INDIAN RAILWAY HISTORY

Indian railway is the state-owned railway company of India. It

comes under the ministry of railway has one of the largest and
busiest rail network in the world transporting over 18 million
passengers and more than 2 million tonnes of freight daily. Its
revenue is rupees 107.66 billion its is the worlds largest
commercial employ, with more than 1.4 million employees. It
operates rail transport on 6,909 stations over a total routes length
more than 63,327 kms (39350miles).The fleet of Indian railway
including over 200,000 (fright) wagons, 50,000coaches and 8000
locomotive. It also owns locomotive and coach production
facilities. It found in 1853 under the EAST INDIAN COMPANY.



COMPRESSOR

The compressor is a two stage compressor with one low of
pressure cylinder and one high pressure cylinder. During the first
stage of compression it is dine in the low pressure cylinder where
suction is through a wire mesh filter. After compression in the L.P
cylinder air is delivered into the discharged manifold at a pressure
of 30/35 psi. working of the inlet and exhaust valves are similar to
that of exhauster which automatically opens or close under
differential air pressure.


For intercooling air is then passed through a radiator know as
intercooler. This an to air cooler where compressor air passed
through the element tubes and cool atmospheric air is blown on
the outside fins by a fan fitted on the expressor crankshaft. Cooling
of air this stage increases the volumetric efficiency of air before it
enters the high pressure cylinder .A safety valves known as
intercooler safety valves set at 60 psi is proved after the
intercooler as a protection against high pressure developing in the
after cooler due to defect of valves.

After the first stages of compression and after cooling the air is
again compressed in a cylinder of similar diameter to the pressure
to 135-140 psi in the same way. This is the second stage of
compression in the high pressure cylinder. Air again needs cooling
before it is finally sent to the air reservoir and thus done while the
air passes through a set of coiled tubes after cooler






WORIKING OF COMPRESSOR

An air compressor is a device that converts powers (usually from
an electric motor, a diesel engine or a gasoline engine) into kinetic
energy by compressing pressurizing air, which, on command, can
be released in quick bursts. There are numerous method of air
compression, divided into either positive-displacement or
negative displacement types.

Positive-displacement air compressor work by forcing air into a
chamber whose volume is reduce to compress the air. Pistontype
air compressors use this principal by pumping air into an air
chamber through the use of the constant motion of pistons. They
use unidirectional valves to guide air into chamber, where the air
is compressed. Rotary screw compressors also use positive-
displacement compression by matching two helical screws turn.
Vane compressor use a slotted rotor with varied blade placement
to guide air into a chamber and compress the volume.

Like a small internal combustion engine, a conventional piston
compressor has crankshaft, a connection rod and piston, a cylinder
and a valves head. The crankshaft is driven by either an electric
motor or a gas engine. While there are small models that are
combined of just the pump and motor, most compressors have an
air tank to hold a quantity of air within a present pressure range.
The compressed air in the tank drive the air tools, and the air
tools, and the motor cycles on and off to automatically maintain
pressure in tank.

At the top of the cylinder, youll find a valve head that holds the
inlet and discharge valves. Both are simply thin metal flap-one
mounted underneath and one mounted on top of the valve plate.
As the piston moves down, a vacuum is created above it. This
allows outside air at atmospheric pressure to push open the inlet
valve and fill the area above the piston. As the piston moves up, the
air above it compresses, hold the inlet valve shut and push the
discharge valve open. The air moves from the discharge port to the
tank. With each stoke, more air enter the tank and the pressure
rises.


Compressors user a pressure switch to stop the motor when tank
pressure reaches a preset limit-about 125 psi for many single-
stage models. Most of the time, through, you dont need that much
pressure. Therefore, the air line will include a regulator that you
set to match the pressure requirement of the tool youre using. A
gauge before the regulator monitor pressure and a gauge after the
regulator monitor air-line pressure. In addition, the tank has a
safety valve that opens if the pressure switch malfunctions. The
pressure switch may also incorporate an unloader valve that
reduces tank pressure when the compressor is turned off.

Many articulated-piston compressors are oil lubricanted. That is,
they have an oil bath that splash-lubricant the bearing and
cylinder walls as the crank rotates. The piston have rings that help
keep the compressed air on top of the piston and keep the
lubricating oil away from the air in aerosol farm.



LODING UNLODING OF AIR
COMPRESSER.



In an air compressor, there are device that automatically stop the
compressor from compressing air. A mechanical unloader is
sometimes installed in large air compressors such that air valves
are open when the set pressure is attained. When this happen, the
drive motor continues running but no air presser is pumped to the
receiving tank during the unloading period. When the pressure in
tank is reduced to a set level, the air valves in the compressor
automatically closes and air pressure is again developed, this
called pressure loading. In many instances, compressors are
controlled only by pressure switches to automatically stop the
drive motor at a set pressure and restart at a lower pressure.



COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE:

Capacity of a compressor is the full rated volume of flow of gas
compressor and delivered at condition of total temperature, total
pressure, and composition prevailing at the compressor inlet. It
sometimes means actual flow rate ,rather than rated volume of
flow. This is also termed as FAD (Free Air Delivery) i.e air at
atmospheric conditions at any specific location. Because the
altitude, barometer ,and temperature may vary at different
localities and at different times, it follows that this term does not
mean air under identical or standard conditions. Compressor
efficiency are volumetric efficiency, adiabetic efficiency,
isothermal efficiency an mechanical efficiency.




ISOTHERMAL EFFICIENCY

Thermal power does not include power needed to overcome
friction and gives efficiency which is lower than adiabetic
efficiency.




VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

Volumetric efficiency=FAD/Compressor displacement
Where- Compressor displacement=
D is the cylinder bore
L is the stroke length
S is the compressor speed
N is the number of cylinders
n =1 for single acting
n=2 for double acting





COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Compressed air systems consist of following major components:
Intake air filters, inter stage coolers, after coolers, air dryers, and
moisture drain traps, receivers, piping network, filters, regulators
and lubricators. Intake Air Filters: Prevent dust from entering
compressor; Dust causes sticking valves, scoured cylinders,
excessive wear etc.
Inter-stage Coolers :
Reduce the temperature of the air before it enters the next
stage to reduce the work of compression and increase efficiency.
They are normally water-cooled.
After Coolers :
The objective is to remove the moisture in the air by
reducing the temperature in a water-cooled heat exchanger.
Air-dryers :
The remaining traces of moisture after after-cooler are
removed using air dryers, as air for instrument and pneumatic
equipment has to be relatively free of any moisture. The moisture
is removed by using adsorbents like silica getl/activated carbon,
or refrigerant dryers, or heat of compression dryers.
Moisture Drain Traps :

Moisture drain traps are used for removal of moisture in the
compressed air. These traps resemble steam traps. Various types
of traps used are manual drain cocks, timer based / automatic
drain valves etc.



Receivers :
Air receiver are provided as storage and smoothening
pulsating air output-reducing pressure variations from the
compressor.


Efficient Operation of Compressed Air Systems
Location of Compressors The location of air compressors
and the quality of air drawn by the compressors will have a
significant influence on the amount of energy consumed.
Compressor performance as a breathing machine improves with
cool, clean, dry air at intake.
Cool air intake As a thumb rule, "Every 40C rise in inlet air
temperature results in a higher energy consumption by 1% to
achieve equivalent output". Hence, cool air intake leads to a more
efficient compression.
It is preferable to draw cool ambient air from outside, as the
temperature of air inside the compressor room will be a few
degrees higher than the ambient temperature. While extending air
intake to the outside of building, care should duct with minimum
number of bends.
Dust Free Air Intake :
Dust in the suction air causes excessive wear of moving parts
and results in malfunctioning of the valves due to abrasion.
Suitable air filters should be provided at the suction side. Air
filters should have high dust separation capacity, low-pressure
drops and robust design to avoid frequent cleaning and
replacement.
Air filters should be selected based on the compressor type
and installed as close to the compressor as possible. As a thumb
rule "For every 250 mm WC pressure drop increase across at the
suction path due to choked filters etc., the compressor power
consumption increases by about 2 percent for the same output"
Hence, it is advisable to clean inlet air filters at regular intervals to
minimize pressure drops. Manometers or differential pressure
gauges across filters may be provided for monitoring pressure
drops so as to plan filter-cleaning schedules.
Dry Air Intake :
Atmospheric air always contains some amount of water
vapour, depending on the relative humidity, being high in wet
weather. The moisture level will also be high if air is drawn from a
damp area for example locating compressor close to cooling
tower, or dryer exhaust is to be avoided The moisture-carrying
capacity of air increases with a rise in temperature and decreases
with increase in pressure.

Efficacy of Inter and After Coolers :
Efficacy is an indicator of heat exchange performance- how well
intercoolers and after coolers are performing. Inter-coolers are
provided between successive stages of a multi-stage compressor to
reduce the work of compression (power requirements) by
reducing the specific volume through cooling the air apart from
moisture separation. Ideally, the temperature of the inlet air at
each stage of a multi stage of a multi-stage machine should be the
same as it was at the first stage. This is referred to as "perfect
cooling" or isothermal compression. The cooling may be imperfect
due to reasons described in earlier sections. Hence in actual
practice, the inlet air temperatures at subsequent stages than the
normal levels resulting in higher power consumption, as a larger
volume is handled for the same duty.
Pressure Setting :
Compressor operates between pressure ranges called as loading
(cut-in) and unloading (cut-out) pressures. For example, a
compressor operating between pressure setting of 6 - 7 kg/cm
2
means that the compressor unloads at 7 kg/c m
2
and loads at 6
kg/cm
2
. Loading and unloading is done using a pressure switch.
For the same capacity, a compressor consumes more power at
higher pressures. They should not be operated above their
optimum operating pressures as this not only wastes energy, but
also leads to excessive wear, leading to further energy wastage.
The volumetric efficiency of a compressor is also less at higher
delivery pressures.
Reducing Delivery Pressure :
The possibility of lowering (optimizing) the delivery
pressure settings should be explored by careful study of pressure
requirements of various equipment, and the pressure drop in the
line between the compressed air generation and utilization points.
AIR BRAKE
Introduction :
An air brake is a conveyance braking system actuated by a
compressed air. Modern trains rely upon a fail preventive air
brake system that is based upon the design patented by George
Westinghouse on March 5, 1872. In the air brakes simplest form,
called the straight air system, compressed air pushes on a piston
in a cylinder. The piston is connected through mechanical linkage
to brake shoes that can rub on the train wheels using the resulting
friction to slow the train.
Air brake system operation :
The compressor in the locomotive produces the air supplied
to the system. It is stored in the main reservoir. Regulated
pressure of 6 kg/cm^2 flows to the feed pipe through the feed
valve and 5-kg/cm^2 pressure by a drivers brake valve to the
brake pipe. The feed pipe through check valve charges air
reservoir via isolating cock and also by brake pipe through
distributor valve. The brake pipe pressure controls the distributor
valves of all the coaches/wagons which in turn control the flow of
compressed air from air reservoir to brake cylinder in application
and from brake cylinder to atmosphere in release.
During application the driver in the loco lowers the B.P pressure.
This break pipe pressure reduction causes opening of brake
cylinder inlet passage and simultaneously closing of brake
cylinder outlet passage of the distributor valve. In this situation,
auxiliary reservoir supplies air to brake cylinder. At application
time, pressure in the brake cylinder and other brake
characteristics are controlled by distributor valve.
During release the B.P pressure is raised to 5 kg/cm^2. This
break pipe pressure causes closing of break cylinder inlet passage
and simultaneously opening of break cylinder outlet passage of
the distributor valve.

DESCRIPTION OF PARTS OF
EXPRESSOR/COMPRESSOR
Cylinders :
Compressor has two 196,875 mm diameters low pressure
cylinders and one 139.7 mm diameter high pressure cylinder.
Cylinders are made grey iron casting with hexagonal fins for better
cooling.



Cylinders Heads and Valves :


This compressor is equipped with three cylinder heads; the valves
are individual disc type, loaded with springs, operated due to the
differential pressure between the upstream and downstream
pressure. Inlet valves contain an integrated unloader that is
actuated by the unloader valve via a heavy spring which unload
the compressor whenever a set main reservoir pressure is reached
and not to exceed 140 psig (9.8 kg/cm^2).
Crankshaft and Connecting Rods :
Crankshaft is made of special alloy forged steel, so that
deflection is minimized and the wear is reduced. A fan is mounted
on the one end.
The drive to the crankshaft is taken from the engine through
a coupling. Rotational motion of the crankshaft is converted to
reciprocating motion by slider crank mechanism.
Low pressure and high pressure stage connecting rods are
interchangeable and are made of forged steel fitted with bimetal
bearing on crankpin end needle roller bearing on wrist pin end.
However the lower portion and upper portion of the connecting
rod must be kept as a matched set with orientation marks on the
same side. The connecting rods are mounted over the crankpin
adjacent to one another.
Compressor Pistons :
The low pressure pistons are made of aluminum and
elliptically ground on the outside diameter. The high pressure
piston is cast iron.
Both low pressure and high pressure piston have two cross
beveled oil controlled rings, one nose scraper ring and one taper
faced compression ring on the top. Piston reciprocates taking the
power from the connecting rod.


Main Bearings :
Two double row balls bearing are assembled on either side
of the crankshaft which takes the misalignment in geometrical
tolerance and operations. The main bearings of the compressor
and lubricated by the oil taken up during compressor operation
and passes through the pocket in the end cover.




End Cover :

End cover is made of cast iron, which has more stiffness and
deflection is minimized, which increases the rigidity.
Lubrication of Compressor :
The compressor lubricating system is piloted by the gear
drive oil pump. The oil pump circulates the rid under pressure.
Drive is taken from the crankshaft by means of a set of gears with
an ideer, to pump the oil through the system. A primary oil filter
which faces the inner side of the crankcase bottom, filter the oil to
prevent the ingress of external agents like dust and other solid
particles from entering into the pump and the lubricating system.
The filtered oil is passed through the groove to the disturbing ring.

Through the distributing ring, the lubricating oil flows to each
crank pin in the crankshaft through the oil holes drilled in it. The
oil lubricates the inner bearings of the connecting rods through
the groove provided and the needle roller bearing and gudgeon
pin at small end through for holes drilled in the connecting rods. A
relief valve fitted on the body of the oil pump maintains the oil
pressure between 2.2 to 3.5 kgf/cm^2. It can be adjusted to the
desired oil measure.
Intercooler :
The intercooler reduces the temperature of the compressed
air leaving the first stage prior to entering the second stage in
order to improve the overall thermodynamics efficiency of the
system The air from atmosphere is forced to flow configuration to
reduce the temperature of the compressed air.


After Cooler :

The after cooler assembly reduces the outlet temperature. The
cooler made with external Lined cooper pipes. A safety valve is
provided at the manifold of the after cooler assembly, which has
an opening pressure of 200 psi. Both intercooler and after cooler
has a drain valve at the bottom to drain the condensate.



OVERHAULING AND
MAINTAINANCE PROCEDURE


Exterior Surfaces-

Before the compressor is disassembled, the exterior surface of the
must be thoroughly cleaned. Parts should be marked to ensure
that each would be reassemble in the proper location. Care should
be taken when handling parts so as not to damage parts. When
cleaning the parts, do not put main bearing, crankshaft, connecting
rods valves, piston, piston ring or wrist pins, plunger, pump
components in the same basket with other compressor parts.

Cylinder heads, cylinder, crankcase, end cover, casting manifolds,
should be placed in a cleaning solution and left other long enough
to ensure proper cleaning. After removal from the cleaning
solution these parts should be wire brushed and inspected for
defects.

The piston, crankshaft and connecting rods should be thoroughly
cleaned and magnetic particle inspected for defects.

Use the low pressure jet for clean, dry air to blow the surface clean.


CLEANING, INSPECTION AND
REPARING


CLEANING-
Clean all other serviceable metal parts to facilitate inspection.
After the parts have been cleaned, they MUST BE completely dried.
Use a low pressure jet of clean dry air to blow the parts dry

Make certain that all drilled oil passages in connecting rods,
crankshaft etc; are clean and free from obstruction and that the oil
pressure indicator tube is not bend or damaged.

IMPORTANT: All gaskets, rubber parts, copper washer, self-locking
hardware and split pins ARE TO BE SCARAPPED. ONLY NEW
manufactured recommend parts are to be use in place of the
scrapped parts during the assembly procedure to permit the best
fit and performance.


CYLINDER

Replace any cylinder that is found to be damage beyond repair this
may include cylinder with damaged or broken fins as determined
or broken fins as determined by inspection.
The cylinder should be cleaned after removal, prior to any
inspection or reconditioning. Examine the cylinder for score
marks or ridges at the ring travel in surface.




Aluminum and cast iron pistons-

At the time of compressor overhauling the piston should be
removed, cleaned and inspected for excess wear. The wrist pin
should be removed from the piston and connecting rod assembly
with the tool.


Piston ring grooves must be square and free from wear edges.
Measure the piston and cylinder diameter and it must be with in
limit.
Where applicable, minor scruff marks or scratches can be
smoothed with a file.
Wash piston thoroughly to remove any foreign particles, and then
blow it dry with clean dry air.
Cover both end of wrist pin bore and piston groove to keep foreign
material out of the bore until the wrist pin is installed.

PISTON RINGs

Compressions rings are marked on top ensure proper application.
Oil control ring are not marked as they may be applied either side
u.

To properly apply the piston rings, use the correct ring expanding
installing tool according to the piston diameter. Piston assembly
should be fitted through the bottom of the cylinder rather than
through the top because the bottom of the cylinder is chamfered
to prevent damage to the ring on enter. Therefore, ring must have
at least minimum clearance at the lower end of the cylinder. Piston
ring should never be filed to obtain clearance.

Taper face type compression ring are to be assemble in the piston
with facing upward position. The nose scraper ring is to be
assembled with notch down towards the bottom of the piston.
CRANKCASE
Replace the crankcase, if it damage beyond repair otherwise clean
the crankcase.









END COVER


Replace the end covers if is craned, broke, or otherwise damaged
beyond damaged beyond repair.





CRANKSHAFT

If the crankshaft is removed for any reason , it should be given a
thorough cleaning with solvent , particularly during overhauling
work , since metallic particles among lodge in the oil passage . All
oil drilling must be cleaned thoroughly.

During scrubbing, solvent should be directed into the passage
under approximately 172 kpa, washing and brushing must be
repeated until the oil passage and crankshaft is absolutely cleaned.
The crankshaft should be replaced if any of the following defect is
noticed:

1.Bent or cranked.
2. Crank pin is at or beyond the condemning limit.


CONNECTING ROD


Connecting rods used in the compressor are equipped are
equipped with bearing insert the bearing insert should be
replaced at the time of overhauling or any time their condition
warrants replacement.

All oil passage must be cleaned thoroughly. A long handled bristle
brush having slightly over 8mm diameter is recommended for
cleaning passages. During scrubbing, solvent should be directed
into the passage under approximately 25 psig pressure.
Wrist pin bore must be parallel with crank pin bore in both planes
to be within 0.0008mm.
Crank pin bore must be square with both the planes within
0.0004mm.






PERFORMANCE TESTING AFTER
RECONDITIONING

INTRODUCTION


The compressor which has gone through a inspection and
recondition should be put to a wearing run for a considerable
period.

It should be remembered that the wear is run must be done at a
reasonable speed whenever it has under gone recondition and
general overhauling particularly piston ring and cylinders allow
sufficient time for the self-adjustment of the new part that a
replaced. There will be non-uniform and rapid increase in
temperature after sometime it will regain normal temperature.
Since the part have been replaced , there is a change for
temperature to vary never allow the compressor to run at high
speed because if there is any misalignment , it may sever damage
to the unit.

TEST PROCEDURE

Every before operation should be followed up with much care so
that the benefit achieved from precise remachining and
refinishing should not be lost in wear period .
Construct test stand at the place where major overhauling is
carried out ,if new test stand is not provided , we can conduct the
wear is test the locomotive itself. Use a variable speed motor of
about 100hp or a constant speed motor with a multiple speed gear
box to drive the compressor use belt drive provided. No thrust is
allowed on main bearings of compressor. Maintain the speed
range for testing between 400-1100 rpm and the install speed
should not be less than 400rpm to provide sufficient lubrication to
all the part during the wear in.
Provide lubricating oil and auxiliary cooling fan. Stop the
compressor for cooling and make to run at the minimum speed
and pressure ,if there is high temperature and if its persist ,
examine check whether the cooling air is sufficient , proper
lubrication and correct alignment and clearance.

OIL SEAL ASSEMBLY-
The oil seal must be assembly in the crankcase and in cover with
two lips facing inwards . Install the oil seal without lubrication on
the seal lips.
When installing an oil seal, care must be exercise to ensure that
the seal is not damaged by the keyway or should of the crankshaft.



CYLINDER HEAD ASSEMBLY

Install the inlet and outlet valve using the new copper washers.
Install the valve plugs with anti-seize lubricants on the threads .
Proper check the leakage of any part.
After this assemble the intercooler and after cooler.