Gas Liberated by Drilling

The gas that enters the mudstream as a direct consequence of drilling is termed liberated gas (Mercer and McAdams 1981) in order to
distinguish it from produced gas, which enters the annulus out of rock formations exposed in the wellbore from recycled gas, which is carried
into the borehole b! circulating mud and from contaminant gas, which is introduced in the mud stream as a consequence of such actions as
using an oil"base mud or adding diesel to a water"base s!stem#
The total $olume of gas a$ailable for liberation from an! drilled increment of rock will be in proportion to (1) the $olume of rock drilled% (&)
the porosit! of that rock% and (') the gas saturation within that porosit! ( (igure 1 % Drilling and rock parameters that determine the volume of
liberated gas in the drilling mud for any unit of time)#
Figure 1
The process of gas liberation as a consequence of drilling% howe$er% will be neither instantaneous nor complete# )rinding action at the bit
cannot expose all pores to the mud s!stem# *n addition% the h!drostatic pressure of mud at the bottom of the borehole will commonl! be slightl!
greater than fluid pressure within the rock pores# Thus% much of the gas in exposed pores will be held in place in the cuttings#
(ollowing the grinding action of the bit% further liberation of gases and liquids occurs throughout uphole tra$el as residual fluid pressure in the
cuttings o$ercomes decreasing h!drostatic containment of the mud# *t ma! continue at surface% as shown b! bleeding cuttings# )as confined
within isolated pores% howe$er% will remain in place during uphole tra$el unless increasing pressure differentials cause fractures to de$elop in
the cuttings#
*t is important to remember that the o$erall composition of the liberated gas that is sampled b! the gas trap at surface will be related to + but
not the same as + the gas originall! in place in the formation% the gas retained within cuttings porosit!% and the gas dissol$ed in pore water and
oil# All will ha$e been modified b! phase and solubilit! changes that occurred with uphole temperature and pressure changes and% therefore%
cannot be equated directl! to conditions at depth#
Influx and Flushing
(luid flow can occur between the mud s!stem and borehole wall rock at an! place along the uncased well annul us where differential pressure
and formation permeabilit! are adequate# *nflux occurs when h!drostatic pressure is low enough to permit formation fluids to enter the well
bore flushing occurs under reciprocal conditions ( (igure & % Borehole and mud conditions affecting cuttings and mud gas before arrival at
surface)#
Figure 2
,onsequentl!% the rate of influx or flushing across the wellbore interface depends principall! on the interrelation of two factors + pressure and
permeabilit!. *n holes where pressures are close to balance or permeabilities are insufficient to sustain a ma-or flow% onl! minor mo$ements of
fluids can be expected across the borehole interface# *f pressure differentials are high or permeabilities are great% large incursions of produced
gas% oil% and water can enter the mud s!stem ( (igure ' % Influx and flushing in the wellbore)% or con$ersel!% mud and filtrate can enter and flush
the formation#
Figure 3
.here high pore pressures cannot be released from impermeable lithologies like shale% the rock can fracture or spall causing ca$ing% sloughing%
or collapse of the borehole ( (igure / % Common causes of uphole modification of drilling mud.
Figure 4
Factors include influx of produced gas from underbalanced permeable intervals and cavings from overpressured impermeable intervals)#
0$erpressured 1ones ma! respond in this manner if adequate mud o$erbalance is not maintained#
Together% produced gases% fluid incursions% and ca$ings entering from the borehole wall can be added to mud circulating surfaceward in the
well annul us# The admixture of fluid influxes and rock ca$ings can cause serious discrepancies in formation logging data and affect
interpretations#
As we ha$e indicated% produced gas% oil% and water incursions ma! influx at an! point from the bottom of the borehole to the casing shoe of a
pre$iousl! set casing run# *nflux ma! result from a small sustained mud underbalance this will !ield a low continuous feed to the background
gas reading# Alternati$el!% influx ma! result from a ma-or underbalancing e$ent of short duration (e#g#% lifting drillpipe during a connection or
trip)# This results in a single large gas 2show2 at surface occurring at a predictable lag time after the underbalancing e$ent# These short"li$ed
incursions into the wellbore and mud s!stem are called connection gas or trip gas#
To control influxes and at the same time pre$ent formation flushing and damage% it is good drilling practice to maintain a mud densit!
sufficientl! high to slightl! o$erbalance formation pressure# This is balanced drilling#
*f o$erbalance is not adequate% large fluid incursions can occur when high pressure gas% oil% or water 1ones are penetrated# 3ince these fluids are
less dense than drilling mud% their presence in the borehole will lower the h!drostatic pressure further and worsen 2underbalance#2 4$entuall!%
there can be an uncontrolled fluid flow into the borehole and an expulsion of drilling mud at surface#
4xpulsion of mud up the borehole is called a well kick# *f a strong kick is not controlled b! closing the blowout pre$enters% all of the mud will
be expelled from the annulus and formation fluid will flow freel! to the surface% possibl! resulting in a fire or explosion# This is a blowout.
,onsequentl!% an important function of modern formation logging is to monitor mud gas le$el% mud densit!% mud flow into and out of the hole%
and mud $olume in the pit in order to ha$e earl! detection and alarm in case of a well kick#
.hen a well is consistentl! o$erbalanced% fluid flow or flushing will occur from the borehole into the rock# To pre$ent deep in$asion and
damage to formations ad-acent to the open borehole% cla! solids are incorporated in drilling mud# These particles filter rapidl! from flushing
muds to form a thick impermeable filter cake on the borehole wall for all but the most permeable formations# .hen the latter condition is
present% lost circulation can occur# 5alting this t!pe of influx ma! require the addition of $er! coarse and plat! 2lost circulation material2
(6,M) to the drilling mud# 7eedless to sa!% this t!pe of addition means that formation logging ma!% at times% ha$e to take into account 6,M
contaminants put deliberatel! into the mud s!stem at surface#
8elow the face of the drill bit% flushing is continuous# (ilter cake cannot form under the crushing action of bit teeth and the -etting action of
high $elocit! mud# *f a $er! permeable formation is drilled% flushing action ma! be so great that mud totall! displaces all original formation
fluids ahead of the bit ( (igure ' )# .hen such permeable rock is drilled and carried to surface% the cuttings will contain onl! mud filtrate# All
traces of formation gas and oil will be lost# This ma! obscure a potential reser$oir#
Total flushing such as this seldom occurs except when permeable 1ones are extremel! thin and confined b! impermeable beds# *ndi$iduall!%
such thin permeable 1ones rarel! contain commercial quantities of gas and oil# *f the permeable 1one is thicker% then it is possible that the pore
fluid flushed back into the rock ma! be c!cled back into the borehole behind the bit and its 1one of turbulence# The effect of this can be that the
top of the permeable 1one will% from its gas show% appear to be a few feet deeper than other e$idence (e#g#% 90: break% cuttings porosit!)
indicates ( (igure ' )#
Sample Lag
As we ha$e -ust described% the mixture of gas% oil% water% and cuttings in the circulating mud tra$els from bit to surface along the well annulus#
(urthermore% experience shows that during this uphole -ourne! some mixing and preferential settling will occur ( (igure & )# 5owe$er% the
$iscosit! and gel strength of modern drilling muds will maintain a reasonabl! good order of sample arri$al at surface and hold together fluids
and solids from a particular drill depth# These representati$e samples% then% can be pro-ected back to their true drill depth and rock source if
uphole transit time, or lag time, is known#
6ag time for both cuttings and fluids is generall! determined b! a two"step process; (1) the addition of a tracer into the downhole side of the
mud circulating s!stem% and (&) the detection of the tracer when it returns to surface on the uphole side ( (igure < % ne calculation is
necessary to compensate for the number of pump strokes re!uired to pump the tracer down the inside of the drill pipe)#
Figure 5
Tracer material can be an! substance% like gasoline or chopped"up rubber bands% that can be detected anal!ticall! or $isuall! upon arri$al at
surface#
The tracer method of lagging is consistentl! more accurate than that of $olumetric or flow calculations based upon pump displacement plus bit%
collar% and pipe si1es# This latter arithmetic calculation method cannot readil! account for unpredictable hole enlargements% o$erdrill be!ond bit
si1e% and changes in pump output efficienc!# 5owe$er% a combination of tracer lagging and mathematical lagging can gi$e a fair indication of
hole condition# *f the calculated lag is significantl! shorter than the tracer lag% wall sloughing or washout can probabl! be inferred ( (igure = %
Determining borehole washout by comparing the difference between calculated lag time and tracer"test lag time)#
Figure 6
*t is sound practice to ha$e tracer tests start earl! in an! drilling program# This permits the combined characteristics of mud pump% tophole% and
circulating s!stem to be accounted for% so that down"hole conditions can be e$aluated as the! de$elop during drilling# *t is also sound practice
to ha$e tracer tests run on a s!stematic basis% such as at the beginning of each shift or at predetermined depth increments# *t also is routine to
run a tracer test when drilling is resumed after a trip#
The most commonl! used tracer is calcium carbide% a manmade cr!stalline solid that reacts spontaneousl! with water to form acet!lene gas;
CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
Calcium Carbide + Water Calcium Hdr!xide + "cetlene #as
:rocedurall!% a small packet of calcium carbide is dropped into the top of the drillstring when the kell! is unscrewed from the pipe to make a
connection# As drilling resumes% the material is forced down the drillpipe b! circulating mud and then out into the borehole through the -ets at
the bit# >pon circulating back to surface in the mud% the acet!lene gas generated is routinel! detected b! the mud logging gas detector# 8ecause
acet!lene is not encountered as a natural product during drilling% its occurrence and detection characteristics% as we note farther on in this unit%
cannot be easil! confused with a true gas show#
A further consideration in lagging with calcium carbide should be the use of the same amount of tracer in each lag test subsequent $ariations in
response at the detector can be used to e$aluate changing efficienc! of the gas trap and sensiti$it! of the detector# This $ariation becomes
important when gas show data are normali1ed so the! can be compared with one another#
*n practice% lag time established b! the tracer method is expressed as the number of pump strokes required to mo$e mud from the bit to surface#
This is determined b! counting the total number of pump strokes required for the tracer?s round trip and then subtracting the calculated number
of strokes needed to carr! the calcium carbide down the inside of the drillstring to the bit# 8ecause the inside diameter of the drillpipe can be
accuratel! determined% $er! little error is introduced into lagging b! this one calculation#
>se of pump% or lag% strokes pro$ides automatic correction in lag time for $ar!ing pump speeds and for periods when pumps are turned off% as
when making a connection# 3ampling of a particular depth or e$ent% in other words% can be predicated on a specific number of pump strokes
after that depth is penetrated or that e$ent% such as an 90: break% has occurred#
6agging is a simple matter when two stroke counters monitoring the same pump are used# 0ne counter is set as 2pump tall!2 the other is set
2lag strokes2 behind# .hen a depth is reached or an e$ent occurs% the numbers on the tally counter are recorded# The sample of the depth or
e$ent is taken when the lag counter reaches the recorded number# The onl! additional step that needs to be made when two counters are used is
to add a predetermined number of lag strokes for each few feet drilled# This% of course% is because transit time from bit to surface increases
progressi$el! as a hole is deepened#
0nce $erified lagging has been established% minor ad-ustments can be made between tracer runs% if deemed necessar!% b! comparing current lag
stroke count with sample arri$al from known bottomhole e$ents# A sharp drilling break due to marked change in rock t!pe is one usable e$ent#
,onnection gas arri$al can also be used if the gas is coming from the bottom of the hole and not from uphole influx#
$hase and %!lume Changes &uring 'ph!le (ra)el
*n tra$eling from hole bottom to surface% rock debris% natural fluids% and circulating mud experience great changes in temperature and pressure
conditions# Mud temperature ma! decrease b! as much as three degrees centigrade for each hundred meters of upward tra$el (1#=<@ (A1BB ft)#
*n a 'BBB m well (about 1B%BBB ft) this change can exceed 9BC , (1=<C () *t is possible that under this cooling effect% compounds that are
gaseous or liquid at depth ma! change phases and liquef! or precipitate% respecti$el!% with uphole tra$el#
:ressure changes during uphole tra$el are also extreme# 5!drostatic pressure in the borehole is a function of the mean densit! and $ertical
height of the fluid column;
:h D f E$ F
where;
:h D h!drostatic pressure% F:a or psi
f D fluid densit!% kgAm
'
lbAgal
E$ D $ertical depth% m ft
F D unit con$ersion B#BB98 B#B<19
(rom this h!drostatic pressure equation it is apparent that pressure (:h) will decrease proportionall! with $ertical depth (E$) (i#e#% pressure is
hal$ed if depth is hal$ed)# .e also know from the gas laws that pressure and $olume are in$ersel! proportional# Thus% with each hal$ing of
depth in tra$el to surface the $olume of gas will double#
The combined result of temperature and pressure change% as go$erned b! the gas laws% is shown in (igure G ( Changes in volume of gas at
surface as a conse!uence of changes in normal pressure and temperature conditions during uphole travel#.
Figure 7
*t can be seen that e$en low porosit! and low gas saturation in rock at depth can produce a $er! large gas show at surface# ,areful monitoring is
necessar! to discriminate between gas influx or well kick due to underbalanced drilling and the arri$al of a large $olume of gas"aerated mud
resulting from penetration of a gas"bearing 1one# To be effecti$e then% gas monitoring must include consideration of 90: and litholog! factors
(e#g#% porosit! and permeabilit!)#
Hdr!carb!n #ases
5!drocarbon compounds% b! definition% include onl! those made up entirel! of hydrogen and carbon. 5!drocarbon gases are the simplest
compounds contained in petroleum# The! consist almost wholl! of indi$idual or short chains of carbon atoms with h!drogen atoms attached to
all remaining a$ailable bond positions ( (igure 8 % Classification of hydrocarbons$ composition of common hydrocarbon gases)# The! are
classified as alkane h!drocarbons#
Figure 8
The fundamental characteristic of all alkane h!drocarbons is that the carbon chains are saturated with h!drogen# ,arbon chains ma! be
straight, branched, or cyclic% these patterns form the basis for three series of alkanes ( (igure 9 and (igure 1B
Figure 10
% &eneral categories of saturated straight"chain, branched"chain and closed"chain hydrocarbons and unsaturated hydrocarbons)#
Figure 9
*n mud logging% we are mainl! interested in the fi$e lightest alkanes (,&",/)% all of which remain in the gas phase at nearl! all ambient
temperatures# Harious hea$ier h!drocarbons compounds (,<% ,=) ( (igure 9 % (igure 1B and (igure 11 ) also ma! be present in mud gases and
gas shows if the ambient surface temperature is high enough to pre$ent them from condensing in the mud"logging $acuum s!stem# These also
ma! be plotted on mud logs#
Figure 11
8ecause h!drocarbons represent carbon in a reduced form% the! are all combustible + the! react with ox!gen% producing carbon dioxide%
water% and energ! in the form of heat# The oxidation reaction can be expressed in the general form;
Eescripti$el! stated% this means that the quantities of carbon% h!drogen% and ox!gen consumed and carbon dioxide% water% and energ! produced
will depend upon the number of carbon atoms (x) and h!drogen atoms (!) in the h!drocarbon molecules that are oxidi1ed# ,onsequentl!% if a
mixture of h!drocarbons is burned in ox!gen% the total energ! produced will be directl! related to the indi$idual molecular t!pes present and
the relati$e concentrations of each in the mixture# *n other words% the amounts of carbon and hydrogen present to be oxidi'ed determine the
energy produced. This energ! and some specific combustion products form the basis for the two most common methods of detecting
h!drocarbons in mud gas"catal!tic combustion and flame ioni1ation#
Gas Sampling
0nce mud gas reaches surface a portion of it enters the sampling and anal!tical c!cle# 5ere% additional $ariables (e#g#% extraction efficienc!%
ambient conditions) come into pla! that can affect the final anal!tical results# The two principal mud gas collecting mechanisms used in
con$entional mud gas logging are the gas trap sampler and the steam still sampler. A third collecting apparatus% the cuttings gas sampler, is
used to extract gas retained in the cuttings arri$ing at surface# Although cuttings gas is not obtained totall! from the mud s!stem% it is anal!1ed
in the same manner as mud gas and often used in con-unction with it as part of a full formation logging program# As such% cuttings gas also can
show up in Track Three or (our if the anal!sis is not part of a separate geochemical program#
#as (rap Sampler
The first separation step in continuous combustible gas logging is taken at the gas trap. The principal ob-ecti$e of this trap is to extract a
relati$el! consistent gas sample from the mud for continuous anal!sis#
The t!pical gas trap is housed in a rectangular or c!lindrical metal box installed in the flowline or ditch# *n one st!le of gas trap ( (igure 1 and
(igure &
Figure 2
% (tandard gas trap configurations)% an internal impeller (1) draws mud into the trap through an upstream port% (&) agitates it to lower its
$iscosit! and free the entrained gas% and (') discharges it through a downstream port#
Figure 1
*n another common st!le ( (igure ' % (chematic of baffle"type gas trap)% returning mud is cascaded down a series of baffles so that gas is
released# The former t!pe pro$ides more consistent sampling because it is less affected b! $ar!ing mud return rates and $iscosities#
Figure 3
*n both t!pes of gas trap% ambient air enters the trap abo$e mud le$el and% with the freed gas% is drawn through a moisture trap and $acuum line
to the mud"logging unit# 5ere the sample passes through filtration and further dr!ing steps and is routed and metered to $arious gas detectors
and anal!1ers ( (igure / % (chematic of mud gas flow system, from gas trap through analysis in the mud log unit)#
Figure 4
Steam Still Sampler
A supplementar! means of intermittent gas sampling that is sometimes used at the wellsite is the steam or $acuum mud still ( (igure < % (team
still with mud chamber atop heating unit)#
Figure 5
(or this technique% a sample of drilling mud is caught b! hand at the flow line and returned immediatel! to the logging unit# (or gas extraction%
the sample is placed in a flask% heated b! steam discharge% and placed under $acuum in order to remo$e all $olatili1ed h!drocarbons# (ollowing
cooling and dr!ing% the extracted gas is anal!1ed b! routine mud gas techniques#
4xtraction efficienc! is $er! high in the steam still technique howe$er% the procedure also is time"consuming and ma! require an additional
operator to carr! out repetiti$e anal!sis# ,onsequentl!% the mud still?s principal use in most con$entional logging programs is to add
supplemental information to the e$aluation of a specific drilled inter$al% such as an oil or gas show# *t generall! is not considered a replacement
for the gas trap technique# 3!stematic use of the still while drilling% howe$er% can pro$ide a baseline for recogni1ing changes in gas trap
efficienc! and assisting in the normali1ation of anal!tical data from samples taken at the gas trap# The still probabl! pro$ides the most
representati$e mud gas sample because of its extraction efficienc! as such% it should be weighted hea$il! when mud gas compound ratios are
used to interpret formation fluids at depth#
Cuttings #as Sampler
The general method used to sample gases still retained within cuttings is to place the cuttings in a closed container% mechanicall! disaggregate
the sample% and then draw off the liberated gas# The most common configuration for a cuttings gas sampler is a blender -ar with a cap fitted
with gas"sampling tubing ( (igure = %
Figure 6
Cuttings blender, vacuum tubing and gas detector and (igure G % (chematic of cuttings gas analytical flow system)#
Figure 7
:rocedurall!% about one cup of fresh cuttings is taken at the shale shaker% placed in the blender% co$ered with an equi$alent amount of clean
water% and blended for a specific number of seconds% generall! up to two minutes# The shattering action of the blender blades ph!sicall! breaks
the cuttings down so that all pore walls are fractured and contained gases are liberated#
0nce the gas is liberated and a$ailable for sampling% it can be processed in the manner of an! gas batch sample# T!picall!% a measured amount
of gas is drawn off b! $acuum and anal!1ed# The t!pe and completeness of the anal!sis (e#g#% total combustible gas% indi$idual compound
t!pes) will depend upon what uses and comparisons will be made with the anal!tical data#
)ases contained within cuttings are the most reliable mud"borne samples routinel! a$ailable at surface to indicate original% if not complete%
fluid content at depth# These ma! be $er! important in locating the top or bottom of show 1ones or in detecting first occurrences and trace
components# ,uttings gas data can also ha$e application in estimating changes in effecti$e permeabilit! and rock porosit! when compared with
mud gas data#
The principal limitation of cuttings gas sampling is that% characteristic of all intermittent or batch samples% it is not continuous# *n general% it
seldom represents sample densit! an! closer than that used for lithologic descriptions# *n addition% if an oil"base mud is used% or contaminants
are present% these must be rinsed from the cuttings sample prior to blending# This can affect the $alidit! of the anal!tical data#
Gas Detection and Measurement
Mud gas detection techniques generall! are based on a single diagnostic chemical or ph!sical propert! of a gas molecule# This means that not
all gases can be detected b! the same technique# This can be easil! recogni1ed if we remember% for example% that not all compounds are
combustible% or fluoresce% or react with acid# Therefore% each detection technique used in mud logging has specific capabilities and limitations#
The combinations of different techniques used b! different logging companies generall! reflect what their experience has shown to be an
effecti$e balance between detection le$el% reliabilit!% and cost#
5!drocarbons% as we noted% gi$e off heat and reaction products when burned# The amount of each depends almost entirel! on the specific
h!drocarbon molecules present# 8! measuring one of these combustion products it is possible to approximate or quantif! the nature of the
original h!drocarbons# This approach is the basis for catalytic combustion and flame ioni'ation detection used while logging for combustible
gases#
Two other properties commonl! used in mud gas detection are based on properties unrelated to combustion these are thermal conductivity and
infrared absorption. 8ecause such properties do not rel! on an! oxidi1ing (or reducing) reactions% the! are often used to monitor mud gas
mixtures that also contain nonh!drocarbon gases these include dangerous and undesirable gases like h!drogen sulfide and carbon dioxide#
Cataltic C!mbusti!n &etect!r (CC&)
The original mud logging gas detector% and one still widel! used in con$entional mud logging% is the catal!tic combustion% or 2hot wire%2 total
gas detector. *n this de$ice% the filtered and dried gas sample is passed continuousl!% at a controlled flow rate% through a combustion chamber
containing a heated platinum filament# (ilament $oltage is adequate to induce total combustion in that small portion of the gas stream that
comes into contact with the catal!tic platinum surface# *n practice% as we discuss below% catal!tic combustion detectors ma! be run in pairs%
with the second unit set at a cooler% lower $oltage so that combustion of methane does not occur# This produces a 2petroleum $apors%2
2hea$ies%2 or% as referred to in this reference% wet gas detector.
An ad$antage of catal!tic combustion is that a uniform% proportional reaction rate is maintained across a normal range of combustible gas
concentrations in drilling mud (up to about the equi$alent of =I methane)# This !ields nearl! linear signal response for most h!drocarbonAair
mixtures coming from the gas trap and pro$ides good sensiti$it! to extremel! low gas concentrations#
Measurement of h!drocarbon gas content in a sample is obtained in the following manner in a catal!tic combustion detector# The platinum
filament forms one resistance arm of a .heatstone bridge circuit in balance with three other arms ( (igure 1 % (chematic of a )heatstone
bridge used as a catalytic combustion detector)#
Figure 1
.hen catal!tic combustion occurs% energ! in the form of heat is liberated in proportion to the content of h!drocarbons (h!drogen and carbon
atoms oxidi1ed) in the sample# This% in turn% heats the platinum filament and increases its electrical resistance proportionatel!# The bridge
circuit is unbalanced b! this change in resistance and the resultant electrical potential across the bridge can be measured and calibrated in terms
of combusted gas concentration#
*n mud logging% output from the catal!tic combustion detector t!picall! is routed to one or more of three de$ices; integrator meter% strip chart%
and integratorAdigital recorder ( (igure & % *ypical hydrocarbon detector with strip chart recorder.
Figure 2
Instruments for monitoring lag time, position of bit, and mud pit volume are incorporated in this detector panel## )enerall!% the meter is used to
monitor the continuous operation of the detector needle limits are set to sound a signal if gas readings go significantl! abo$e background%
pro$iding an audible 2gas show2 alert# The strip chart becomes a continuous trace of gas concentration against sample time and pro$ides a
permanent $isual record of detector response# *t is also used to estimate periodic a$erages or pick the highest concentrations to be plotted on the
formation log# The digital recorder has storage and printout capabilities that find most use in modern s!stems incorporating computer handling
of data#
6et us look briefl! at the catal!tic combustion detector as a total gas detector. *n this higher"$oltage% 2hotter2 configuration% the detector is
nondiscriminating# *t will respond to all combustible gases% including gaseous h!drocarbons% rare appearances of naturall! occurring h!drogen%
and acet!lene used as a lag"time tracer# ,onsequentl!% its single output will depend upon both the concentrations and the compositions of gases
reacting at the catal!tic 2hot wire2 surface#
8ecause heat of combustion and consequent detector response increase with higher concentrations and molecular weights of the h!drocarbons
present ((able *+% below)% the catal!tic combustion detector sums this effect thus the name total gas detector. *ts response ma!% to a degree% be
considered a 2richness2 indicator# That is to sa!% an increase in detector response ma! indicate an increase in gas concentration% an increase in
gas molecular weight% or both#
(able *+ +inimum Ignition *emperatures for ,arious &ases

Gas TemperatureoC Ignition Voltage, volts
Methane 632 0.9
Ethane 520 0.6
Propane 481 0.45
Butane 441 0.3
Hydrogen 580* 0.2
J*n the presence of a platinum catal!st% h!drogen will react $igorousl! with ox!gen at much lower temperatures#
As we noted% some con$entional logging units ma! be equipped with a wet gas detector this is a catal!tic combustion detector similar to the
total gas detector but operating at a lower bridge $oltage and cooler filament temperature# At the lower temperature ( (igure ' % -esponse of
catalytic combustion .hot wire# detector to different concentrations of hydrocarbon gases.
Figure 3
*he maximum response of each gas represents the approximate concentration at which that gas reaches saturation with oxygen in air, and
above which complete combustion cannot occur)% the platinum does not pro$ide sufficient energ! to induce combustion of methane ideall! the
filament will onl! detect the presence of hea$ier gas h!drocarbons like ethane% propane% butane% and isobutane# 5owe$er% if the combustion
effect of the hea$ier gases passing across the filament is large% surface temperatures ma! become adequate for some combustion of methane#
This is one source of error in the low"temperature configuration#
Kou are reminded that neither t!pe of detector can be calibrated to measure absolute gas concentrations in the gasAair mixture# This is because
more than one h!drocarbon compound t!pe generall! is present# ,onsequentl!% for total combustible gas logging% catal!tic combustion
detectors are calibrated to a reference gas# This means that detector output is in units equi$alent to the combustion of a specific concentration of
a single gas#
The most commonl! used calibration gas mixture for total combustible gas logging consists of one percent methane in air (i#e#% equals 1I
4MA)# >sing such a standard calibration gas% detector output is generall! reported and plotted on the formation log as *otal Combustible
/ydrocarbons$ 0 1+2 or )et &as /ydrocarbons$ 0 1+2 ( (igure / % *otal combustible gas track)#
Figure 4
3ome contractors report mud gas in total gas units. These units generall! are specific to a particular t!pe of detector design and calibration gas
mixture# *f total gas units are used on a mud log% it is ad$isable to ha$e con$ersion information recorded on the log heading% (e#g#% 1BB total gas
units D &I 4MA total combustible h!drocarbons)# This ma! be essential when attempting to normali1e and correlate responses with other mud
logs and is the t!pe of performance le$el that can be required through contractual specifications or confirmed at the prespud meeting#
,atal!tic combustion detectors are not without their limitations# At high gas concentrations% in excess of =I 4MA% the catal!tic combustion
detector begins to lose linear response at about 1BI 4MA% the mixture becomes saturated with h!drocarbon gas and has insufficient ox!gen
a$ailable to induce complete combustion (i#e#% air is about &1I ox!gen and two units of ox!gen are needed to combust one unit of methane;
,5/ L &B& ,0& L &5&0)# 5owe$er% saturation can occur much below 1BI total gas (i#e#% propane; ,'58 L <0& ',B& L /5&B) because
we are dealing with methane equi$alents% not gas concentrations# 5ea$ier gases require more ox!gen per molecule of gas to burn completel! (
(igure ' )# Abo$e 1BI 4MA concentrations it is necessar!% therefore% to dilute the gas sample prior to introduction into the combustion
chamber# Eilution results in a progressi$e loss of accurac! for each decrease in sample si1e# *t is commonl! accepted that $alid response of a
catal!tic combustion detector is lost with the le$el of dilution necessar! to accommodate a gas o$er /BI 4MA#
Another limitation related to o$ersaturation can occur with a catal!tic combustion detector operating in the lower temperature% wet gas
configuration# An abundance of hea$ier h!drocarbons in the rich gas mixture ma! cause the detector to gi$e a greater response than a total gas
detector sensing the same mixture# Therefore% a negati$e difference in measurement between total gas and wet gas is gi$en# A total being less
than an! of its parts is of course% impossible and is simpl! a reflection of a greater response to the abundance of larger molecules being
selecti$el! combusted as methane is ignored#
A more serious disad$antage of the catal!tic combustion detector is that the effecti$eness of the catal!tic surface declines progressi$el! o$er
the lifetime of the filament this decreases its sensiti$it! correspondingl!# Twice dail! recalibration of the detector and regular performance
checks are recommended b! man! users to assure reliable performance# The response of the detector to acet!lene lag gas returning uphole
should also be used to check for declining sensiti$it!#
As a further limitation% the presence of certain 2catal!st poisons%2 such as silicon compounds% h!drogen sulfide% or leaded gasoline used as a
tracer% ma! e$en totall! deacti$ate the detector in a matter of minutes# 8ecause of this% man! catal!tic combustion detectors ha$e sca$enging
s!stems% such as charcoal filters in the gas flow line% to remo$e deleterious gases# This should be remembered when using the mud gas flow
line to suppl! other anal!tical equipment#
Flame I!ni,ati!n &etect!r (FI&)
>nlike catal!tic combustion% the flame ioni'ation detector requires complete combustion of the mud gas sample# This is assured at all
concentrations b! mixing a small amount of the continuous mud gas stream into a completel! combusted h!drogen flame#
Eetection depends upon a specific ioni1ation process that takes place when compounds containing carbon"to"h!drogen (,"5) bonds burn in a
high temperature flame# This process in$ol$es the formation of unstable negati$e alk!l (alkane functional groups) ions and positi$e h!drogen
cations as an intermediate step in the combustion process;
&5& L 0& &5&0
/ydrogen Flame
,5/ 5L L ,5'
+ethane +olecule /ydrogen cation +ethyl 2nion
8oth the meth!l (alk!l) anion and the h!drogen cation are $iolentl! unstable and under 2open"air2 circumstances would rapidl! combust with
ox!gen to form the normal reaction products of carbon dioxide and water# 5owe$er% in the flame ioni1ation detector% a c!lindrical anode
surrounds the flame ( (igure < % &eneral features of a flame ioni'ation detector.
Figure 5
3ote the position of the anode probe4collector cylinder for gathering anions and the cathode probe for collecting cations. *he electric potential
between the two probes is a proportional measure of hydrocarbon combustion occurring in the detector flame)# The meth!l anion (") is
attracted to this anode (L) where it discharges an electron and becomes a neutral meth!l radical# The radical then undergoes complete
combustion# 3imilarl!% the h!drogen cation (L) becomes neutrali1ed b! gaining an electron at the grounded combustion chamber cathode (")
wall before combusting further# .hen the anode and cathode are held at the correct electrical potential% all ions produced are captured within
the detector# This ion flow completes an electrical circuit and appears as a current flow that is measured b! a sensiti$e meter de$ice ( (igure = %
(chematic of basic flame ioni'ation detector circuitry)#
Figure 6
The current flow is directl! proportional to the $olume and t!pes of h!drocarbons in the sample# The output of the detector is amplified to
produce a signal that is sent to a meter% plotter% or integratorArecorder in the same manner as for the catal!tic combustion detector#
The flame ioni1ation detector% as implied abo$e% responds both to the concentration of h!drocarbons present and to the number of breakable
carbon"h!drogen bonds within them# *n other words% flame ioni1ation detector response is a richness indicator much like that of the catal!tic
combustion detector because it sums both concentration and composition# (or this reason% its output is also standardi1ed to% and expressed in% I
4MA#
The flame ioni1ation detector !ields more uniform and linear richness readings and is less sub-ect to progressi$e loss of sensiti$it! than the
catal!tic combustion detector# *t also has greater sensiti$it! to $er! low concentrations# *n addition% it will not respond to the presence of
h!drogen gas in the mud stream# 5owe$er% it is the less rugged of the two detector t!pes and is more susceptible to malfunctions under normal
wellsite conditions# Eail! or more frequent calibrations with a gas standard are recommended to compensate for electronic baseline drift#
(hermal C!nducti)it &etect!r ((C&)
The thermal conductivity detector ma! be thought of as a catal!tic combustion% or 2hot wire%2 detector operating in re$erse ( (igure 1 )# This
detector consists of a similar .heatstone bridge circuit% but b! using either a tungsten filament or a $er! low filament $oltage% combustion is
pre$ented# *n this case% filament temperature and bridge potential will depend on the abilit! of the mud gas sample to cool the filament as it
passes o$er the heated metal surface# (This cooling effect is also present in the catal!tic combustion detector but is $er! small compared to heat
of reaction it is effecti$el! ad-usted out for low gas concentrations when the instrument is set for 21ero2 gas#)
Thermal conducti$it!% that is cooling effectiveness, of a particular gaseous compound depends upon the molecular kinetic energ! of the gas#
This propert! depends in$ersel! upon the molecular weight of the gas ( (igure G % 5roperties of mud gases, particularly as related to thermal
conductivity detectors)#
Figure 7
3tated another wa! + the lighter the gas% the more kinetic energ! present and the greater the cooling capacit!# Methane% ha$ing a lower
molecular weight than air% for example% will ha$e a substantiall! greater cooling effect# Therefore% in a pure methane"air mixture% like a
standard% the higher the methane content the greater the 2positi$e2 (or cooling) response on the detector# This effect is linear with methane
concentration and ma! be so calibrated in I 4MA# The fact that linearit! extends to 1BBI concentration makes it a good detector to
supplement catal!tic combustion detection for high methane concentrations#
As might be anticipated% the thermal conducti$it! detector responds poorl! to hea$ier h!drocarbon and noncombustible gases# These ma! e$en
gi$e a 2negati$e2 response when their cooling is less effecti$e on the heated filament than pure air or other carrier gas# ,on$ersel!% low
molecular weight h!drogen and e$en non"combustible helium ha$e a thermal conducti$it! response greater than methane# *n o$erall
performance% the thermal conducti$it! detector is the least sensiti$e of those discussed to this point#
0b$iousl!% the thermal conducti$it! detector% while ideal for detecting concentrations of a single gas and carrier gas mixture% is too
unpredictable in response to be used routinel! as the sole detector on the mud gas mixtures coming from the gas trap# As suggested abo$e% this
technique finds a common mud"logging use in the detection of $er! high concentrations of methane it also is used in the detection of
noncombustible gases like carbon dioxide after the! ha$e passed through purif!ing steps#
Infrared "bs!rpti!n &etect!r (I-"&)
0ne additional instrument% the infrared absorption detector, ma! be used in mud gas logging ( (igure 8 % (chematic of a modern infrared
analy'er. *he basic concept is to alternate infrared energy of a predetermined wavelength through parallel optical cells .sample cell and
comparison cell# and detect the change caused by the sample)#
Figure 8
The *9AE has been applied recentl! to h!drocarbon detection% with limited success# The principle of the measurement% whether for detecting
h!drocarbon or other compound t!pes% depends upon the fact that an! one t!pe of chemical bond within a compound will absorb infrared
energ! of one particular wa$elength# *f a gas sample is irradiated with that specific wa$elength of infrared energ!% the energ! should be
absorbed in proportion to the number of those bonds present% and% therefore% be a method of detection and measurement#
*n practice this does not work accuratel! for h!drocarbons all ,", bonds are similar but not identical# The same is true of all ,"5 bonds# (or
this reason% there are not two discrete peaks of infrared absorption for h!drocarbons but continuous bands of o$erlapping absorption
wa$elengths# These bands do not allow precise determination of h!drocarbon concentrations#
The most effecti$e use of infrared absorption in mud gas logging is for the detection of single gases% specificall! carbon dioxide# This is
followed b! determining concentrations of single pure h!drocarbon compounds after separation b! chromatograph!# .hen applied to
h!drocarbon mixtures it is less effecti$e in estimating total h!drocarbons (I 4MA) and lightA hea$! ratios than dual $oltage catal!tic
combustion detector s!stems# 8ecause it responds to nonh!drocarbon gases as well% it is seldom used to replace combustion detectors#
Gas Compound Separation
)as chromatograph! is the principal separation method used in mud logging# *nfrared absorption% when narrowed to a specific wa$elength% also
can be used in mud logging to discriminate among and monitor the presence of a few selected indi$idual compound t!pes most common% as
we ha$e said% is carbon dioxide#
#as Chr!mat!graph (#C)
,hromatograph! is a separation method in which a complex mixture is passed through a medium that retards indi$idual compound t!pes at
different rates ( (igure 1 % Basis of gas chromatography)#
Figure 1
The retardation or retention rate depends upon the specific chemical and ph!sical character of each compound t!pe relati$e to the medium#
:rocedurall!% the mixture passes along a conduit in a mobile (gas or liquid) state# *dentical compounds in the mixture are retarded at the same
rate b! the fixed"state medium% become grouped together as wa$es% and ultimatel! exit the conduit at the same time as a surge# A detector
sensiti$e to that compound makes an accurate measurement of the quantit! in the surge#
A $ariet! of chromatographic procedures are a$ailable% but the technique commonl! used in mud logging is% as we stated% gas chromatograph!#
*n this% the compounds to be separated are carried in a gas phase through tubing in which separation occurs# The tubing% or 2chromatographic
column%2 can ha$e an exceedingl! small internal diameter that is coated with a retarding liquid or can be of larger diameter and packed with
porous material soaked with retarding liquid#
The choice of the carrier gas that mo$es the sample through the chromatographic column is determined b! the compounds to be separated% plus
the t!pe of detector to be used# *f feasible% a carrier gas is chosen to which the detector is insensiti$e#
*n gas chromatograph!% the column is heated and maintained at a constant temperature# 5eating the column speeds up the elution time% thereb!
allowing a greater number of chromatograms to be obtained during a fixed inter$al of time% while maintaining the column at a constant
temperature 2fixes2 retention time so that it does not $ar! between samples# ,onsequentl!% component identification remains a direct function
of anal!tical time# Maintenance of constant temperature is essential when the anal!tical instrument uses an integratorArecorder for data output
and compound identification#
*n practice% mud"logging gas chromatograph! encompasses four sequential steps; (1) sample collection% (&) sample in-ection% (')
chromatographic separation% and (/) compound detection# These are carried out with the sample flow loop, batch sampler, separation columns,
and detector#
Sample Fl!. L!!p"This unit collects the mud gas sample# ,ollection is done b! splitting off a portion of the gas coming from the gas trap in
the mud gas $acuum s!stem# The di$erted portion is passed at a controlled rate and pressure into a continuousl! refreshed flow loop#
/atch Sampler" This unit isolates the gas sample to be anal!1ed and triggers the separation phase# :eriodicall! the sampler takes a
representati$e gas sample from the sample flow loop and 2in-ects2 it into the chromatographic column to start the anal!sis# This sampling and
in-ection step is repeated e$er! few minutes as each full anal!tical c!cle is completed#
Separati!n C!lumns0 This assemblage is the heart of the gas chromatograph# (or efficienc!% most mud"logging gas chromatographs contain
two columns# This permits one column to perform a separation while the other is being backflushed% cleansed% and prepared for its next
separation c!cle# Two columns also permit two different separations or anal!ses to be performed alternatel!#
&etect!r" After chromatographic separation% the components of interest pass to a suitable detector in predictable order# 4ach component arri$es
as a nearl! pure sample and ma! be both identified b! its sequence or time of arri$al% and quantified b! its detector response# ,atal!tic
combustion or flame ioni1ation detectors are commonl! used when onl! the presence and concentration of h!drocarbons are being determined#
Thermal conducti$it! or infrared detectors ha$e more general applications although% as discussed in the text% the! are less sensiti$e in man!
situations#
An example of two columns set up to make different separations for anal!sis is offered in (igure & ((chematic of a gas chromatograph set up
for two"column operation)#
Figure 2
*t is common to make alternating anal!sis of (1) the lightest combustible gases% h!drogen and methane% b! separating them with one column
and (&) the combustible gases% methane (plus h!drogen)% ethane% propane% isobutane% and butane% b! separating them with the other ( (igure ' %
Figure 3
(eparation of hydrogen and methane% (igure / %
Figure 4
(eparation of light hydrocarbon gases .note effect of nitrogen carrier gas#% (igure < %
Figure 5
(eparation of light hydrocarbon gases .note effect of helium carrier gas#%and (igure = % (eparation of light hydrogen gases .note effect of
hydrogen sulfide#)#
Figure 6
As another example% the first% or primar!% column can make a rapid separation of gases to be anal!1ed from those to be discarded ( (igure G %
(chematic of gas chromatograph set up for dual"column operation)# *n this dual"column case% components for which the column was designed%
like gaseous h!drocarbons% pass rapidl! through the primar! column and pass out of the s!stem#
Figure 7
>ndesirable gases% like h!drogen sulfide% which ma! damage a detector% or light liquid h!drocarbons% which might contaminate a sensiti$e
column% progress more slowl! through the primar! column and ne$er reach its exit during this c!cle# The! are back"flushed and exhausted
from the primar! column after the separated gases pass into the other% secondar! column to complete the full anal!tical c!cle#
*n each of these examples% separated components arri$e as nearl! pure samples that ma! be both identified b! their sequence of arri$al and
quantified b! their detector response# ,atal!tic combustion or flame ioni1ation detectors are commonl! used when onl! the presence and
concentration of h!drocarbons are being determined# Thermal conducti$it! or infrared detectors ha$e more general applications% although% as
we ha$e discussed% the! are less sensiti$e in man! situations#
Measurement of indi$idual compounds is intermittent# This is because we are no longer looking at continuous monitoring of the same material%
as is the case with total combustible gas anal!sis# Although a gas chromatograph detector ma! be pro$iding output almost continuousl!% it is
measuring $alues for different compounds as the! occurred in batch samples taken e$er! few minutes# Therefore% data% whether presented on a
meter% a chart% or a digital record are $alues for a number of indi$idual compounds% with onl! one $alue per compound for each anal!tical
c!cle# These can be a$eraged or plotted as points on the formation log% as with continuous total gas measurements#
,hromatographic s!stems are calibrated in the same manner as simple detector s!stems + b! the use of a standard# *n this case% howe$er% the
standard contains all of the compounds being measured% and in known amounts# (or h!drocarbons% a t!pical standard consists of one percent of
each of the fi$e gases% methane% ethane% propane% butane% and isobutane% mixed with ninet!"fi$e percent nitrogen# .hen a standard is run% the
response gi$en b! the detector for each compound is recorded and used to calibrate other percentage $alues for the indi$idual compounds#
3ome operators require a three"point calibration when this is carried out% two standards plus air are used#
A calibration c!cle should be run at least once a da! and also when sensiti$it! loss or drift is suggested b! comparison of chromatographic data
with total mud gas or lag gas readings# ,are should also be taken in the use of the standard to assure that storage temperature has been high
enough to keep all components in a mixed% gaseous phase#
Infrared "bs!rpti!n &iscriminat!r
*n certain situations% it is not necessar! to ph!sicall! separate an indi$idual compound t!pe from a mud gas mixture in order to measure the
quantit! present# 3ome detectors can be made so specific that the! become% in effect% compound separators# The current principal use of the
infrared absorption detector is in such a configuration + the energ! source is set for a single chemical bond# That makes it both a detector and
a separator% or discriminator the measurement of carbon dioxide concentration in mud gas samples% as we ha$e said% is a common application#
,alibration of an infrared unit is generall! b! the use of two gases% one containing no gas to which the discriminator is sensiti$e + a 21ero2
gas% and one with a known amount of detectable gas + a 2standard2 gas# These two pro$ide the baseline and reaction factors needed to set
response $alues# ,ommonl! a meter is used for continuous monitoring and a recorder to pro$ide a permanent record# 0utput also can be linked
to alarm s!stems and to on"site computer storage s!stems#
Gas Plots
Two general t!pes of h!drocarbon gas plots appear on the formation mud log# 0ne is the continuous summar! t!pe% which is t!pified b! the
total combustible gas plot shown on Track Three ( (igure 1 % *otal combustible gas track)#
Figure 1
The other is the intermittent% indi$idual"compound t!pe% which contrasts $alues from batch sampling these are found on Track (our of our
example ( (igure & % &as Composition track)#
Figure 2
4ach t!pe has a $ariet! of uses# The continuous plot% for example% pro$ides a gas background le$el against which to plot shows% trip gas%
connection gas% and feed"in from declining mud o$erbalance responses# The detailed plot% on the other hand% gi$es insight into changes in
h!drocarbon character% such as an increase in propane and butane% which might be associated with an oil show or changing reser$oir conditions#
*n nearl! all cases% howe$er% the points plotted on Tracks Three and (our are representati$e $alues because of $ertical scale it is generall!
impractical% if not impossible to plot all anal!tical results on the formation log# :resentation and use of gas data generall! dictate how the data
will be plotted#
$resentati!n !f #as &ata
As is true for the 90: data in Track 0ne% of the formation mud log% all changes in gas $olume or composition are plotted hori1ontall! on
Tracks Three and (our# *n the case of gases% con$ention dictates that an increase in $olume or relati$e concentration is plotted to the right# This
means that factors which% for example% usuall! reflect increasing porosit! on a 90: cur$e% will be depicted in the opposite direction on the total
gas cur$e# A mirror image presentation then is established on opposite sides of a formation log% much as on man! wire line logs#
As with Track 0ne% hori1ontal scales can be either linear% logarithmic% or proportioned nonlinear# ,urrent practice fa$ors the latter two scales#
These can show wide"ranging gas readings% which are common to mud gas logging% without requiring scale changes at the same time the! can
show small $ariations at low concentrations% which also ha$e significance in mud logging# >nits selected for the hori1ontal scale of total
combustible gas ma! be in I 4MA or in arbitrar! units that are equated to I 4MA (e#g#% 1BB units D &I 4MA)# These same units% plus parts
per million (ppm)% ma! be used for detailed h!drocarbon gas anal!sis data carried in Track (our#
.hen a comparati$e plot is used% as to depict gas wetness (I not methane)% percentages of indi$idual h!drocarbon gases within the anal!1ed
sample are generall! plotted on a linear scale# This t!pe of plot shows relati$e changes in composition but gi$es no indication of quantit! (i#e#%
combined gas measurements alwa!s equal 1BBI)#
Eata plots ma! be in bar graph or continuous cur$e format similar to 90:# *n most cases% the same format will be used for Tracks 0ne% Three%
and (our of a single log so that $isual comparisons and correlations are easil! made#
8ecause most data points on a gas plot can represent a number of repeated anal!ses or a period of time of continuous anal!sis% the significance
of a plotted point will $ar! depending upon the s!stem used to select the plotted $alue# *n some cases% the a$erage or the mode for the number
of anal!ses or length of period is plotted# *n others% the highest reading within the same increment is plotted# (or some plots% as connection gas%
the $alue plotted ma! be the total reading or it ma! be onl! the $alue abo$e background# The operator normall! designates which $alues are to
be plotted in light of their use and their compatibilit! with other formation logs from the area#
Characteristics o Gas Data
As gas data are compiled on the formation log during the drilling life of a well% a number of recurrent features become apparent ( (igure 1 %
*otal combustible gas plot from chart recorder with diagnostic features noted)#
Figure 1
Man!% such as connection gas% lag gas% and down"time gas% result from drill"rig operations others% such as background gas% are related to
downhole changes in litholog!#
0nce the influences of relati$el! predictable factors on mud gas data are recogni1ed% then identification and e$aluation of unpredictable
$ariables are practical# The two most significant anomalies are )as 3how + An! unexpected or anomalous increase in mud gas content# *t
ma! result from liberated gas% produced gas% recirculated gas% or mud contaminants# A 2true2 gas show is from liberated gas coming off bottom#
*ncreased (eed"*n + :rogressi$e increase in the amount of connection gas% down"time gas% or produced gas arri$ing at surface# This
condition probabl! indicates a declining mud o$erbalance relati$e to a permeable open"hole 1one#
Repetitie !eature" that #ay $e re%ogni&ed and annotated on tota' %o#$u"ti$'e ga" %hart"
()rue( *ero +a" or ,ir - )he #ini#u# reading o$tained .hen on'y air i" pa""ing through the
#ud ga" dete%tor.
Mero )as or ,irculating 8ackground )as + The amount of gas present in a circulating mud s!stem while the drillstring is off bottom%
rotating% and undergoing no $ertical mo$ement#
8ackground )as + The relati$el! consistent mud gas $alue measured while drilling through an! uniform litholog! at a uniform rate# The
points plotted on the total combustible gas track can approximate this $alue if an a$erage or mode is plotted#
2True2 background gas $alues ha$e a 1ero gas factor subtracted from the a$erage or mode used#
Total )as + The maximum reading during an inter$al% or the total reading at an! one time# *ndi$idual points plotted on the total combustible
gas track can be these $alues if no a$eraging is used for each inter$al# Total gas includes background gas and an! other h!drocarbon gas
present#
,onnection )as + The increase in mud gas abo$e background le$el that occurs as a consequence of making a drillpipe connection# .hen the
mud"circulating s!stem is shut down to make a connection% gas influxing at depth will accumulate in the mud this connection gas surge will
arri$e and be monitored at surface when circulated up after drilling resumes#
)enerall! a background gas $alue is subtracted from a connection gas measurement so that connection gas is plotted at this lesser $alue rather
than at total reading# ,onnection gas should arri$e one lag time inter$al after the connection is made if it is coming off bottom#
3ur$e! )as + The increase of mud gas abo$e background le$el that results from influx when mud circulation stops during a directional
sur$e!#
Eown"Time )as + An! gas that influxes during a period in which circulation has been stopped# (,onnection gas and sur$e! gas are two
specific t!pes of down"time gas#)
Trip )as + The increase of mud gas due to the effects of swabbing and no mud circulation (as with connection gas)% which occurs while
drillpipe is being pulled up the hole# Trip gas ma! occur from either a short trip (e#g#% pulling up into the casing) or from a full trip to surface#
Fell!",ut or Top"Trip )as + The added gas response measured as a consequence of a slug of air entering the mud s!stem when a connection
is made or a trip to bottom is completed# The incorporated air tends to aerate a small inter$al of mud and thereb! make it more able to entrain
gas during its round trip and to break out as the aerated mud expands on return to the surface# A kell! cut should arri$e one full mud circulation
period after a connection#
Top ,onnection )as + An increase in sampled gas that is the result of a temporar! accumulation of gas near the bell nipple when the mud
s!stem is shut down# This at"surface condition will $ar! with the configuration of the mud discharge line and the gas"sampling s!stem# *t ma!
be a$oided b! circulating mud past the gas trap before resuming gas anal!sis after a connection#
6ag )as + An! artificiall! introduced gas used to determine mud circulation rate or lag time# Acet!lene is a common lag gas light
h!drocarbons like gasoline ma! also be dumped in the mud s!stem for lagging#
7ote; .hen gasoline is used% it should be white or unleaded to a$oid lead damage to detector filaments#
!ses o Gas Data
The two broad uses of mud gas data in formation logging are; ,orrelation + recognition of similarities with other logs and wells#
4$aluation + recognition of anomalies in the well being drilled#
/n %orre'ation0 .e are 'oo1ing !or inter.e'' hydro%ar$on and ro%1 re'ated data0 a" in %hara%teri"ti%
$a%1ground ga" 'ee'" or in dri''ing $rea1" %au"ed $y anti%ipated 'itho'ogi% %hange". /n
ea'uation0 .e are 'oo1ing !or ariation" in re'ated ro%1 and hydro%ar$on data0 "u%h a" in%rea"e"
in poro"ity denoted $y in%rea"e" in ga" %ontent0 or a" %hange" a%ro"" a re"eroir denoted $y
%hange" in ga" %o#po"ition.
*n the remainder of this section% we generall! consider mud gas and cuttings gas data relati$e to these two aspects as the! are reflected in the
continuous summar! plot of Track Three and the intermittent component plot of Track (our# *n the following discussion% remember that
correlation and e$aluation are% to a degree% end members in the use of gas data and each finds use in the interpreti$e region between them#
Correlation
:attern correlation is perhaps the first or most ob$ious correlati$e use of mud gas plots as the! are de$eloping in a drilling well# The total
combustible gas plot combined with the 90: or litholog! cur$e can often be used $isuall! for direct formation correlation with mud gas and
wireline logs from ad-oining wells# This t!pe of pattern correlation permits bottomhole stratigraph! to be tracked as drilling progresses#
Total mud gas plots will also show a general correlation with wireline porosit! logs% and can be used for interfield correlations while drilling is
still in progress#
Total cuttings gas plots will closel! correlate with 3: logs where both are responding to changes in permeabilit!# 5owe$er% each has some
response unrelated to permeabilit!# Thus% a change in pore water salinit! can alter and possibl! in$ert 3: response without effecting a change in
cuttings gas concentration# ,on$ersel!% the presence of a low"gra$it! immobile oil can cause a sharp increase in cuttings gas# The response of
the 3: log to this occurrence will be small unless oil saturation is $er! high or the oil is so $iscous and immobile that it causes a ma-or
permeabilit! reduction#
Her! usable correlations occur between total mud gas and shallow and deep resisti$it! and conducti$it! logs# Almost all porous rocks contain
saline waters with dissol$ed gases% predominantl! methane# ,onsequentl!% gas content and water content can closel! track each other and
porosit!# Therefore% the mud gas total combustible h!drocarbon cur$e will generall! correlate well with both shallow and deep conducti$it!
logs and will be a reciprocal of the resisti$it! cur$e#
An approximate one"to"one correlation ma! not alwa!s occur between these logs and this also can be useful# .hen a 1one of high h!drocarbon
saturation is encountered% the gas cur$e will most probabl! increase with the increasing gas saturation# 5owe$er% this need not be the case# *f
the mudcake has not built up effecti$el!% mud flushing during drilling ma! result in the displacement of all h!drocarbons and a 2negati$e gas
show2 at surface# *n this situation% shallow conducti$it! logging will commonl! see onl! the flushed 1one around the borehole# :rimaril!
sensing the mud filtrate% it will remain unaffected b! the more distant% true gas saturation and gi$e an unrelated response#
Eeep conducti$it! logging% howe$er% will respond primaril! to the original% undisturbed h!drocarbon saturation and be unaffected b!
permeabilit! and gas and oil mobilit!# ,omparing the three cur$es can pro$ide a quick"look e$aluation of saturation and mobilit!#
Evaluation
As presented at the beginning of this section% anomalies within a well are best recogni1ed and e$aluated after operational and lithologic
$ariables are considered# Eetermining the $alidit! of a gas show on the total combustible gas plot% for example% requires a number of
ad-ustments# 3pecificall!% the data should first be corrected for background influences and then normali1ed with respect to operational
influences such as rate of penetration% bit diameter% rate of mud circulation% and gas trap extraction efficienc!#
Background is generall! established b! inspection using the total combustible gas plot ( (igure 1 % *otal combustible gas plot from chart
recorder with diagnostic features noted)#
Figure 1
8ased on the differences between 1ero gas points and running or $isual a$erages of background gas% a true background is calculated for the
depth at which the show occurred# This true background $alue is then subtracted from the show $alue to pro$ide a 2rough2 quantification of the
anomal!# The anomal! is now read! for normali1ation to gi$e it a 2reference2 $alue for classification and comparison with other anomalies in
the well or in nearb! wells#
3ormali'ation is necessar! to remo$e operational influences that cannot be full! annotated on the gas log and thereb! be interpreted out# 6et us
assume% as an example% that we drill into a porous and permeable 1one# 3uch a 1one will be ph!sicall! weaker than the uphole section and we
will recogni1e it b! an increase in 90:% that is% a drilling break# *f% after the appropriate lag time% we see an increase in total combustible
h!drocarbon readings we might take this as a sign that the interpreted high"porosit! 1one is filled with gas and oil#
This need not be the case ( (igure & % 1ffect of change in -5 on mud gas detector response)#
Figure 2
An increase in gas will result% in part% simpl! from the higher 90: and greater pore $olume drilled# .e are crushing a larger $olume of rock
and liberating more gas within an! increment of time#
An opposite effect will be seen when bit diameter is reduced% as at a casing point# A smaller $olume of rock is crushed for each increment
drilled following the bit"si1e change and% as a consequence% all gas shows will be reduced in magnitude to some degree below the casing point#
3imilarl!% if mud flow rate is increased at an! point% then the $olume of formation fluid released during a show below that point will be mixed
with a larger $olume of drilling fluid# ,onsequentl!% the gas show will be more dispersed and gi$e the appearance of being smaller than a
comparable show occurring before the flow rate increase#
3ome wellsite geologists are willing to accept these effects and work with raw data when e$aluating a show# *f operational $ariables ha$e
remained fairl! consistent throughout the show inter$al% then a rough correction onl! for background ma! gi$e a fair indication of the
magnitude of the show#
This magnitude% howe$er% will not necessaril! be directl! comparable to pre$ious uphole or later downhole anomalies drilled under different
conditions# Therefore% an increasing number of geologists prefer to work with normali1ed data# 7ormali1ing can be done either b! the geologist
or as part of the mud"logging ser$ice#
7ormali1ation is generall! carried out b! using the following mathematical scheme;
.here2 +n 3 (nor#a'i&ed( dit%h tota' hydro%ar$on"0 4 EM,
)o D obser$ed ditch total h!drocarbons% I 4MA
No D obser$ed drilling fluid pump output% m'As
Nn D 2normal2 drilling fluid pump output% m'As
3n D 2normal2 drill bit diameter% m
8o D actual drill bit diameter% m
9n D 2normal2 90:% mAs
9o D obser$ed 90:% mAs
(en D 2normal2 extraction efficienc! factor% dimensionless
(eo D obser$ed extraction efficienc! factor% dimensionless
)he %on%ept i" "i#p'er than the !or#u'a appear" to indi%ate. Ba"i%a''y0 i! #ud !'o. rate in%rea"e"
or $it "i&e or R5P de%rea"e"0 nor#a'i&ing #u"t hae a po"itie e!!e%t on ga" a'ue" to
%o#pen"ate !or greater ga" di'ution and 'e""er ground6up ro%1. )he oppo"ite i" true0 o! %our"e0
under iner"e dri''ing %hange".
The 2extraction efficienc! factor2 in the formula abo$e is a correction factor used to attempt to remo$e the effect of $ariations in gas trap
efficiencies resulting from changes in such conditions as mud flow characteristics% mud chemistr!% and ambient temperature# *ts direction and
magnitude can be approximated b! comparing the results of cuttings gas $alues with mud gas $alues# *t can also be estimated as the hole is
drilled b! monitoring changes in gas detector response to comparable amounts of acet!lene lag gas#
.hen comparing a number of shows% 2normal2 $alues ma! be arbitraril! selected% but should remain the same throughout the normali1ation
program for all shows and wells in$ol$ed# *t is recommended that normal $alues be chosen that are t!pical of those encountered when drilling
the particular stratigraphic section under e$aluation# *f this is done% the e$entual normali1ed gas magnitudes will not $ar! far from their
obser$ed $alues# *n this wa!% the! will be more readil! understood and accepted b! personnel alread! working in the district but who ma! be
unfamiliar with normali1ing techniques#
Another method of normali1ing data that is commonl! used when h!drocarbon data are e$aluated is to make comparisons or ratios between the
concentrations of specific h!drocarbon compounds within one sample + that is% measured during one single gas anal!sis# This normali1ing
process equates all $alues within one batch sample to 1BBI# The resulting ratios that can be established between compounds are independent of
the total concentration measured and% therefore% relati$el! free of sampling and similar $ariables#
An eas! wa! to $isuali1e this normali1ing effect is to imagine diluting a gas sample with different $olumes of air or dissipating it into different
$olumes of mud# Although the absolute concentrations of h!drocarbon gas will drop proportionatel! to the dispersion% and thereb! gi$e a lower
total reading% indicating greater dilution or dissipation% the relati$e concentrations% or ratios% between h!drocarbon compounds within each
sample will remain the same# All compounds% in other words% are dispersed b! the same amount#
9atio normali1ation finds most use in e$aluation of mud gas and cuttings gas data from chromatographic anal!sis# The h!drocarbon ratios
obtainable from detailed anal!sis can pro$ide important clues to the composition of formation fluids gi$ing the show#
8ecause h!drocarbons ha$e common origins in carbonaceous matter and are relati$el! soluble in each other% we should expect the liberated gas
in a gas show to be of the same origin as the range of h!drocarbons in the show inter$al as well as reflecti$e of their nature# 4xperience has
shown this to be true in particular% different h!drocarbon ratios in mud gas and cuttings gas can strongl! reflect different compositions of
companion fluids at depth ( (igure ' % (how evaluation scheme using mud"gas compound ratios to interpret show potential)#
Figure 3
Mud"logging companies ha$e a $ariet! of methods for interpreting and plotting show and probable reser$oir relationships# 3e$eral rule"of"
thumb guides are applied in most interpretations and e$aluations;
.here gas ratios fa$or the lighter components + methane and ethane + reser$oir lithologies are most apt to contain a light fluid + gas andAor
condensate# .here gas ratios fa$or the hea$ier gases + propane and butanes + reser$oir lithologies are more apt to contain hea$ier fluid +
crude oil#
At either extreme + all methane (dr! gas) or predominantl! butanes ($er! wet gas) + reser$oir lithologies are probabl! going to ha$e
unfa$orable petroleum characteristics# The former implies an immature% possibl! biogenic gas% probabl! of low $olume% or simpl! a water
reser$oir with dissol$ed methane# The latter suggests either hea$! immature oil or residual oil from which all of the light% more mobile
components ha$e migrated#
7here data are ade8uate0 %o#pari"on o! ga" ratio" %an $e u"ed a'"o to ea'uate do.n ho'e
%hange" $et.een "ho.". )hey #ay a'"o $e u"ed a" dri''ing progre""e" to gie ear'y in"ight a" to
%hange" o%%urring $et.een .e''" 9e.g.0 oi'6.ater %onta%t er"u" ga" %ap:.
7aturall!% we must assume that the better the data% the better the interpretation# 3team"still and cuttings"gas extractors generall! pro$ide better
gas samples for the abo$e t!pes of interpretation than the gas trap at the mud tank#
The principal limitation of ratio normali1ing for show e$aluation is the fact that anal!tical data for indi$idual h!drocarbon components must be
a$ailable# 8ecause these come mostl! from intermittent or batch anal!ses% a reliable number ma! not exist for each show% particularl! if
sampling frequenc! is the same for cuttings gas as for lithologic description (e#g#% the ten" to thirt!"foot range)# (or this reason% it is good
practice to require short"inter$al cuttings and mud sampling throughout a show% with cuttings and mud gas extraction and detailed anal!ses run
as rapidl! as possible#
,ontrast the following;
a# liberated gas $ersus produced gas
b# influx $ersus flushing
c# lag time $ersus lag strokes
d# h!drocarbon gas $ersus nonh!drocarbon gas
e# mud gas $ersus cuttings gas
f# ,atal!tic combustion detection $ersus thermal conducti$it! detection
g# dr! gas $ersus wet gas
h# I 4MA $s ppm
i# connection gas $ersus lag gas
-# gas show $ersus gas feed"in
a# The first is liberated b! the bit% the second influxes from uphole#
b# The first is formation fluids entering the hole (or mud)% generall! from mud under"
balance the second is the result of mud fluids entering the drilled formation% generall!
from mud o$erbalance#
c# 6ag time is that taken for cuttings to come up the annulus lag strokes are the pump
strokes required to bring cuttings to surface# (,hronologic time can be highl! $ariable
due to noncirculation% e#g#% during connections% but pump strokes will remain relati$el!
constant for mud return to surface#)
d# 5!drocarbon gases consist of molecules containing atoms of h!drogen and carbon
onl! an! gas containing an! other atom is a nonh!drocarbon gas% e$en if it also contains
h!drogen and carbon#
e# Mud gases are extracted from mud cuttings gases from cuttings#
f# ,atal!tic combustion detection depends upon the heating effect of combustible gas on a
heated wire thermal conducti$it! detection is dependent upon the cooling effect of an!
gas on a heated wire#
g# Er! gas is relati$el! pure methane gas wet is methane gas mixed with ethane%
propane% and butane#
h# I 4MA is the gas measurement relati$e to response equi$alent to that gi$en b! a
known concentration of methane ppm is the gas $olume of indi$idual gas related to
entire gas sample#
i# ,onnection gas is formation gas entering the mud s!stem at depth while a connection is
made lag gas is contaminant gas introduced at surface to measure mud s!stem
circulation c!cle#
-# A gas show is a relati$el! short"term influx of gas (its appearance should signif!
penetration of a gas"bearing hori1on) gas feed"in connotes a long"term influx of gas
(commonl! due to inadequate mud o$erbalance)#
4xplain wh! lag strokes determined b! tracer test and mathematical calculation need not
agree% as well as what application the difference between the two can ha$e#
The tracer test is an accurate ph!sical measurement of the number of pump strokes
required for mud to make one complete circulation down the drill pipe and up the
annulus#
,alculated lag is the theoretical number of strokes required to mo$e a theoretical $olume
of mud through the same s!stem# The latter cannot take full! into account hole"si1e
$ariations% pump efficienc!% and similar $ariables#
The difference between the lag strokes ($olume of mud) determined b! the two methods
can be used to e$aluate hole conditions and some equipment efficiencies#
a# .h! is total combustible mud gas measured in I 4MA for the formation log instead of
ppm or some similar% more precise methodO
b# .h! is mud gas anal!1ed b! gas chromatograph! not a continuous measurement of gas
compositionO
a# 4ach indi$idual h!drocarbon gas (methane% ethane% etc#) gi$es off a different response
to commonl! used detectors# 7o discrimination can be made because changes in both
concentration and composition produce changes in response#
b# )as chromatograph! requires time to separate one sample into its indi$idual
components# 7o separation would be achie$ed with continuous sample in-ection#