TAM 224/CEE 210 51

5. The Tension Test

5.1. Objective
The objective of this experiment is determine the
tensile behavior of four common construction mate-
rials: a structural steel, a cast iron, a structural
aluminum, and a common polymer. Such mechanical
properties as modulus of elasticity, yield strength,
ultimate strength, and ductility are determined for the
different materials. Also, correlations are drawn
between ductility and fracture-surface morphology.
5.2. Apparatus
Four Instron model 4400 load frames are available
for testing the samples. The testing machines apply
tensile or compressive forces by means of a moving
crosshead. Digital calipers are available to measure
the cross-sectional dimensions of all specimens before
testing.
For the instrumented tests, each machine is fur-
nished with a load cell that provides an output voltage
proportional to the applied load. The load cell has a
nominal capacity of 100 kN (22.5 kips).
An extensometer will be installed to measure the
elongation of the specimen. The gage length of the
extensometer is 25.4 mm (1 inch). The extensometer
provides an output voltage that is proportional to the
specimen elongation. The maximum measurable
elongation is about 100%.
A computer recording system is used to construct
a loaddeformation curve and to prepare data files for
post-processing.
5.3. Materials
Four metals and one polymer are studied. All
specimens are turned on a lathe, generally from
1/2-in.-dia. round stock. Nominal specimen dimen-
sions are given in Fig. 1.
Steel. A 1018, 1045, or other construction-grade
steel will be tested. Of these alloys, the 1045 steel, for
example, contains about 0.45% carbon and is
considered a medium-strength steel; it is fairly easily
welded, and is amenable to heat treatment. It is used,
for example, to make railway car wheels.
Gray cast iron. The lab specimens contain about
3.25% carbon and 2% silicon, the carbon being in the
form of graphite flakes. Cast iron is used in engine
blocks and machine frames.
Aluminum. A 2024-T6, 6061-T6, or 7075-T6
aluminum will be used to make the samples. Of these
alloys, 6061-T6 is a common-grade medium-strength
alloy used to make, for example, outdoor furniture
and bridge railings.
Stainless steel. Type 304 stainless steel will be
used to make the samples. This is a common material
for sinks, bowls, watch bracelets, and fasteners.
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA). This high-
molecular-weight polymer, available commercially
under the trade names Plexiglas and Lucite, is used as
replacement for glass, and for transparent fixtures.
Although not as brittle as glass, it is brittle when
compared with many other polymeric materials.
5.4. Experimental procedure
1. For each specimen, measure the mean diameter,
taking the average of three measurements. Begin
filling out Table 1.
25
150
12.7
8
35

Fig. 1. Nominal tension specimen
dimensions (mm).
52 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
2. Set up the Instron testing machine:
1

a. Install the specimen. Use the JOG buttons to
position the crosshead. The load should be
nearly zero.
b. Attach the extensometer (Fig. 2) while squeez-
ing the gage-length setting knobs together.
After installation, press BAL under STRAIN,
then ENTER. Wait until the STRAIN
indicator displays zero.
c. Press GL RESET to record the initial cross-
head position. The extension indicator should
then read zero.

1
Only a brief description is given here. For more detail, see
Appendix AInstron Model 4400 Series Load Frames, at
the end of this lab manual.
d. Perform a final check of the entire setup. Then
press the IEEE button to allow the desktop
computer to assume control of the testing
machine.
3. Follow the instructions in Appendix B of this lab
manual to set up the computer. LabVIEW

soft-
ware will be used. Perform the test when the
computer is ready.
4. During the test, carefully observe each specimen
as it is being deformed, and note any changes in
its shape.
5. After the specimen fails, disconnect the computer
interface by pressing the IEEE button on the
control console.
6. Remove the specimen pieces from the testing
machine. Avoid touching the fracture surfaces
together.
7. Make a detailed record of the general features of
the fracture surfaces, and measure the diameter at
the point of failure.
5.5. Analysis of Results
1. Construct a diagram of engineering stress vs.
strain for each of the materials tested. The tab-
delimited ASCII data files contain, in order, the
crosshead position, the load, the strain, and the
time. (For details, see Appendix BInstron 4400
Control Using LabVIEW

.) For ductile materials,

select one strain scale such that only the elastic
portion of the curve is emphasized; use the data in
this range to determine modulus of elasticity.
Then select a second strain scale that allows the
entire curve to be included on your plot. One
scale is usually sufficient for brittle materials.
2. From the stressstrain diagrams for each of the
materials, compute: (a) the modulus of elasticity E,
(b) the yield strength
y
, and (c) the ultimate
tensile strength
u
. (Hint: for ductile materials
without a clear yield point, the yield strength can
be determined using a 0.2% offset strain.)
3. Compute the percent reduction of area %RA, and
find the percent elongation %EL, for each
material, using the definitions
%RA = %EL =
A A
A
l l
l
f f 0
0
0
0
100% 100%

, .

Fig. 2. Attaching the extensometer to the specimen.
TAM 224/CEE 210 The Tension Test 53
4. For the steel specimen only, superimpose a plot of
the true stress
t
vs. true strain
t
up to the
point of maximum load, on the same graph for the
engineering stressstrain curve.
2
Be careful to use
natural units for strain, and not percent values,
when using the true-stress and true-strain
formulas.
5. Complete Table 1. Transfer data also to the appro-
priate table of the Compression and Hardness
Tests lab (Experiment 6 in this lab manual) and
also to the appropriate table of the Bending and
Torsion Tests lab (Experiment 7), for future
reference.
5.6. Points for discussion
Note.Your lab instructor will indicate which of the
following questions are to be addressed in your report.
1. Compare Youngs modulus of the five materials
tested.
2. Compare the yield strengths and the ultimate
strengths of the five materials tested. Did all five
materials yield? (Note: typical values of the
mechanical properties for some materials are
given in the following table.)
3. Discuss the general shape of the stressstrain
curve of each material, especially the region
beyond the yield point.
4. Compare the ductility of the four materials, based
on %RA, %EL, and the shape changes during

2
The true stress
t
is based on the instantaneous area A.
Thus, if it is assumed that plastic deformation occurs
homogeneously at constant volume, i.e. A
0
l
0
= Al , then

t
=
P
A
=
P
A
0

A
0
A
=
l
l
0
= (1 + ) .
The true strain
t
is given by the integral of differential
strains based on current length l, namely,

t
=
dl
l l
0
l

= ln
l
l
0
= ln(1+ ) .
If the strain is small, there is little numerical difference
between true and engineering definitions of stress and
strain.
Note that, once necking begins, the deformation is no
longer homogeneous; therefore the stresses and strains
become unknown functions of position within the necked
region, and it is incorrect to refer to the true stress and the
true strain.
deformation. Are the data for %RA and %EL
consistent?
5. Argue, if possible, why %RA should be preferred
over %EL as a measure of ductility. If %EL in
your experiment is determined using a gage
length of 25.4 mm, then what can you say about
the value of %EL that would have been
determined if the standard gage length of 50.8 mm
(2 in.) had been employed?
6. Discuss the fracture surfaces observed. How do
they relate to the ductility of the materials?
(Sketches are helpful.)
7. Describe in detail the process by which the cup-
and-cone type of failure occurs in ductile
materials. In which of your materials was this
mode of failure observed? Why is this mode of
failure not observed in brittle materials?
8. Compare the true and engineering stressstrain
curves for steel. Compute a pair of true and
engineering stresses at the maximum load, and
comment on the differences between the two
values.
References
Ashby, M. F., and D. R. H. Jones. 1981. Engineering
MaterialsAn Introduction to Their Properties and
Applications. Oxford: Pergamon, 82-85.
Askeland, D. R. 1989. The Science and Engineering of
Materials, 2nd ed. Boston: PWS-Kent. See Sections
6.1-6.6 and the tables on pp. 153, 500, 534-539, 554-
555, 591, 841.
Callister Jr., W. D. 2003. Materials Science and Engi-
neeringAn Introduction, 6th ed. New York:
Wiley, Sections 6.16.12, 8.18.4.
Flinn, R. A., and P. K. Trojan. 1990. Engineering
Materials and Their Applications. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, Sections 2.1-2.3, 2.6-2.7, 2.9.


Material
Youngs
modulus,
E (GPa)
Yield
strength,

y
(MPa)
Ultimate
strength,

u
(MPa)
1045 Steel 200 600 >
y

6061-T6 Alum. 70 300 >
y

Gray cast iron 140 300
304 Stainless 190 240 >
y

PMMA 3 40
54 Behavior of Engineering Materials TAM 224/CEE 210
Table 1Tensile mechanical properties
Measurement or property Material
Quantity Symbol Units _____ Steel PMMA _____ Alum. Cast iron 304 S. S.
Initial data
Diameter
d
0

mm
Cross-sectional area
A
0

mm
2

Strength
Approximate yield load*
P
y

kN
Approximate max. load*
P
max

kN

Shape changes during
deformation (sketch)







Detail of fracture surface
(sketch)






Hardness
Rockwell hardness HRB
Ductility
Gage length
l
0

mm 25.4
Percent elongation %EL
Final diameter
d
f

mm
Final area
A
f

mm
2

Percent reduction of area %RA
Mechanical properties derived from stressstrain diagram
Youngs modulus E GPa
Yield strength

y

MPa
Ultimate strength

u

MPa

Mechanical behavior
(description)






Test date: Group: Students name:
*By visual inspection of loadstrain plot during the test Printed 7/9/03