2

MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL

COMMUNICATION - LAB MANUAL
(As Per Anna University)





















By
K.Eugine Raj



3


RECTANGULAR WAVE GUIDE

ATTENUATORS

TUNABLE PROBE




4

STUDY OF MICROWAVE COMPONENTS

AIM:
To study the various microwave components structure and its application.

RECTANGULAR WAVE GUIDE
Wave guides are manufactured to the highest mechanical and electrical standards and
mechanical tolerances. L and S band wave guides are fabricated by precision brazing of
brass-plates and all other wave guides are in extrusion quality.

ATTENUATORS
Attenuators are passive resistive elements that do the opposite of amplifiers, they kill
gain. Why would you want to do that? Suppose your design specification calls for 10 dB
gain, with a 1.2:1 maximum VSWR. You search the amplifier vendors, and locate an
amplifier in your frequency band, but it has 14.5 dB gain and a lousy 2.5:1 match on the
input. By adding an attenuator to the input, you can bring the gain down to 10 dB, and you
will be improving the input match. Two things to consider when you play this game: dont
add an attenuator to an amplifiers input if you are concerned with the amplifiers noise
figure, every dB of attenuation you put on the input will raise the noise figure by the same
amount. Similarly, dont add an attenuator to a power amplifiers output without considering
what it will do to your output power, or what the RF output power of the power amp might do
to your attenuator.

TUNABLE PROBE
Tunable probe is designed for use with model 6051 slotted sections. These are meant
for exploring the energy of the EF in a suitably fabricated section of wave guide. The depth
of penetration into a wave guide - section is adjustable by the knob of the probe. The tip pick
up the RF power from the line and this power is rectified by crystal detector, which is then
fed to the VSWR meter or indicating instrument.




5


DETECTOR MOUNT





ISOLATOR





CIRCULATOR








6

WAVE GUIDE DETECTOR MOUNT (TUNABLE)
Tunable Detector Mount is simple and easy to use instrument for detecting microwave
power through a suitable detector. It consists of a detector crystal mounted in a section of a
Wave guide and shorting plunger for matching purpose. The output from the crystal may be
fed to an indicating instrument. In K and bands detector mounts the plunger is driven by a
micrometer.

ISOLATOR
An isolator is a nonreciprocal transmission device that is used to isolate one
component from reflections of other components in the transmission line. An ideal isolator
completely absorbs the power for propagation in one direction and provides lossless
transmission in the opposite direction. Thus the isolator is usually called uniline. Isolators are
generally used to improve the frequency stability of microwave generators such as klystrons
and magnetrons in which the reflection from the load affects the generating frequency. In
such cases the isolator is placed between the generator and load to prevent the reflected
power from the unmatched load from returning to the generator. As a result the isolator
maintains the frequency stability of the generator.

CIRCULATOR
A circulator is a ferrite device (ferrite is a class of materials with strange magnetic
properties) with usually three ports. The beautiful thing about circulators is that they are non-
reciprocal. That is, energy into port 1 predominantly exits port 2, energy into port 2 exits port
3, and energy into port 3 exits port 1. In a reciprocal device the same fraction of energy that
flows from port 1 to port 2 would occur to energy flowing the opposite direction, from port 2
to port 1. The selection of ports is arbitrary, and circulators can be made to "circulate" either
clockwise (CW) or counterclockwise (CCW).
SLIDE SCREW TUNERS
slide screw tuners are used for matching purposes by changing the penetration and
position of a screw in the slot provided in the centre of the wave guide. These consists of a
section of wave guide flanged on both ends and a thin slot is provided in the broad wall of the
Wave guide. A carriage carrying the screw, is provided over the slot. A VSWR upto 20 can
be tuned to a value less than 1.02 at certain frequency.
7


DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS




MULTIHOLE DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS


MAGIC TEE









8

DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS
A directional coupler is a four-port waveguide junction. It consists of a primary
waveguide and a secondary waveguide. When all the ports are terminated in their
characteristic impedance there is no free transmission of power, without reflection between
port 1 and port 2, and there is no transmission of power between ports 1 and port 3 and
between ports 2 and 4 because no coupling exists between these two pair of ports. The degree
of coupling between ports 1 and 4 and between ports 2 and 3 depends on the structure of the
coupler.

MULTIHOLE DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS
Multihole directional couplers are useful for sampling a part of Microwave energy for
monitoring purposes and for measuring reflections and impedance. These consists of a
section of Wave guide with addition of a second parallel section of wave guide thus making it
a four port network. However the fourth port is terminated with a matched load. These two
parallel sections are coupled to each other through many holes almost to give uniform
coupling; minimum frequency sensitivity and high directivity.

Magic Tees (Hybrid tees)
A magic tee is a combination of the E-plane tee and H-plane tee. The magic tee has
several characteristics.
1. If the two ports of equal magnitude and the same phase are fed into port 1 and port 2, the
output will be zero at port 3 and additive at port 4.
2. If a wave is fed into port 4 (H arm), it will be divided equally between port 1 and port 2 of
the collinear arms and will not appear in port 3.
3. If a wave is fed into port 3 (E arm), it will produce an output of equal magnitude and
opposite phase at port 1 and port 2. The output at port 4 is zero.
4. If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at port 1 or port 2, it will not appear in the
other collinear arm at port 2 or port 1 because the E- arm causes a phase delay while the H-
arm causes a phase advance.







9





H-Plane Tee


E-Plane Tee



MOVABLE SHORT







10


H-plane tee (shunt tee)
An H-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of the side arm is shunting the E-
field or parallel to the H field of the main guide. It can be seen that if the two input waves are
fed in port 1 and port 2 of the collinear arm, the output wave at port 3 will be in phase and
additive. On the other hand, if the input is fed into port 3, the wave will split equally into port
1 and port 2 in phase and in same magnitude.

E-plane tee (series tee)
An E-plane tee is a waveguide in which the axis of the side arm is parallel to the E-
field of the main guide. If the collinear arms are symmetric about the side arm, there are two
different transmission characteristics.

MOVABLE SHORT
movable shorts consists of a section of waveguide, flanged on one end and terminated
with a movable shorting plunger on the other end. By means of this non contacting type
plunger, a reflection co-efficient of almost unity may be obtained.

WAVEGUIDE BENDS
The size, shape, and dielectric material of a waveguide must be constant throughout its length
for energy to move from one end to the other without reflections. Any abrupt change in its
size or shape can cause reflections and a loss in overall efficiency. When such a change is
necessary, the bends, twists, and joints of the waveguides must meet certain conditions to
prevent reflections.












11


MATCHED TERMINATION


HORN ANTENNA

KLYSTRON TUBE



12



MATCHED TERMINATION
It consists of a small and highly dissipative taper flap mounted inside the centre of a
section of wave guide. Matched Terminations are useful for USWR measurement of various
waveguide components. These are also employed as dummy and as a precise reference loads
with Tee junctions, directional couplers and other similar dividing devices.
PYRAMIDAL WAVEGUIDE HORN ANTENNA
pyramidal Wave guide Horn antenna consists of waveguide joined to pyramidal
section fabricated from brass sheet. The pyramidal section shapes the energy to concentrate in
a specified beam. Wave guide horns are used as feed horns as radiators for reflectors and
lenses and as a pickup antenna for receiving microwave power.
KLYSTRON
A klystron is a specialized vacuum tube (evacuated electron tube) called a linear-
beam tube. The pseudo-Greek word klystron comes from the stem form klys of a Greek verb
referring to the action of waves breaking against a shore, and the end of the word electron.

Frequency Meter
The cylindrical cavity forms a resonator that produces a suck-out in the frequency
response of the unit. This you would turn the knob until a dip in the response is observed. The
graduations will tell you what frequency you are at. Waveguide frequency meters use a short
circuit resonant cavity, which resonates at half wavelength. Most wavemeters are waveguide,
however, coaxial types are possible. Waveguide wavemeters can only measure frequency
over their respective frequency band.
Gunn Diode
A Gunn diode, also known as a transferred electron device (TED) is a form of
diode used in high-frequency electronics. It is somewhat unusual in that it consists only of N
doped semiconductor material, whereas most diodes consist of both P and N-doped regions.
In the Gunn diode, three regions exist: two of them are heavily N-doped on each terminal,
with a thin layer of lightly doped material in between. When a voltage is applied to the
device, the electrical gradient will be largest across the thin middle layer. Eventually, this
layer starts to conduct, reducing the gradient across it, preventing further conduction. In
practice, this means a Gunn diode has a region of negative differential resistance.


13



















































14

VSWR meter
The SWR meter or VSWR meter measures the standing wave ratio in a transmission
line. This is an item of radio equipment used to check the quality of the match between the
antenna and the transmission line. The VSWR meter should be connected in the line as close
as possible to the antenna. This is because all practical transmission lines have a certain
amount of loss, causing the reflected power to be attenuated as it travels back along the cable,
and producing an artificially low VSWR reading on the meter. If the meter is installed close
to the antenna, then this problem is minimized.



















Result:




15


Block Diagram:




















Klystron
Power supply
Klystron
Mount

Isolator
Frequency
meter
Variable
attenuator
Detector
Mount
Multi
meter
VSWR
meter
CRO
Klystron
Tube
16

REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:
To study the mode characteristics of the reflex klystron tube and to determine its
Electronic tuning range.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Klystron power supply
2. Klystron tube 2k-25 with klystron mount
3. Isolator
4. Frequency meter
5. Detector mount
6. Variable Attenuator
7. Wave guide stand
8. VSWR meter
9. Oscilloscope
10. BNC Cable
THEORY:
The reflex klystron is a single cavity variable frequency microwave generator of low
power and low efficiency. This is most widely used in applications where variable frequency
is desired as
1. In radar receivers
2. Local oscillator in w receivers
3. Signal source in micro wave generator of variable frequency
4. Portable micro wave links.
5. Pump oscillator in parametric amplifier
Voltage Characteristics: Oscillations can be obtained only for specific combinations of
anode and repeller voltages that give favorable transit time.
Power Output Characteristics: The mode curves and frequency characteristics. The
frequency of resonance of the cavity decides the frequency of oscillation. A variation in
repeller voltages slightly changes the frequency.



17

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Beam Voltage :V (Constant)
Beam Current :.mA
Repeller
Voltage (V)
Current
(mA)
Power
(mW)
Dip
Frequency
(GHz)

























EXPECTED GRAPH:

18


EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
A. CARRIER WAVE OPERATION:
1. Connect the equipments and components as shown in the block diiagram.
2. Set the variable attenuator at maximum Position.
3. Set the MOD switch of Klystron Power Supply at CW position, beam voltage control
knob to fully anti clock wise and repeller voltage control knob to fully clock wise and
meter switch to OFF position.
4. Rotate the Knob of frequency meter at one side fully.
5. Connect the DC microampere meter at detector.
6. Switch ON the Klystron power supply, CRO and cooling fan for the Klystron tube.
7. Put the meter switch to beam voltage position and rotate the beam voltage knob clockwise
slowly up to 300 Volts and observe the beam current on the meter by changing meter
switch to beam current position. The beam current should not increase more than 30 mA.
8. Change the repeller voltage slowly and watch the current meter, set the maximum voltage
on CRO.
9. Tune the plunger of klystron mount for the maximum output.
10. Rotate the knob of frequency meter slowly and stop at that position, where there is less
output current on multimeter. Read directly the frequency meter between two horizontal
line and vertical marker. If micrometer type frequency meter is used read the micrometer
reading and find the frequency from its frequency calibration chart.
11. Change the repeller voltage and read the current and frequency for each repeller voltage.
B. SQUARE WAVE OPERATION:
1. Connect the equipments and components as shown in the block diagram.
2. Set Micrometer of variable attenuator around some Position.
3. Set the range switch of VSWR meter at 40 dB position, input selector switch to crystal
impedance position, meter switch to narrow position.
4. Set Mod-selector switch to AM-MOD position .beam voltage control knob to fully anti
clockwise position.
5. Switch ON the klystron power Supply, VSWR meter, CRO and cooling fan.


19

Out Put:































20

6. Switch ON the beam voltage. Switch and rotate the beam voltage knob clockwise up to
300V in meter.
7. Keep the AM MOD amplitude knob and AM FREQ knob at the mid position.
8. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter or square wave on
CRO.
9. Rotate the AM MOD amplitude knob to get the maximum output in VSWR meter or
CRO.
10. Maximize the deflection with frequency knob to get the maximum output in VSWR meter
or CRO.
11. If necessary, change the range switch of VSWR meter 30dB to 50dB if the deflection in
VSWR meter is out of scale or less than normal scale respectively. Further the output can
be also reduced by variable attenuator for setting the output for any particular position.
C. MODE STUDY ON OSCILLOSCOPE:
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in the block diagram.
2. Keep position of variable attenuator at min attenuation position.
3. Set mode selector switch to FM-MOD position FM amplitude and FM frequency knob at
mid position keep beam voltage knob to fully anti clock wise and reflector voltage knob
to fully clockwise position and beam switch to OFF position.
4. Keep the time/division scale of oscilloscope around 100 HZ frequency measurement and
volt/div. to lower scale.
5. Switch ON the klystron power supply and oscilloscope.
6. Change the meter switch of klystron power supply to Beam voltage position and set beam
voltage to 300V by beam voltage control knob.
7. Keep amplitude knob of FM modulator to max. Position and rotate the reflector voltage
anti clock wise to get the modes as shown in figure on the oscilloscope. The horizontal
axis represents reflector voltage axis and vertical represents o/p power.
8. By changing the reflector voltage and amplitude of FM modulation in any mode of
klystron tube can be seen on oscilloscope.
RESULT:




21




BLOCK DIAGRAM























Gunn
Power
supply
Gunn
Oscillator
PIN
Modulat
or

Frequency
meter
Variable
attenuator
Detector
Mount
VSWR
meter

Isolator

Slotted
Section
22

GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:
To study the V-I characteristics of Gunn diode.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1. Gunn power supply
2. Gunn oscillator
3. PIN Modulator
4. Isolator
5. Frequency Meter
6. Variable attenuator
7. Slotted line
8. Detector mount and CRO.
THEORY:
Gunn diode oscillator normally consist of a resonant cavity, an arrangement for
coupling diode to the cavity a circuit for biasing the diode and a mechanism to couple the RF
power from cavity to external circuit load. A co-axial cavity or a rectangular wave guide
cavity is commonly used.
The circuit using co-axial cavity has the Gunn diode at one end at one end of cavity
along with the central conductor of the co-axial line. The O/P is taken using a inductively or
capacitively coupled probe. The length of the cavity determines the frequency of oscillation.
The location of the coupling loop or probe within the resonator determines the load
impedance presented to the Gunn diode. Heat sink conducts away the heat due to power
dissipation of the device.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Voltage-Current Characteristics:
1. Set the components and equipments as shown in the block diagram.
2. Initially set the variable attenuator for minimum attenuation.
3. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as below



23


MODEL GRAPH:


OBSERVATION TABLE:

Gunn bias voltage
(v)
Gunn diode current
(mA)

















Volts (V)
Threshold voltage
I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF GUNN OSCILLATOR
I
(mA)
24

Meter switch OFF
Gunn bias knob Fully anti clock wise
PIN bias knob Fully anti clock wise
PIN mode frequency any position
4. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.
5. Switch ON the Gunn power supply.
6. Measure the Gunn diode current to corresponding to the various Gunn bias voltage
through the digital panel meter and meter switch. Do not exceed the bias voltage above
10 volts.
7. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph.
8. Measure the threshold voltage which corresponding to max current.

Note: Do not keep Gunn bias knob position at threshold position for more than 10-15 sec.
readings should be obtained as fast as possible. Otherwise due to excessive heating Gunn
diode may burn


















25

Out Put:
































26




























RESULT:






27


Block Diagram:




Klystron
Power supply
Klystron
Mount

Isolator
Frequency
meter
Variable
attenuator
Slotted
Line
VSWR meter
Matched
Termination

Movable
Short
Klystron
Tube
Tunable
Probe
28

MEASUREMENT OF VSWR FREQUENCY AND
WAVELENGTH

AIM:
To determine the VSWR, frequency and wavelength in a rectangular wave guide
working in TE
10
mode.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Klystron tube
2. Klystron power supply
3. Klystron mount
4. Isolator
5. Frequency meter
6. Variable attenuator
7. Slotted section
8. Tunable probe
9. VSWR meter
10. Wave guide stand
11. Movable Short
12. Matched termination
THEORY:
The cut-off frequency relationship shows that the physical size of the wave guide will
determine the propagation of the particular modes of specific orders determined by values of
m and n. The minimum cut-off frequency is obtained for a rectangular wave guide having
dimension a>b, for values of m=1, n=0, i.e. TE
10
mode is the dominant mode since for TM
mn
modes, n#0 or n#0 the lowest-order mode possible is TE
10
, called the dominant mode in a
rectangular wave guide for a>b.
For dominant TE
10
mode rectangular wave guide o, g and c are related as below.

1/o = 1/g + 1/c
Where o is free space wave length
g is guide wave length
c is cut off wave length
For TE
10
mode c 2a where a is broad dimension of wave guide.
29

OBSERVATION TABLE:

B
e
a
m

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
v
)

B
e
a
m

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
m
A
)

R
e
p
e
l
l
e
r

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
v
)

f
o

(
u
s
i
n
g

f
r
e
q

m
e
t
e
r
)

(
G
H
Z
)

d1

(cm)
d2

(cm)
d3

(cm)
d4

(cm)
d1=
d2-
d1

(cm)
d2=
d3-d2

(cm)

d
3
=

d
4

-

d

3

d
=
(

d
1
+

d
2
+

d
3
)
/
3

g
=
2

x

o

(
c
m
)

f
o

(
H
Z
)






























30

PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in figure.
2. Set up variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below:
Beam voltage OFF
Mod-switch AM
Beam voltage knob Fully anti clock wise
Repeller voltage Fully clock wise
AM Amplitude knob Around fully clock wise
AM Frequency knob Around mid position
4. Switch ON the klystron power supply, CRO and cooling fan switch.
5. Switch ON the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300V with help of beam
voltage knob.
6. Adjust the repeller voltage to get the maximum amplitude in CRO
7. Maximize the amplitude with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power
supply.
8. Tune the plunger of klystron mount for maximum Amplitude.
9. Tune the repeller voltage knob for maximum Amplitude.
10. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a dip on the CRO and note down the frequency
from frequency meter.
11. Replace the termination with movable short, and detune the frequency meter.
12. Move the probe along with slotted line. The amplitude in CRO will vary .Note and
record the probe position , Let it be d1.
13. Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again, Let it be
d2.
14. Calculate the guide wave length as twice the distance between two successive minimum
position obtained as above.
15. Measure the wave guide inner board dimension a which will be around 22.86mm for
x-band.
16. Calculate the frequency by following equation.

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
2 2
1 1
c
g
c
f


Where C = 3x10
8
meter/sec. i.e. velocity of light.
31


































32

17. Verify with frequency obtained by frequency modes
18. Above experiment can be verified at different frequencies.
f
o
= C/o => C => 3x10
8
m/s (i.e., velocity of light)
1/o = 1/g + 1/c

2 2
0
c g
c g

+
=
g = 2x d
For TE
10
mode => c = 2a
a wave guide inner broad dimension
a = 2.286cm (given in manual)
c = 4.6cm
SWR is given by, SWR= g/(d)














RESULT:






33


Block diagram:




















Klystron
Power supply
Klystron
Mount

Isolator
Frequency
meter
Variable
attenuator
Matched
Termination

Klystron
Tube
Slotted
Line
VSWR
Meter
Matched
Termination

Matched
Termination

MHD
Coupler
34

STUDY THE FUNCTION OF MULTI HOLE DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

AIM:
To study the function of multi hole directional coupler by measuring the following
parameter.
Measurement of main line and auxiliary line VSWR.
Measurement of coupling factor and directivity
Equipment Required:
1. Microwave source (Klystron or Gunn Diode type)
2. Isolator
3. Frequency meter
4. Variable attenuator
5. Slotted line
6. Tunable Probe
7. Detector mount
8. Matched Terminator
9. MHD coupler
10. Wave guide stand
11. Cables & accessories
12. VSWR meter

Theory:
A directional coupler is a device with it is possible to measure the incident and
reflected wave separately. It consists of two-transmission line, the main arm and auxiliary
arm, electromagnetically coupled to each other. The power entering in port-1 the main arm
gets divided between port-1 and port-4.
The coupling factor is defined as
Coupling (dB)=10log
10
(P
1
/P
3
) where port 2 is terminated.
Isolation=10log
10
(P
1
/P
3
) where P
1
is matched.
With built in termination and power is entering at port1. The directivity of the coupler
is a measure of separation between incident and the reflected wave. It is measured as the ratio
of two power output from the auxiliary line when the port terminated by material loads.


35

Tabulation
Line SWR
Mail line
Auxiliary line


Input Arm Output Voltage Isolation Coupling
P1 P2

P3





Directivity=insolation coupling

















36

Hence directivity D(dB)=Isolation-Coupling =10log
10
(P
2
/P
1
).
Main line VSWR is SWR measured looking into the main line input terminal when
the matched loads are placed at all other ports.
Auxiliary line VSWR is SWR measured in the auxiliary line looking into the output
terminal, when the matched loads are placed on other terminals.
Main line insertion loss is the attenuation introduced in transmission line by insertion of
coupler.
It is defined as insertion:
Loss=10log
10
(P
2
/P
1
)
Procedure:
Main line SWR measurement
1. Set up the equipment as shown in the block diagram.
2. Set up variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below:
Beam voltage OFF
Mod-switch AM
Beam voltage knob Fully anti clock wise
Repeller voltage Fully clock wise
AM Amplitude knob Around fully clock wise
AM Frequency knob Around mid position
4. Switch ON the klystron power supply, CRO and cooling fan switch.
5. Switch ON the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300V with help of beam
voltage knob.
6. Adjust the repeller voltage to get the maximum amplitude in CRO
7. Maximize the amplitude with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power
supply.
8. Tune the plunger of klystron mount for maximum Amplitude.
9. Tune the repeller voltage knob for maximum Amplitude.
10. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a dip on the CRO and note down the frequency
from frequency meter.
11. Replace the termination with movable short, and detune the frequency meter.
12. Move the probe along with slotted line. The amplitude in CRO will vary .Note and
record the probe position, Let it be d1.

37


































38

13. Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again, Let it be
d2.
14. Calculate the guide wave length as twice the distance between two successive minimum
positions obtained as above.
15. Repeat the same for other frequencies
Auxiliary line SWR measurement
Set up the equipment as shown in figure
Energize the microwave source for particular frequency as described operation of klystron.
Measure SWR as described in the experiment of SWR measurement
Repeat the same for other frequencies.
Measurement of coupling factor, insertion loss:

Measurement of coupling factor, insertion loss:
Set up the equipments as shown in the block diagram.
Energize the microwave source for particular frequency as described operation of klystron.













Result:




39

Block Diagram:


















Klystron
Power supply
Klystron
Mount

Isolator
Frequency
meter
Variable
attenuator
Klystron
Tube
Slotted
Line
Tunable
probe
Matched
Termination

Isolator/
Circulator
VSWR
Meter
40

STUDY THE FUNCTION OF ISOLATOR AND CIRCULATOR

AIM:
To study the function of isolator and circulator by measuring the main line and auxiliary
line VSWR.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Microwave source Klystron tube
2. Isolator
3. Frequency meter
4. Variable attenuator
5. Slotted line
6. Tunable probe
7. Detector mount
8. Matched termination
9. Klystron power supply & Klystron mount
10. Cooling fan
11. BNC-BNC cable
13. VSWR or CRO
Theory:
Isolator: An isolator is a two-port device that transfers energy from input to output with little
attenuation and from output to input with very high attenuation.
Circulator: The circulator is defined as a device with ports arranged such that energy
entering a port is coupled to an adjacent port but not coupled to other ports. Refer to the fig.
A wave incident on port 1 is coupled to port 2 only, a wave incident at port 2 is coupled to
port 3 only and so on.
Insertion loss
The ratio of power supplied by a source to the input port to the power detected by a detector
in the coupling arm, i.e. output arm with other port terminated in the matched load, is defined
as insertion loss or forward loss.




41

Tabulation for Isolator
Line SWR
Mail line
Auxiliary line

Tabulation for Circulator
Line SWR
Mail line
Auxiliary line






















42

Isolation
It is the ratio of power fed to input arm to the power detected at not coupled port with other
port terminated in the matched load
Input VSWR
The input VSWR of an isolator or circulator is the ratio of voltage maximum to voltage
minimum of the standing wave existing on the line when one port of it terminates the line and
other have matched termination.

PROCEDURE:
1. Input VSWR Measurement
a. Set up the components and equipments as shown in the fig with input port of
isolator or circulator towards slotted line and matched load on other ports of it.
b. Energize the microwave .source for particular operation of frequency.
c. With the help of slotted line, probe and SWR meter. Find SWR, of the isolator or
circulator as described for low and medium SWR measurements.
d. The above procedure can be repeated for other ports or for other frequencies.
2. Measurement of Insertion Loss and Isolation
a. Remove the probe and isolator or circulator from slotted line and connect the
detector mount to the slotted section. The output of the detector mount should be connected
SWR meter.
b. Energize the microwave source for maximum output particular frequency of
operation. Tune the detector mount for maximum output in the SWR Meter.
c. Set any reference level of power in SWR meter with the help of variable attenuator
and gain control knob of SWR meter. Let it be P1.
d. Carefully remove the detector mount from slotted line without disturbing the
position of set up. Insert the isolator/circulator between slotted line and detector mount.
Keeping input port to slotted line and detector at its output port. A matched termination
should be placed a third port in case of circulator.
e. Record the reading in the SWR meter. If necessary change range -dB switch to high
or lower position. Let it be P2.




43


































44

f. For measurement of isolation, the isolator or circulator has to be connected in
reverse i.e. output port to slotted line and detector to input port with another port terminated
by matched termination (in case circulator) after setting a reference level without isolator or
circulator in the set up as described in insertion loss measurement. Let it be P3.

Result and Analysis:
g. Compute insertion loss on P1 P2 in dB.
h. Compute isolation as P1 - P3 in dB.
i. The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.
j. Repeat the above experiment for other frequencies if required





















Result:





45


Block Diagram:






















Klystron
Power
supply
Klystron
Mount

Isolator
Frequency
meter
Variable
attenuator
Detector
Mount
Detector
Mount


CRO
Klystron
Tube
Attenua
tor
Slotted
Line
46

ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT

AIM:
To study insertion loss and attenuation measurement of attenuator.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Microwave source Klystron tube
2. Isolator
3. Frequency meter
4. Variable attenuator
5. Slotted line
6. Tunable probe
7. Detector mount
8. Matched termination
9. Test attenuator
a) Fixed
b) Variable
10. Klystron power supply & Klystron mount
11. Cooling fan
12. BNC-BNC cable
13. VSWR or CRO
THEORY:
The attenuator is a two port bidirectional device which attenuates some power when
inserted into a transmission line.
Attenuation A (dB) = 10 log (P1/P2)
Where P1 = Power detected by the load without the attenuator in the line
P2 = Power detected by the load with the attenuator in the line.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the equipments as shown in the block diagram.
2. Energize the microwave source for maximum power at any frequency of operation
3. Connect the detector mount to the slotted line and tune the detector mount also for max
deflection on VSWR or on CRO


47

MODEL GRAPH:



OBSERVATION TABLE:
Micrometer reading
P1
(dB)
P2
(dB)
Attenuation = P1-P2
(dB)

















48


4. Set any reference level on the VSWR meter or on CRO with the help of variable
attenuator. Let it be P1.
5. Carefully disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line without disturbing any
position on the setup place the test variable attenuator to the slotted line and detector
mount to O/P port of test variable attenuator. Keep the micrometer reading of text
variable attenuator to zero and record the readings of VSWR meter or on CRO. Let it to
be P2. Then the insertion loss of test attenuator will be P1-P2 db.
6. For measurement of attenuation of fixed and variable attenuator. Place the test attenuator
to the slotted line and detector mount at the other port of test attenuator. Record the
reading of VSWR meter or on CRO. Let it be P3 then the attenuation value of variable
attenuator for particular position of micrometer reading of will be P1-P3 db.
7. In case the variable attenuator changes the micro meter reading and record the VSWR
meter or CRO reading. Find out attenuation value for different position of micrometer
reading and plot a graph.
8. Now change the operating frequency and all steps should be repeated for finding
frequency sensitivity of fixed and variable attenuator.
Note:1. For measuring frequency sensitivity of variable attenuator the position of
micrometer reading of the variable attenuator should be same for all frequencies of operation.







RESULT:

49

Block diagram:










Klystron
Power supply
Klystron
Mount

Isolator
Frequency
meter
Variable
attenuator
Matched
Termination

Klystron
Tube
Slotted
Line
VSWR
Meter
Magic TEE
Matched
Termination

Matched
Termination

Klystron
Power supply
Klystron
Mount

Isolator
Frequency
meter
Variable
attenuator
Matched
Termination

Klystron
Tube
Slotted
Line
VSWR
Meter
Magic TEE
Detector
Mount

Matched
Termination

50

TO STUDY THE S - PARAMETER OF E-PLANE T, H-PLANE
T AND MAGIC T
AIM:
To determine isolations and coupling coefficients for E, H plane Tee and Magic Tee
junctions.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Microwave source Klystron tube
2. Isolator
3. Frequency meter
4. Variable attenuator
5. Magic Tee, E-Plane Tee and H-Plane Tee.
6. Tunable probe
7. Detector mount
8. Matched termination
9. Cooling fan
10. BNC-BNC cable
13. VSWR or CRO

THEORY:
H Plane Tee
An H-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of the side arm is shunting the E-
field or parallel to the H field of the main guide. It can be seen that if the two input waves are
fed in port 1 and port 2 of the collinear arm, the output wave at port 3 will be in phase and
additive. On the other hand, if the input is fed into port 3, the wave will split equally into port
1 and port 2 in phase and in same magnitude.
E Plane Tee
An E-plane tee is a waveguide in which the axis of the side arm is parallel to the E-
field of the main guide. If the collinear arms are symmetric about the side arm, there are two
different transmission characteristics.




51

Tabulation:
Vin=_________mV
Nature of
Tee
Voltage(mV) Isolation(Iij)dB
Coupling
Coefficient
Cij=10
Iij/20

E-Plane Tee
I-arm
II-arm C
12
III-arm C
13

III -
arm

II -arm C
32

I-arm C
31

H-Plane
Tee
I-arm
II-arm C
12
III-arm C
13

III -
arm

II -arm C
32

I-arm C
31



Magic Tee orientation
V
i
(mV) V
j
(mV) I
ij
(dB) C
ij

Input Arm-i
Output
Arm-j
1
2 I
12
C
12
3 I
13
C
13
4 I
14
C
14
2
1 I
21
C
21
3 I
23
C
23
4 I
24
C
24
3
4 I
34
C
34
1 I
31
C
31
2 I
32
C
32
4
3 I
43
C
43
1 I
41
C
41
2 I
42
C
42











52

Magic Tee
A magic tee is a combination of the E-plane tee and H-plane tee. The magic tee has
several characteristics.
1. If the two ports of equal magnitude and the same phase are fed into port 1 and port 2, the
output will be zero at port 3 and additive at port 4.
2. If a wave is fed into port 4 (H arm), it will be divided equally between port 1 and port 2 of
the collinear arms and will not appear in port 3.
3. If a wave is fed into port 3 (E arm), it will produce an output of equal magnitude and
opposite phase at port 1 and port 2. The output at port 4 is zero.
4. If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at port 1 or port 2, it will not appear in the
other collinear arm at port 2 or port 1 because the E- arm causes a phase delay while the H-
arm causes a phase advance.

Input VSWR
Value of VSWR corresponding to each port, as load to the line while other ports aare
terminated in matched load.
Isolation
The isolation between E and H arm is defined as the ratio of the power supplied by
the generator connected to the arm to the power detected at H arm when side arm 1 and 2 are
terminated in matched load.
Hence, isolation(dB)=10log
10
(P
4
/P
3
)
Similarly isolation between other parts may also be defined.
Coupling Coefficient
It is defined as C
ij
=10
-/20

Where, =attenuation/isolation in dB,
iinput arm
joutput arm







53




































54

Procedure:
VSWR Measurement:
a. Set up the components and equipments as shown in fig. keeping E arm towards
slotted line and matched termination to other ports.
b. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation and tune the
detector mount for maximum output.
c. Measure the SWR of E-arm as described in measurement of SWR for low and
medium value.
d. Connect another arm to slotted line and terminate the other port with matched
termination. Measure the SWR as above. Similarly, SWR of any port can be
measured.
Measurement of isolation and coupling coefficient:
a. Remove the tunable probe and Magic Tee from the slotted line and connect the
detector mount to slotted line.
b. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation and tune the
detector mount for maximum output.
c. With the help of variable attenuator and gain control knob of SWR meter set any
power level in the SWR meter and note down. Let it be P3.
d. Without disturbing the position of variable attenuator and gain control knob, carefully
place the Magic Tee after slotted line keeping H-arm connected to slotted line,
detector to E arm and matched termination to arm 1 and 2. Note down the reading of
SWR meter. Let it be P4.
e. In the same way measure P1 & P2 by connecting detector on these ports one by one.
f. Determine the isolation between port 3 and 4 as P3-P4 in dB.
g. Determine the coupling coefficient by P3- P1 for port P1 & P2.
h. Repeat the above experiment for other frequencies.



Result:








55


Block Diagram:


































Klystron
Power supply
Klystron
Mount

Isolator
Frequency
meter
Variable
attenuator
Detector
Mount
Klystron
Tube
VSWR
meter
Horn
Antennas
56

ANTENNA GAIN MEASUREMENT TO STUDY THE RADIATION
PATTERN OF AN ANTENNA
AIM:
To measure the polar pattern of a waveguide horn antenna.
Apparatus Required:
1. Microwave source Klystron tube
2. Isolator
3. Frequency meter
4. Variable attenuator
5. PIN Modulator.
6. Horn Antenna
7. Detector mount
8. Cooling fan
9. BNC-BNC cable
13. VSWR or CRO
THEORY:
If the transmission line propagating energy is left open at one end, there will be
radiation from this end. In case of a rectangular waveguide this antenna presents a mismatch
of about 2:1 and it radiates in many directions. The match will improve if the open
waveguide is a horn shape. The radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram of field strength
or more often the power intensity as a function of the aspect angle at a constant distance from
the radiating antenna. An antenna pattern is of course three dimensional pattern in one or
several planes. An antenna pattern consists of several lobes, the main lobe side lobes and
back lobe as low as possible. The power intensity at the maximum of the main lobe compared
to the power intensity achieved from an imagery omnidirectional antenna with the same
power fed to the antenna is defined as gain of the antenna.
3DB BEAMWIDTH
The angle between the two points on a main lobe were the power intensity is half the
maximum power intensity. When measuring antenna patterns it is normally most interesting
to plot the pattern far from the antenna.


57

Mode Graph:

Tabulation:
P1=
Angle
(left side)
Relative Power(dB) Angle
(right Side)
Relative Power(dB)
P2 P2










58

PROCEDURE
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the figure.
2. Ensure that all the knobs in the power supply and VSWR meter are of minimum
position
3. Switch on the Klystron power supply and wait for 2 minutes
4. Switch ON the beam switch and turn it to beam voltage position
5. Set the beam voltage at 250V
6. Switch ON the CRO and VSWR meter
7. Keep the switch SW3 at INT position
8. Adjust the repeller voltage knob (70V) so that a distorted waveform is obtained
9. The operating repeller voltage is 70 V
10. Adjust the modulating frequency and the modulating amplitude to get a perfect square
wave
11. Find g from slotted section
12. Replace the defector mount by horn, receiver horn was also placed on the stand at
some distance.
13. Turn the receiving horn to the left in 20 or 50 steps and take corresponding VSWR dB
reading.
14. Now turn the receiving side and repeat the above step 13
15. Draw a relative power pattern
16. From the diagram determine 3db width of the horn can be measured
17. Theoretical beam width was determined using the formula.



Result:



59

Block Diagram

Tabulation:
Sl.No Input LED Voltage(Volt) Output Power(dB)
















A
60


DC CHARACTERISTICS OF LED AND PIN PHOTO DIODE

Aim:
The objective of this experiment is to plot the V-I Characteristics of Photo LED and
characteristic of Photo Detector.
Apparatus Required:
1. Optical fiber trainer kit
2. Optical fiber
3. Voltmeter
4. Ammeter
Theory:
LED
LEDs and LASER diodes are the commonly used sources in optical communication
systems, whether the system transmits digital or analog signal. It is therefore, often necessary
to use linear electrical to optical converter to allow its use in intensity modulation & high
quality analog transmission systems. LED's have a linear optical output with relation to the
forward current over a certain region of operation.
Photo Diode
Photo Transistors and Photo Diodes are the commonly used detectors in optical
communication systems, whether the system receives digital or analog signal. It is therefore,
often necessary to use linear optical to electrical converter to allow its use in intensity
demodulation & high quality analog receiving systems. Photo Diodes have a linear electrical
output with relation to the light intensity over a certain region of operation.
Procedure for VI characteristics of LED:
1. Connect power supply to the board.
2. Ensure that all switched faults are in OFF condition.
3. Put emitter 1 block in Digital Mode
4. Make connections as shown in the Block Diagram.
a. Connect the bias 1 preset of comparator to the emitter 1 input.
b. Adjust the bias 1 preset to its minimum setting fully counter clockwise.
5. Now look down the emitter 1 LED Socket and slowly advance the setting of the bias 1
preset until in subdued lighting the light from LED is just visible.
6. Connect the DMM between + 12V supply (Red Socket) and tp of Input of Emitter
LED. The DMM will now read the forward voltage (V f)



61

Block Diagram:

Tabulation:
Sl.No Input LED
Voltage(Volt)
Photo detector
Current(mA)















62

7. Measure the voltage drop across the 1k (R9) current limiting resistors by connecting
DMM between tp of Input of Emitter LED and (tp3). The forward current is given by
dividing the readings by 1k. This If is known as threshold current.

8. Vary the bias 1 preset so as to vary the forward voltage (as 1.0, 1.54.0), note the
corresponding If (forward current).
9. Record these values of Vf and If & plot the characteristic between these two.
Procedure for Photo Detector:
1. Connect power supply to the board.
2. Ensure that all switched faults are in OFF condition.
3. Put emitter 1 block in Digital Mode
4. Make connections as shown in the Block Diagram.
a. Connect the bias 1 preset of comparator to the emitter 1 input.
b. Adjust the bias 1 preset to its minimum setting fully counter clockwise.
8. Now look down the emitter 1 LED Socket and slowly advance the setting of the bias 1
preset until in subdued lighting the light from LED is just visible.
c. Connect the fiber optic cable between emitter output and detectors input.
5. Connect the DMM between + 12V supply (Red Socket) and tp of Input of Emitter
LED. The DMM will now read the forward voltage (V f)
6. Measure the voltage drop across the 75E resistors by connecting DMM between tp of
output of Photo Transistor and Ground. The detector current is given by dividing the
readings by 75E.

7. Vary the bias 1 preset so as to vary the forward voltage (as 1.0, 1.54.0), not the
corresponding If (forward current).
8. Record these values of Vf and Id & plot the characteristic between these two.
Result:





63


Block diagram:
Study of Propagation Loss

Study of Bending Loss






64

STUDY OF BENDING LOSS AND PROPAGATION LOSS IN
OPTICAL FIBRE
AIM:
The objective of this experiment is to measure the propagation loss and the bending
loss in the optical fiber.
Apparatus Required:
1. Optical fiber trainer kit
2. Optical fiber of different lengths
3. Power meter
4. CRO
Theory:
Attenuation loss (or path propagation loss) is the reduction in power density
(attenuation) of an electromagnetic wave as it propagates through space. Attenuation loss is a
major component in the analysis and design of the link budget of a telecommunication
system.
Attenuation occurring as a result of either a bend in an optical fibre that exceeds the
minimum bend radius or an abrupt discontinuity in the core/cladding interface is called
bending loss. The incident light rays strike the boundary between the core and the cladding at
an angle less than the critical angle and enter the cladding, where they are lost
Procedure:
i)To find propagation loss:
1. Connect the power supply to the board.
2. Make the following connections
a) Function generators 1KHz sinewave output to input 1 socket of emitter 1 circuit via
4mm lead.
b) Connect 0.5m optic fibre between emitter 1 output and detector 1s input.
c) Connect detector 1 output to amplifier 1 input socket via 4mm lead.
3. Switch ON the power supply.
4. Set the oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5V /div and adjust 4-6 div amplitude by using x1 probe
with
the help of variable pot in function generator block input 1 of emitter 1.
5. Observe the output signal from detector t p 10 on CRO.

65

Tabulation:
Attenuation Losses:

Input Amplitude
V1(Volt)
Output Amplitude
V2(Volt)
Fiber-1_____Length,
L1(metre)

Fiber-2_____Length,
L2(metre)



Bending Losses:

Radius of curvature,
R(metre)
Input Amplitude
V1(Volt)
Output Amplitude
V2(Volt)




















66

6. Adjust the amplitude of the received signal as that of transmitted one with the help of gain
adjust
pot in AC amplifier block. Note this amplitude and name it V1.
7. Now replace the previous FO cable with 1m cable without disturbing any previous setting.
8. Measure the amplitude at the receiver side again at output of amplifier 1 socket t p 28.
Note this
value and name it V2.
9. Calculate propagation (attenuation) loss with the help of following formula
V1/V2 = exp(-(L1+L2))
Where is loss in nepers/m
1 neper = 8.686dB
L1 = length of shorter cable (0.5m)
L2 = length of longer cable (1m)
ii)To find bending loss
1. Repeat all steps from 1-6 of the above procedure using 1m cable.
2. Wind FO cable on the Mandrel and observe the corresponding AC amplifier output on
CRO.
It will be gradually reducing showing loss due to bends.









Results:





67

SETTING UP FIBER OPTIC ANALOG LINK

Emitter circuit Detector circuit
Function Generator AC Amplifier
1 KHz Circuit


OBSERVATION


Input Voltage
(V)

Output Voltage
(V)

Time
(ms)











Out
68

FIBER OPTIC ANALOG AND DIGITAL LINK
SETTING UP FIBER OPTIC ANALOG LINK
AIM:
The objective of this experiment is to study a 650 nm fiber optic analog link. In this
experiment, we will study a relationship between the input signal and the received signal.
Apparatus Required:
1. Optical fiber trainer kit
2. Optical fiber
3. CRO

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply to the board.
2. Ensure that all switch faults are OFF.
3. Make the following connections.
a. Connect the function generator 1 KHz sine wave output to the emitter 1s
input.
b. Connect the fiber optic cable between the emitters output and detectors
input.
c. Connect detectors output to the AC amplifier 1s input.
4. On the board switch emitter 1s driver to analog mode.
5. Switch ON the power.
6. Observe the input to emitter (TP 5) with output from AC amplifier 1 (TP19) and note
that the two signals are same.




RESULT:




69

SETTING UP FIBER OPTIC DIGITAL LINK
Emitter circuit Detector circuit

AC amplifier
Circuit
OBSERVATION


Input Voltage
(V)

Output Voltage
(V)

Time
(ms)











Function
Generator
1 KHz
Out
Comparator
70

SETTING UP FIBER OPTIC DIGITAL LINK

AIM:
The objective of this experiment is to study a 650 nm fiber optic digital link. In this
experiment, we will study a relationship between the input signal and the received signal.
Apparatus Required:
1. Optical fiber trainer kit
2. Optical fiber
3. CRO

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the power supply to the board.
2. Ensure that all switch faults are OFF.
3. Make the following connections.
a. Connect the function generator 1 KHz square wave output to the emitter 1s
input.
b. Connect the fiber optic cable between the emitters output and detectors
input.
c. Connect detector 1s output to the comparator 1s input.
d. Connect comparator 1s output to AC amplifier 1s input.
4. On the board switch emitter 1s driver to digital mode.
5. Switch ON the power.
6. Monitor both the inputs to comparator 1 (TP9 & 10). Slowly adjust the comparator
bias. Reset until DC level on the input (TP9) lies midway between the high and low
level of the signal on positive input (TP11).
7. Observe the input to emitter (TP 5) with output from AC amplifier 1 (TP 19) and note
that the two signals are same.

RESULT:




71

Connection Diagram:








Tabulation:
Sl.No. Distance of
Screen from
fiber(L cm)
Diameter of Spot
(W cm)
NA=Sin
max

amax
=Sin
-1
(NA)

















Function
Generator
Emitter
Circuit
To the
Numerical
aperture jig
Screen
72

NUMERICAL APERTURE DETERMINATION FOR FIBERS

Aim:
To Measure the Numerical Aperture (NA) of an optical fiber

Equipments Required:
1. ST2501 Techbook with power supply cord
2. Optical Fibre cable
3. Numerical Aperture measurement Jig

Procedure:
1. Connect the Power supply cord to mains suppl.
2. Connect the Frequency Generator 1 KHz sine wave output to input of emitter circuit.
Adjust its amplitude at 5Vp-p.
3. Connect one end of fiber cable to the output socket of emitter circuit and the other end
to the numerical aperture measurement jig. Hold the white screen facing the fiber such
that its cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
4. Hold the white screen with 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20 & 25 mm diameter)
vertically at a suitable distance to make the red spot from the fiber coincide with 10
mm circle.
5. Record the distances of screen from the fiber end L and note the diameter W of the
spot.
6. Compute the numerical aperture from the formula given below.

7. Vary the distance between in screen and fiber optic cable and make it coincide with
one of the concentric circles. Note its distance.
8. Tabulate the various distances and diameter of the circles made on the white screen
and computer the numerical aperture from the formula given above.




RESULT:




73

MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBERS