the OCV
required by the consumable and that any voltage selector has been moved to the
correct position
Current & polarity
A check should be made to ensure that the current type and range is as detailed
on the WPS
Other variables
Checks should be made for correct electrode angle, arc gap and travel speed
Safety
SMAW PREPARATION AND CHECKING
SMAW ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages Disadvantages
Field or shop use
Range of consumables
All positions
Portable
Simple equipment
High welder skill required
Low operating factor*
High levels of fume
Hydrogen control (flux)
Stop/start problems
* Comparatively uneconomic when compared to some other processes
i.e. SAW and FCAW
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING
Filler wire
Gas
inlet
Deposited
weld metal
Cap
Switch
Handle
Shielding gas
Switch
power
cable
Electrode
uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to
produce the weld

the weld area is protected from atmospheric
contamination by an inert shielding gas (argon or
helium), and a filler metal is normally used.
GTAW BASIC EQUIPMENT
Power source
Inverter power
source
Source control
panel
Power cable hose
Flow-meter
Tungsten
electrodes
Torch assembly
Return lead
Power control
panel
GTAW TORCH ASSEMBLY
Ceramic
shield cup
Gas lens
Torch body
Tungsten
electrode
Spare ceramic
shielding cup
Gas diffuser
Split collet
On/Off switch
Fitted ceramic
shielding cup
Tungsten
housing
GTAW VARIABLE PARAMETERS
Voltage
The voltage of the TIG welding process is variable only by the type of gas being used, and
changes in the arc length
Current
The current is adjusted proportionally to the tungsten electrodes diameter being used. The
higher the current the deeper the penetration and fusion
Polarity
The polarity used for steels is always DC ve as most of the heat is concentrated at the +ve
pole. This is required to keep the tungsten electrode at the cool end of the arc. When
welding aluminium and its alloys AC current is used.
GTAW VARIABLE PARAMETERS
Tungsten electrodes
The electrode diameter, type and vertex angle are all critical factors considered as essential
variables. The vertex angle is as shown
Vertex angle
Note: when welding aluminium with AC current, the
tungsten end is chamfered and forms a ball end
when welding
DC -ve
Note: too fine an angle will promote melting of the
electrodes tip
AC
GTAW TUNGSTEN ELECTRODES
GTAW VARIABLE PARAMETERS
Gas type and flow rate
Generally two types of gases are used in TIG welding; argon and helium, though nitrogen
may be considered for welding copper and hydrogen may be added for the welding of
austenitic stainless steels. The gas flow rate is also important .
Argon (Ar) Inert
Suitable for welding carbon steel, stainless
steel, aluminium and magnesium
Lower cost, lower flow rates
More suitable for thinner materials and
positional welding
Helium Argon mixes
Suitable for welding carbon steel,
stainless steel, copper, aluminium and
magnesium
High cost, high flow rates
More suitable for thicker materials and
materials of high thermal conductivity.
GTAW PREPARATION AND CHECKING
The welding equipment
A visual check should be made to ensure the welding equipment is in good
condition
The torch head assembly
Check the diameter and specification of the tungsten electrode, the required
vertex angle and that a gas lens is fitted correctly. Check the electrode stick-out
length and that the ceramic is the correct type and in good condition
Gas type and flow rate
Check the shielding gas if it is the correct type, or gas mixture and the flow rate is
correct for the given joint design, welding position as stated in the WPS

GTAW PREPARATION AND CHECKING
Current and polarity
Checks should be made to ensure that the type of current and polarity are
correctly set, and the range is within that given on the procedure.
Other welding parameters
Checks should be made to other parameters such as torch angle, arc gap
distance and travel speed.
Safety
Check should be made on the current carrying capacity, or duty cycle of the
equipment and all electrical insulation is sound and in place. Correct extraction
systems should be in use to avoid exposure to toxic fume.


GTAW ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages Disadvantages
High quality
Good control
All positions
Low hydrogen
Minimal cleaning
High skill factor required
Small consumable range
High protection required
Low productivity
High ozone levels
FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING
FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING
requires a continuously-fed
consumable tubular electrode
containing a flux and a
constant-voltage/constant-
current welding power supply

an externally supplied
shielding gas is sometimes
used, but often the flux itself is
relied upon to generate the
necessary protection from the
atmosphere.
FCAW ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages Disadvantages
High productivity
Easily automated
All positional (dip & pulse)
Material thickness
range
Continuous electrode
Lack of fusion (dip)
Small range of consumables
Protection on site
Complex equipment
Not so portable
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
-
+
Power
supply
Filler wire spool
Flux hopper
Wire electrode
Flux
Slide rail
requires a noncontinuously fed
consumable solid or tubular
(flux cored) electrode

the molten weld and the arc
zone are protected from
atmospheric contamination by
being submerged under a
blanket of granular fusible flux
consisting of lime, silica,
magnesium oxide, calcium
fluoride and other compounds.
SAW BASIC EQUIPMENT
Transformer/
Rectifier
Power return
cable
Power control
panel
Welding carriage
control unit
Granulated flux
Granulated flux
Welding carriage
Electrode wire
reel
SAW FLUXES
Fused SAW
Fluxes
Agglomerated SAW Fluxes
SAW FLUXES
Fused Flux
Flaky appearance
Lower weld quality
Low moisture intake
Low dust tendency
Good re-cycling
Very smooth weld profile
Agglomerated Flux
Granulated appearance
High weld quality
Addition of alloys
Lower consumption
Easy slag removal
Smooth weld profile
SAW ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages Disadvantages
Low weld-metal cost
Easily automated
Low levels of ozone
High productivity
No visible arc light
Minimum cleaning
Restricted welding positions
Arc blow on DC current
Shrinkage defects
Difficult penetration control
Limited joints
WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS
WELDING PROCEDURES
Producing a welding procedure involves:
Planning the tasks
Collecting the data
Writing a procedure for use of for trial
Making a test welds
Evaluating the results
Approving the procedure
Preparing the documentation
WELDING PROCEDURES
Parent material
Type (Grouping)
Thickness
Diameter (Pipes)
Surface condition)

Welding process
Type of process (SMAW, FCAW,
TIG, SAW etc)
Equipment parameters
Amps, Volts, Travel speed




Welding Consumables
Type of consumable/diameter of
consumable
Brand/classification
Heat treatments/ storage

Joint design
Edge preparation
Root gap, root face
Jigging and tacking
Type of baking

Components of a welding procedure
WELDING PROCEDURES
Welding Position
Location, shop or site
Welding position e.g. 1G, 2G, 3G
Any weather precaution

Welding Variables
Run sequences
Back gouging
Interpass temperatures

Thermal heat treatments
Preheat, temps
Post weld heat treatments e.g.
stress relieving



Components of a welding procedure
Example:
Welding Procedure
Specification (WPS)
WELDERS QUALIFICATION
Numerous codes and standards deal with welder qualification, e.g. BS EN 287.
Once the content of the procedure is approved the next stage is to approve the
welders to the approved procedure. A welders test know as a Welders
Qualification Test (WQT).
Object of a welder qualification test
To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the requirements of the approved
procedure (WPS).
The test weld should be carried out on the same material and same conditions as for the
site welds
The welder who carries out the procedure qualification weld automatically qualify when
the procedure qualifies
WELDERS QUALIFICATION
Information that should be included on a welders test certificate are:
1. Welders name and identification number
2. Date of test and expiry date of certificate
3. Standard/code e.g. BS EN 287
4. Test piece details
5. Welding process, welding parameters, amps, volts
6. Welding parameters, amps, volts
7. Consumables, flux type and filler classification details
8. Sketch of run sequence, welding positions
9. Joint configuration details
10. Material type qualified, pipe diameter etc
11. Test results, remarks
12. Test location and witnessed by
13. Extent (range) of approval
WELDERS QUALIFICATION
The inspection of a welders qualification test.
It is normal for a qualified inspectors usually from an independent body to
witness the welding.
Under normal circumstances only one test weld per welder is permitted
If the welder fails the test weld and the failure is not the fault of the welder e.g.
faulty welding equipment then a re-test would be permitted.
The testing of the test weld is done in accordance with the applicable code, but it
is not normal to carry out tests that measure the mechanical properties of welds
e.g. tensile, charpy and hardness tests.

Example:
Welder Approval
Qualification
Certification
WELDING DEFECTS
WELD DEFECTS
Defects which may be detected by visual inspection can be grouped under
the following headings
Cracks
Solid inclusions
Surface and profiles
Misalignment (set-up
irregularities)
Gas pores and porosity
Lack of fusion
Mechanical damage
Parent material damage
Miscellaneous

Classified by Shape
Longitudinal
Transverse
Branched
Classified by Position
HAZ
Centreline
Crater
Fusion zone
Parent metal
Cracks that may occur in welded materials are caused generally by many
factors and may be classified by shape and position. Cracks are classed
as planar.
CRACKS
MECHANICAL TESTING
MECHANICAL TESTING
MECHANICAL TESTING
MECHANICAL TESTING
Tensile tests
Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod)
Hardness tests
The following mechanical tests have units and are termed
quantitative tests
MECHANICAL TESTING
Macro testing
Bend testing
Fillet weld fracture testing
Butt weld nick-break testing
The following mechanical tests have no units and are termed qualitative
tests
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Malleability - Can be deformed a great deal by compression before cracking

Ductile -Can be deformed considerably by tension before it fractures

Toughness -Ability to withstand bending without fracture

Hardness -Measure of the resistance of a material to indentation

BEND TEST
To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend testing can
also be used to give an assessment of weld zone ductility.

There are three ways to perform a bend test

1. Face bend
2. Root bend
3. Side bend

BEND TEST
Weld dressed flush Support
Former (4t)
Root bend Face bend
BEND TEST
Defect indication
Generally this
specimen would be
unacceptable
Minor ruptures on
tension surface
Acceptance depends
upon code
requirements
Transverse tensile.
All-weld metal tensile test
Cruciform tensile test
Short tensile test
Different tensile tests include:

TENSILE TEST
TENSILE TEST
TENSILE TEST
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TENSILE TEST
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IMPACT TEST
1. Specimens are usually taken in groups of three to allow for scatter
results
2. Test temperature should be specified
3. Test results are give in joules
4. Tough specimens absorb more energy than brittle specimens
CHARPY IMPACT AND IZOD TEST
To determine the amount of energy absorbed in fracturing a
standardised test piece
IMPACT TEST
C
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I
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IMPACT TEST
I
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IMPACT TEST
1. Specimens are cut to the required length
2. A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along the fillet welds length
3. Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with a single hammer blow
4. Visual inspection for defects
Object of test

To break open the joint through the weld to permit examination of
the fracture surfaces

FILLET WELD FRACTURE TEST
FILLET WELD FRACTURE TEST
FILLET WELD FRACTURE TEST
Thickness of parent material
Throat thickness and leg lengths
Location of fracture
Appearance of joint after fracture
Depth of penetration
Defects present on fracture surfaces
Reporting results
FILLET WELD FRACTURE TEST
Macro/microscopic examinations are used to give a visual evaluation
of a cross-section of a welded joint
Carried out on full thickness specimens
The width of the specimen should include HAZ, weld and parent
plate
MACRO/MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Weld soundness
Distribution of inclusions
Number of weld passes
Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and HAZ
Location and depth of penetration of weld
Measure the leg length and throat thickness
Will Reveal
MACRO/MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Macro
Visual examination for defects
Cut transversely from the weld
Ground and polished P400 grit paper
Etched using 10-15% nitric acid solution
Wash and dry
Visual inspection under 5X magnification
Report on results
Micro
Visual examination for defects & grain structure
Cut transversely from the weld
Ground and polished P1200 grit paper
Etched using 1-5% nitric acid solution
Wash and dry
Visual inspection under 100X-1000X magnification
Report on results
MACRO/MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
MACRO REPORT
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Magnetic particle inspection (MT)
Dye penetrant inspection (PT)
Radiographic inspection (RT)
Ultrasonic inspection (UT)
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of NDT methods
and their applications, advantages and disadvantages.
Four basic NDT methods
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
DYE PENETRANT TESTING
Surface breaking defects only detected
This test method uses the forces of capillary action to detect surface breaking defects
The only limitation on the material type is the material can not be porous
Penetrants are available in many different types
- Water washable contrast
- Solvent removable contrast
- Water washable fluorescent
- Solvent removable fluorescent
- Post-emulsifiable fluorescent
DYE PENETRANT TESTING
DYE PENETRANT TESTING
DYE PENETRANT TESTING
DYE PENETRANT TESTING
DYE PENETRANT TESTING
DYE PENETRANT TESTING
DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION
Simple to use
Inexpensive
Quick results
Can be used on any non-porous
material
Portability
Low operator skill required
Surface breaking defect only
little indication of depths
Penetrant may contaminate
component
Surface preparation critical
Post cleaning required
Potentially hazardous chemicals
Advantages
Disadvantages
DYE PENETRANT TESTING
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
Surface and slight sub-surface detection
Relies on magnetization of component being tested
Ferro-magnetic materials only can be tested
A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being tested
Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent magnet, prods and flexible cables.
Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area
Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will create a leakage field, which attracts the
particles
Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in the case of fluorescent particles
under UV-A light a green/yellow indication
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
Clean area to be tested
Apply contrast paint
Apply magnetisism to the component
Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component during magnetising
Interpret the test area
Post clean and de-magnatise if required
Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
Simple to use
Inexpensive
Rapid results
Little surface preparation required
Possible to inspect through thin
coatings
Surface or slight sub-surface detection
only
Magnetic materials only
No indication of defects depths
Only suitable for linear defects
Detection is required in two directions
Advantages
Disadvantages
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION TEST
Surface and sub-surface detection
This detection method uses high frequency sound waves, typically above 2MHz
to pass through a material
A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to transmit and receive
ultrasonic pulses and display the signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display
The actual display relates to the time taken for the ultrasonic pulses to travel
the distance to the interface and back
An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect
For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be introduced between the
probe and specimen
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION TEST
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION TEST
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION TEST
Rapid results
Both surface and sub-surface detection
Safe
Capable of measuring the depth of defects
May be battery powered
Portable
Trained and skilled operator required
Requires high operator skill
Good surface finish required
Defect identification
Couplant may contaminate
No permanent record
Advantages
Disadvantages
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION TEST
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
The principles of radiography
X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object
Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees dependant upon the density
of the material through which it is travelling
Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as darker areas on
the radiograph
Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show as lighter areas on
a radiograph
Applicable to metals,non-metals and composites
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
Permanent record
Little surface preparation
Defect identification
No material type limitation
Not so reliant upon operator skill
Thin materials

Expensive consumables
Bulky equipment
Harmful radiation
Defect require significant depth in
relation to the radiation beam
Slow results
Very little indication of depths
Access to both sides required
Advantages
Disadvantages
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION