Adult Learning Theory and Principles

Become familiar with Adult Learning Theory and the six

principles of adult learning
Adult Learning Theory
Part of being an effective educator involves understanding how adults learn
best (Lieb,1991). Andragogy (adult learning) is a theory that holds a set of
assumptions about how adults learn. Andragogy emphasises the value of the
process of learning. It uses approaches to learning that areproblem-based
and collaborative rather than didactic, and also emphasises more equality
between the teacher and learner.
Andragogy as a study of adult learning originated in Europe in 1950's and
was then pioneered as a theory and model of adult learning from the 1970's
by Malcolm Knowles an American practitioner and theorist of adult
education, who defined andragogy as "the art and science of helping adults
learn" (Zmeyov 1998; Fidishun 2000).

What do you mean by 'adult learning principles'?
Knowles identified the six principles of adult learning outlined below.
Adults are internally motivated and self-directed
Adults bring life experiences and knowledge to learning experiences
Adults are goal oriented
Adults are relevancy oriented
Adults are practical
Adult learners like to be respected
How can I use adult learning principles to facilitate student learning on
placement?
Good question!! Here we will discuss some ways to facilitate learning by
applying Knowles' Adult Learning Principles:
1. Adults are internally motivated and self-directed
Adult learners resist learning when they feel others are imposing
information, ideas or actions on them (Fidishun, 2000).
Your role is to facilitate a students' movement toward more self-directed and
responsible learning as well as to foster the student's internal motivation to
learn.
As clinical educator you can :
Set up a graded learning program that moves from more to less
structure, from less to more responsibility and from more to less direct
supervision, at an appropriate pace that is challenging yet not
overloading for the student.
Develop rapport with the student to optimise your approachability and
encourage asking of questions and exploration of concepts.
Show interest in the student's thoughts and opinions. Actively and
carefully listen to any questions asked.
Lead the student toward inquiry before supplying them with too many
facts.
Provide regular constructive and specific feedback (both positive and
negative),
Review goals and acknowledge goal completion
Encourage use of resources such as library, journals, internet and
other department resources.
Set projects or tasks for the student that reflect their interestsand
which they must complete and "tick off" over the course of the
placement. For example: to provide an in-service on topic of choice; to
present a case-study based on one of their clients; to design a client
educational handout; or to lead a client group activity session.
Acknowledge the preferred learning style of the student. A
questionnaire is provided below that will assist your student to identify
their preferred learning style and to discuss this with you.
2. Adults bring life experiences and knowledge to learning
experiences
Adults like to be given opportunity to use their existing foundation of
knowledge and experience gained from life experience, and apply it to
their new learning experiences. As a clinical educator you can:
Find out about your student - their interests and past experiences
(personal, work and study related)
Assist them to draw on those experiences when problem-solving,
reflecting and applying clinical reasoning processes.
Facilitate reflective learning opportunities which Fidishun (2000)
suggests can also assist the student to examine existing biases or
habits based on life experiences and "move them toward a new
understanding of information presented" (p4).
3. Adults are goal oriented
Adult students become ready to learn when "they experience a need to learn
it in order to cope more satisfyingly with real-life tasks or problems"
(Knowles,1980 p 44, as cited in Fidishun, 2000). Your role is to facilitate a
student's readiness for problem-based learning and increase the student's
awareness of the need for the knowledge or skill presented. As educator,
you can:
Provide meaningful learning experiences that are clearly linked to
personal, client and fieldwork goals as well as assessment and future
life goals.
Provide real case-studies (through client contact and reporting) as a
basis from which to learn about the theory, OT methods, functional
issues implications of relevance.
Ask questions that motivate reflection, inquiry and further research.
4. Adults are relevancy oriented
Adult learners want to know the relevance of what they are learning to what
they want to achieve. One way to help students to see the value of their
observations and practical experiences throughout their placement, is to:
Ask the student to do some reflection on for example, what they
expect to learn prior to the experience, on what they learnt after the
experience, and how they might apply what they learnt in the future,
or how it will help them to meet their learning goals.
Provide some choice of fieldwork project by providing two or more
options, so that learning is more likely to reflect the student's
interests.
"Students really benefit from regular 'teaching sessions' - time spent going
through assessments such as how to do a kitchen assessment, and having
in-services presented on specific topics - such as Cognition or Perception" " I
find they understand more about a topic when it is directly relevant to the
work context. This is invaluable as it ties theory to practice." S. Bartholomai,
OT clinical educator, Ipswich Hospital (personal communication, May 31,
2007)
5. Adults are practical
Through practical fieldwork experiences, interacting with real clients and
their real life situations, students move from classroom and textbook mode
to hands-on problem solving where they can recognise first hand how what
they are learning applies to life and the work context. As a clinical educator
you can:
Clearly explain your clinical reasoning when making choices about
assessments, interventions and when prioritising client's clinical needs.
Be explicit about how what the student is learning is useful and
applicable to the job and client group you are working with.
Promote active participation by allowing students to try things rather
than observe. Provide plenty of practice opportunity in assessment,
interviewing, and intervention processes with ample repetition in order
to promote development of skill, confidence and competence.
"I like to encourage students to select and use a clinical model, such as
Chapparo and Rankin's OPM, to apply to practice. It helps students to
identify what performance components (e.g. endurance, tone, organisational
skills) they want to assess for example, in a dressing task. This helps to
reinforce why OTs do things, and how the link to occupation differs from
other disciplines." (S. Bartholomai, personal communication, May 31, 2007)
6. Adult learners like to be respected
Respect can be demonstrated to your student by:
Taking interest
Acknowledging the wealth of experiences that the student brings to
the placement;
Regarding them as a colleague who is equal in life experience
Encouraging expression of ideas, reasoning and feedback at every
opportunity.
It is important to keep in mind that the student is still developing
occupational therapy clinical practice skills. However, with the theory and
principles of adult learning in mind, you can facilitate the learning approach
of the student to move from novice to more sophisticated learning methods.
This facilitates greater integration of knowledge, information and experience;
the student learns to distinguish what is important when assessing and
working with clients; how to prioritise client needs, goals and caseload;
when rules can be put aside and how/when the approach to occupational
therapy practice and professional communication emerges from strict
modelling of behaviour into a unique therapeutic and professional expression
of self.
(Fidishun, 2000; Lieb,1991)






How Adults Learn
It is important to have an understanding of how adults learn if we are to become effective
etutors. Learning is a "change of state" from the "present state" where we are comfortable
with our thoughts, feelings and behaviour to a desired state with new thoughts, feelings etc.
This change of state from the present to the desired requires management and is
underpinned by resources that include academic materials and an associated support
structure to manage this change.

Many factors will influence the ease by which the student moves to the desired state. Two
major ones will be:
1. the time the learner has been away from the learning process (more time that will
have to be spent with the learner to assist them to develop/redevelop learning skills
the longer the student has been away from the learning process)
2. and the other is motivation.
An etutor should be aware of the former and be inspirational in the latter.
Cyril Houle's survey on what motivates learners identified three categorises of motivational
styles:
1. goal-orientated learners use education to accomplish well defined objectives,
2. activity-orientated (Social) learners who take part for the social contact,
3. learning-orientated learners seeking knowledge for knowledge sake.
Others have developed Houle's model and suggest that adults learn because of:
1. an increase in self-esteem,
2. a sense of pleasing and impressing others,
3. achieving a sense of satisfaction and pleasure.
The change of state model shown above is also accompanied by an emotional state which
might be one of excitement, anger, foreboding or even fear. An etutor will require the
necessary skills to manage learners through these various emotional states and baring in
mind that research suggests that:
adults have less time for learning,
pressures of day-to-day tasks limit the adult's attention span,
adults see the etutor as a source of information,
adults do not see themselves as learners,
an adult's willingness to learn is not related to his or her ability to learn,
adults often work in repetitive, static situations,
adults become motivated to learn when the information they're provided with is seen
as important and relevant.
This last point is very important and often the major key to adult learning. When (adult)
elearners get information that relates to their experience or background, it increases their
understanding of the subject and their motivation to move forwards.
To maximize adult learning, it's important to understand the principles of adult learning and
motivation. The following basic principles will help an etutor improve the amount of
information their adult elearners will retain:
create a pleasant "environment" within which the learning process will take place.
Remember first impressions are so important for future relationships. Use games or
"ice-breakers" to achieve this.
Keep them active. First begin with ideas and concepts familiar to the elearner and
build upon their experiences.
Use examples to stress to them the importance of what they are learning as it
relates to their lives. Remember just talking about something doesn't always
convince elearners about the necessity of a particular learning activity. People learn
by "doing".
Get feedback and act upon it quickly.
Help the elearners understand the meaning of the new knowledge or skills they are
acquiring and also help them to identify new skills that are required for other parts of
the course.
Pedagogy to Andragogy
Pedagogy is the art and science of educating children and the teacher, who directs the
learning, assumes the responsibility about how and when a topic will be learnt. Although we
are still progressing our educational system much of what we do today is based upon the
church's control of what should, or more precisely should not, be taught in schools dating
back to the 16th century - which itself was based on earlier indoctrination approaches.
Looking back in history we know that the great Chinese and Greek teachers didn't use
authoritarian techniques as they saw learning as a process of active enquiry and not passive
reception. In the late 19th century John Dewey realised that schooling was falling short of
its full potential and he believed that children would learn more through guided experience
than authoritarian instruction - perhaps elearning is at last helping to put the learner at the
centre of the learning process.
In 1973 Malcolm Knowles proposed that adults require certain conditions to learn and he
used the term andragogy to explain these conditions. Andragogy is the art and science of
adult education and Knowles's andragogic model for successful adult education asserts:
1. letting learners know why something is important to learn,
2. showing learners how to direct themselves through information,
3. relating the topic to the learner's experiences,
4. people will not learn until they are ready and motivated to learn,
5. helping learners overcome inhibitions, behaviours and preconceived beliefs about
learning.
Adult-Learning Principles
Malcolm Knowles was the first to theorize how adults learn. A pioneer in the field of
adult learning, he described adult learning as a process of self-directed inquiry. Six
characteristics of adult learners were identified by Knowles (1970) (see Table 1 ). He
advocated creating a climate of mutual trust and clarification of mutual expectations
with the learner. In other words, a cooperative learning climate is fostered.
The reasons most adults enter any learning experience is to create change. This
could encompass a change in (a) their skills, (b) behavior, (c) knowledge level, or (d)
even their attitudes about things (Adult Education Centre, 2005). Compared to
school-age children, the major differences in adult learners are in the degree of
motivation, the amount of previous experience, the level of engagement in the
learning process, and how the learning is applied. Each adult brings to the learning
experience preconceived thoughts and feelings that will be influenced by each of
these factors. Assessing the level of these traits and the readiness to learn should
be included each time a teaching experience is being planned.
Motivation
Adults learn best when convinced of the need for knowing the information. Often a
life experience or situation stimulates the motivation to learn (O'Brien, 2004).
Meaningful learning can be intrinsically motivating. The key to using adults' "natural"
motivation to learn is tapping into their most teachable moments (Zemke & Zemke,
1995). For example, a patient concerned about how stress urinary incontinence
(SUI) is affecting her lifestyle might be motivated to learn about Kegel exercises
more so than her counterpart who is not experiencing SUI. Lieb (1991) described six
factors which serve as sources of motivation for adult learning (see Table 2 ). Health
care providers involved in educating adults need to convey a desire to connect with
the learner. Providing a challenge to the learner without causing frustration is
additionally important. Above all, provide feedback and positive reinforcement about
what has been learned (Lieb, 1991).
Experience
Adults have a greater depth, breadth, and variation in the quality of previous life
experiences than younger people (O'Brien, 2004). Past educational or work
experiences may color or bias the patient's perceived ideas about how education will
occur. If successfully guided by the health care provider, former experiences can
assist the adult to connect the current learning experience to something learned in
the past. This may also facilitate in making the learning experience more
meaningful. However, past experiences may actually make the task harder if these
biases are not recognized as being present by the teacher. In the case of the patient
with SUI, it may be helpful for the teacher to ask whether other women in her family
or her life have encountered continence problems and their experiences with Kegel
exercises. This would be an opportune time to address any erroneous or
preconceived ideas.
Level of Engagement
In a classic study, Rogers (1969) illustrated that when an adult learner has control
over the nature, timing, and direction of the learning process, the entire experience
is facilitated. Adults have a need to be self-directed, deciding for themselves what
they want to learn. They enter into the learning process with a goal in mind and
generally take a leadership role in their learning. The challenge for teachers is to be
encouraging to the learner but also reinforce the process of learning. The endpoint
of learning cannot always occur quickly or on a pre-set timeline.
For the patient with SUI, the health care provider should assess her understanding
of SUI, expectations for treatment, and the level of motivation to learn and practice
the recommended Kegel exercises. According to Rogers (1969), the adult-learning
process is facilitated when:
The learner participates completely in the learning process and has control
over its nature and direction.
It is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, or
personal problems.
Self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing the progress or success.
It is important to remember that in order to engage the adult learner and facilitate the
transfer of knowledge, patience and time on the part of the teacher and patient are
needed.
Applying the Learning
As skills and knowledge are acquired, it is paramount to include return
demonstrations by the learner. The primary purpose is to verify the ability of the
patient to perform the skill. Return demonstrations enable the teacher to view, and
the patient to experience, the progress in their understanding and application of the
education. Seeing progress and realizing a tangible movement forward in the
learning process may increase the patient's motivation to learn even more.
Information that goes into the learner's memory will likely be remembered if the
teacher provides opportunities in the session for activities such as application
exercises and discussions (Zemke & Zemke, 1995).
In the case of the patient with SUI, return demonstration of Kegel exercises via
connection to a biofeedback monitor is optimal. As an alternative, the health care
provider might ask about the frequency of the exercises and whether her continence
has improved. Depending on the patient's response, it may be necessary and
beneficial to reinforce the teaching done in the initial session.
Adult Learning
Intelligence and Adult Development Transformative Learning
Assumptions of Andragogy Motives and Barriers for Learning
Kinds of Learning and Settings for Learning Principles for Effective Adult Learning
Want to Increase Your Intelligence?

"Perspectives on adult learning have changed dramatically over the
decades. Adult learning has been viewed as a process of being freed
from the oppression of being illiterate, a means of gaining
knowledge and skills, a way to satisfy learner needs, and a process
of critical self-reflection that can lead to transformation. The
phenomenon of adult learning is complex and difficult to capture in
any one definition." From: Cranton, P. (1994). Understanding and
Promoting Transformative Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 3.

Well, there you have it folks--yet another area of adult education
that is difficult to define! As you well know, the area of adult
learning is extremely broad. The information in this section will
certainly not do justice to all of the information that has been
published on this subject. What you will find here are some of the
main points that are examined in ADE 5385 (Adult Learning). As
usual, check your list of readings from this class for a fuller picture
of what adult learning includes.



Intelligence and Adult Development
What is Intelligence?
There are many definitions and theories of intelligence and how it
can or should be measured, "Intelligence has been most often
studies from the psychometric tradition which assumes that it is a
measurable construct" (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 170). But
there are other views as well; information processing, contextual
perspectives, and practical intelliegence. There are many questions
to ask ourselves about intelligence:
Does intelligence exist?
Can intelligence be measured? If so, how? And what do we
gain by measuring it?
Does intelligence consist of a single factor or several factors?
Are there different kinds of intelligence?
Are we born with a certain "level" of intelligence or do we
develop this (or lose this) as we mature?
What role does culture play in intelligence--how could it affect
how we measure intelligence?
Below are brief explanations of several well-known theories of
intelligence. Caffarella, R. & Merriam, S. (1999). Learning in
Adulthood 2nd Edition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Some Theories of Intelligence
Cattell: Intelligence consists of two primary factors (fluid and
crystallized intelligence) each with different origins. Fluid
intelligence is, "...the ability to perceive complex relations and
engage in short-term memory, concept formation, reasoning, and
abstraction" (p. 175). Crystallized intelligence is influenced more
heavily by education and experience. There is no single test that
measures both fluid and crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence
is generally thought to peak in adolescence and crystallized
intelligence is beleived to increase or remain stable during most of
adulthood. There have, however, been studies done to see if fluid
intelligence can be restored or improved as people age (p. 175).
Gardner: Intelligence has been too narrowly defined--we tend to
measure only logical and linguistic abilities, ignoring other areas of
competence. Gardner believes that intelligence is not a single
construct--there are multiple intelligences and he has identified
eight kinds: Verbal/Linguistic, Musical, Logical/Mathematical,
Spatial/Visual, Bodily/Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and
Naturalist Gardner's theory offers some explanation as to why
people can perform certain tasks very well, but perform less well or
poorly on others.His theory has also sparked much debate in the
fields of education and psychology on how intelligence is measured
(pp.177-8).
Sternberg: Intelligence is composed of three subtheories: 1) a
componential subtheory describing the internal mental
mechanisms and processes involved in intelligence, 2) an
experiential subtheory focusing on how a person's experience with
a set of tasks or situations may affect his/her handling of those
tasks; and 3) a contextual subtheory emphasizing the role of the
external environment in determining what constitutes intelligent
behavior in a situation. The first part of this theory is seen as
universal and the other two have universal and relativistic
components (p. 179) Merriam and Caffarella write: "All three
intelligences are interrelated and therefore are needed in adult life.
Sternberg stresses that it is not enough just to have these three
abilities; rather, people are successfully intelligent when they are
able to choose how and when to use these abilities effectively" (p.
180).
Goleman: Goleman believes that we have two ways of knowing: The
rational and the emotional. Both of these ways of knowing are
intertwined, but emotional intelligence is a greater determiner of
success in life. There are five domains of emotional intelligence:
"knowing one's emotions, managing emotions, motivating oneself,
recognizing emotions in others, and handling relationshps" (p.
181). Merriam and Caffarella (1999) note that Goleman is not the
only theorist who sees the importance of emotional intelligence--
both Gardner and Sternberg's theories deal in some ways with this
idea.

Intelligence and Aging
Does our intelligence keep increasing as we age? Merriam and
Caffarella have this to say: "Whether adults lose their intellectual
abilities as they age is still open to question for a number of
reasons, including a lack of consistent research methodologies and
tools. The most common response is to this important issue is that
adult intelligence appears relatively stable, at least until the sixth
or seventh decade. If a decline in functioning does exist, it appears
to apply primarily to the maximum versus average levels of
functioning. In reflecting on the issue of aging and intelligence,
remember that myths promote powerful images, whether the myth
is grounded in fact or fiction. It has been difficult for educators and
researchers alike to give up the stereotype that young equals sharp
and older means dull." (1991, p. 158)

Learning Processes and Aging
Physical and cognitive changes that take place as we age are
important to note because they can have an affect on our learning:
Older learners have slower reaction times than younger
learners. We need more time to learn new things as we age,
however, when adults can control the pace of learning, they
can often effectively compensate for their lack of speed and
learn new things successfully.(1981)
Vision generally declines from the age of 18 to 40. After 40
there is a sharp decline for the next 15 years, but after age 55
the decline in vision occurs at a slower rate. (1981)
Around age 70 our hearing begins to decline sharply and we
begin experiencing problems with pitch, volume, and rate of
response. Loss of hearing can be compensated for through the
use of hearing aids, but often older learners may be
embarrassed by their hearing loss and feel less confident. This
decline in confidence can become a greater hindrance to
learning than the physical disability. (1981)
Few changes have been found in both sensory and short-term
memory as we age, but long term memory declines. Older
adults have a harder time acquiring and retrieving information
and they experience difficulties in organizing new material
and in processing it. Older adults are not as able as younger
learners in tests of recall, but the differences between older
and younger learners in tests of recognition are small or
nonexistent. (1991)
When contextual learning approaches are used, less decline is
found in the memory process as we age.(1991)
The greatest problems with memory for older learners occur
with meaningless learning, complex learning, and the learning
of new things that require reassessment of old learning.
(1991)
Taken from: Merriam, S. & Caffarella, R. (1991). Learning in
Adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 159-180.
Cross, P. (1981). Adults as Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
152-185.
Merriam and Caffarella (1999) make three points about how new
information on intelligence in adulthood is valuable for educators:
"The first is the framing of more holistic conceptions of adult
intelligence that are grounded in the real lives of adults of all
colors, races, and ethnic backgrounds" (p.188). We now look
not only at the individual's mind, but also at how the
individual and the context interact to mold intellect.
We are beginning to have a better understanding of how
internal and external factors can improve intellectual abilities,
"This is especially important as life expectancy has increased
dramatically, especially in developed nations" (pp. 188-189).
Because we know that adult intelligence is much more than a
score on an IQ test, adult educators can have a tremendous
impact on helping their learners, especially older learners,
continue to maintain and even increase their intellectual
abilities, "We need to think through carefully what intellectual
abilities and skills are the most useful for adults, both young
and old, and could be amenable to educational interventions"
(p. 189).

Adult Development
When we talk about how children learn, we often focus on the
developmental stages that children go through as they mature.
Adults likewise go through developmental stages which can be
grouped chronologically or sociologically (i.e. grouped
according to socially defined roles of adults). There is a
difference between life-cycle phases and developmental
stages. Life-cycle phases are phases which people pass
through from birth to death--these phases are not part of a
continuous flow toward growth and maturity. Developmental
stages are more concerned with personality or ego
development. While phases and stages may inform one
another, they are not the same thing.
Cross, P. (1981). Adults as Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass, 152-185.
Another excellent source for info on adult development is
Chapter 3 of Daloz's Effective Teaching and Mentoring (1986).
Daloz presents three "maps" of how adults develop:
o Levinson One of the famous "phase theorists," Levinson's
map divides men's lives (yeah, I know, I'll address that
point a bit later) into four main eras:
Childhood/Adolescence, Early Adulthood, Middle
Adulthood, and Late Adulthood. He pays special
attention to transitional times between the eras and
focuses on the patterns of building, breaking, and
rebuilding of men's lives as they age. His map can be
imagined as an ascending stairway, and Levinson is quite
specific about age groups (i.e. at 20, men enter the adult
world, at 35 they settle down, etc.)
o Kegan Kegan's theory can be imagined as an upward
spiraling helix, "Beginning stages (Kegan prefers to call
them balances, a term that better catches the dynamic
nature of development) are characterized by
impulsiveness and self-centeredness; these yield to a
more 'other-centered' stance, in which interpersonal
relationships and mutuality are paramount; this in turn
gives way to the birth of a new and more separate self,
from which finally evolves an "interindividual balance" in
which the tension between "self" and "other" reaches a
new synthesis. From this position one is able both to
maintain a clear sense of self and yet to merge with
others, dissolving and reforming one's separateness
when appropriate" (p. 65). Daloz goes on to point out
that Kegan sees adult development as "a series of
transformations of how we see ourselves in relation to
others" (p.66).
o Perry Imagine Perry's model as a continuum with nine
positions. The positions move from dualistic thinking to
greater contextual relativism, "...we will function
predominantly in one range or another,and although a
contextual thinker may on occasion operate dualistically,
a dualistic thinker will not think contextually...Perry's
positions are hierarchical and essentially invariant: each
rests on the one before it, and there are no shortcuts. At
the same time, however, people may move through two
positions in a brief burst, or remain for long periods at a
single position. Occasionally, they even retreat to an
earlier stance" (p.81).
Keep in mind, however, that many developmental
theorists, like Levinson, based their ideas
on men's development--and as usual, we're talking about
white, middle-class men...so what about the rest of us?
(One point, however, in 1996, Levinson replicated his
study using women, see The Season's of a Woman's Life.
Information about this is also mentioned in the 2nd ed.
of Learning in Adulthood.)Certainly, the above models
can be used to examine the adult development of many
kinds of people, but more recently, scholars have begun
to look at how socio-economic factors, gender, and
ethnicity can impact development. Belenky, Clinchy,
Goldberger, and Tarule (1986) used an all-female sample
for their work Women's Ways of Knowing Labouvie-Vief
has studied how context can influence development,
instead of using age as a marker, she suggests looking at
major life events. These are just two examples, for a very
informative survey of adult development research, see
Merriam and Caffarella's chapter 7 in Learning in
Adulthood (1999).
Wait! Before you dash off to the next section, think about
some of these questions offered by Susan Imel, "When
thinking about serving older adults, some questions for
adult, career, and vocational educators that emerge from
these trends include the following:
What type of learning activities can be developed to
address the changing work and family
responsibilities of older adults?
Is it feasible to link age-integrated programming
with existing programs?
How can educational institutions support informal,
self-directed learning of older adults? Educational
programs for older adults?
From: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and
Vocational Education Trends and Issues Alerts, "A New
Look at Older Adults,"1997.




Assumptions of Andragogy
"Andragogy is simply another model of assumptions
about learners to be used alongside the pedagogical
model of assumptions, thereby providing two alternative
models for testing out the assumptions as to their 'fit'
with particular situations. Furthermore, the models are
probably most useful when seen not as dichotomous but
rather as two ends of a spectrum, with a realistic
assumption in a given situation falling in between the
two ends." From: Knowles, M. (1980). The Modern Practice
of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy 2
nd
ed.
New York: Association Press.
Knowles' Andragogical Assumptions
Concept of the
Learner
During the process of maturation, a person moves from
dependency toward increasing self-directedness, but at
different rates for different people and in different
dimensions of life. Teachers have a responsibility to
encourage and nurture this movement. Adults have a deep
psychological need to be generally self-directing, but they
may be dependent in certain temporary situations.
Role of the
Learner's
Experience
As people grow and develop they accumulate an increasing
reservoir of experience that becomes and increasingly rich
resource for learning--for themselves and for others.
Furthermore, people attach more meaning to learnings they
gain from experience than those they acquire passively.
Accordingly, the primary techniques in education are
experiential ones--laboratory experiments, discussion,
problem-solving cases, field experiences, etc.
Readiness to Learn People become ready to learn something when they
experience a need to learn it in order to cope more
satisfyingly with real-life tasks and problems. The educator
has a responsibility to create conditions and provide tools
and procedures for helping learners discover their "needs
to know." Learning programs should be organized around
life-application categories and sequenced according to the
learners' readiness to learn.
Orientation to
Learning
Learners see education as a process of developing
increased competence to achieve their full potential in life.
They want to be able to apply whatever knowledge and
skill they gain today to living more effectively tomorrow.
Accordingly, learning experiences should be organized
around competency-development categories. People are
performance-centered in their orientation to learning.
A table comparing pedagogy and andragogy can be found
on pp.43-44 of the above-mentioned book. I have not
included pedagogy here because I think that using a table
for comparison "tricks" us into seeing dichotomies.
Andragogy and pedagogy can be used with
kids and adults--they are ends of a continuum. Still,
while looking at the above chart, ask yourself if and how
kids differ from adult learners.







Kinds of Learning and Settings for
Learning
When we discuss adult learning, we need to clarify
whether we're talking about the learning itself, the
design and facilitation of the learning, or where the
learning is taking place. As you can imagine, there are
scores of charts and lists out there describing every
possible kind of learning and various educational
settings. Below, you'll find a sampling of a few of these
ideas (it's much easier to digest that way!).

Kinds of Learning
Cranton does a very nice job of quickly running through
kinds of knowledge and kinds of learning and it goes
somethin' like this:
Habermas' Three Domains of Knowledge
Technical Knowledge: includes information about cause
and effect relationships in the environment and
behavioristic learning theories.
Practical Knowledge: Concerned with understanding
what others mean; includes understanding social norms,
values, political concepts, and making ourselves
understood--humanistic learning theories are partly
involved in this.
Emancipatory Knowledge: gained through critical self-
reflection and can be seen as a component of the
constuctivist paradigm. Mezirow's theory of
transformative learning is concerned with this kind of
knowledge. (p. 9)

Mezirow's Three Domains of Learning
Instrumental: gaining of technical knowledge
Communicative: gaining of practical knowledge
Emancipatory: gaining of emancipatory knowledge
(p. 9).

Cranton's Three Perspectives of Adult Learning
Note: While reading this, ask yourself if Cranton is
assuming that there's an external agent involved in
facilitating the learning? What about self-directed
learning?
Subject-Oriented Learning: The goal is to acquire
content (e.g. facts, problem solving strategies, practical
or technical skills); it is positivistic and most often meets
the expectations of the learner and is, therefore,
comfortable. The expert makes the decisions, not the
learner.
Consumer-Oriented Learning: Takes place when an
individual expresses a need to learn, looks to the
educator for fulfillment of those needs, and then
proceeds to learn under the guidance of the educator.
The learner makes each decision about learning--for this
reason, this kind of learning falls under constructivism.
Emancipatory Learning: A process of freeing ourselves
from forces that limit our options and our control over
our lives, forces that have been taken for granted or seen
as beyond our control. This kind of learning is
constructivist in nature and can be transformative. At
times this learning occurs independently of the educator;
at other times it is fostered deliberately. Unlike the other
two kinds of learning, emancipatory learning is often a
difficult and painful process. (pp.10-20).
All of the above taken from: Cranton, C.
(1994). Understanding and Promoting Transformative
Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 3-21.
Situated Cognition
Situated cognition sees context as central in
understanding how adults know something. It is, "based
on the idea that what we know and the meanings we
attach to what we know are socially constructed. Thus,
learning and knowing are intimately linked to real-life
situations" (p.156). This is not a new idea, but, as
Merriam and Brockett note, adult educators are becoming
more committed to respecting the role of context in
learning by looking beyond individual psychology and by
creating real-life contexts for learning. (The Profession
and Practice of Adult Education, 1997).

Settings for Learning
When you read about providers of adult education, you
usually only see the kinds of learning that are attached
to specific educational institutions, but learning can
happen in many kinds of settings. Several educators have
attempted to come up with frameworks to include
learning in nontraditional settings. There is some overlap
here between the settings and the kinds of learning that
takes place in them. And, as you've seen in kinds of
learning, the framework ranges from having external
direction to self-direction. (Both are educational, but one
tends to emphasize instruction, the other learning.)
From: Apps, J (1989). "Providers of Adult and Continuing
Education: A Framework." In Merriam, S. and
Cunningham, P. (Eds.) Handbook of Adult and Continuing
Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 275-286.
Coombs' Framework
Formal Learning: Schools and universities
Nonformal Learning: Organized outside the formal
system
Informal Learning: From everyday interactions
Coombs introduced informal learning as a legitimate
source of adult learning--as equally important as learning
provided in formal, full-time study settings. (p. 277)
Type of Education Definition Examples
Formal Education Sequences of learning that are
socially organized, goal-directed
and certified by a diploma or
degree having currency in the
public educational system.
High school education,
diploma-granting vocational
education, higher education
degrees
Nonformal
Education
Sequences of learning that are
socially organized and goal-
directed but are not certified by
formal education credentials.
CPR training, on-the-job
training at work,
Elderhostel, Line dancing
class
Informal Education Serendipitous or self-directed
individual learning resulting from
daily experience
Learning to change a clutch
by observation, learning
how to care for one's
children
The idea is Coombs', the table might be from Paulston
(1972). Nonfromal Education This was a class handout
and I'm not sure of the reference.
Peterson's Framework
Deliberate Education and Learning
Unintentional Learning
Peterson puts adult education into the context of the rest
of education; he recognizes the power of the self-
directed learner who chooses a wide variety of
approaches to learning; and he points out the importance
of unintentional learning at home, work, from friends or
the mass media, etc. (p.277)
Merriam and Caffarella (1999) discuss settings for
learning and include, for nonformal
settings, community-based learning and indigenous
learning. Community-based learning can take many
different forms--citizens of a town gathering to overcome
an issue in their community, cooperative extension
programs, literacy and job skills programs, "A common
thread to all of these programs is their focus on social
action and change for the betterment of some part of the
community" (p.30) Indigenous learning, "...refers to
processes and structures people within particular
societies have used to learn about their culture
throughout their history" (Brennan, 1997 cited in
Merriam and Caffarella, 1999, p. 31). This kind of
learning is often connected to oral traditions and
indigenous arts and can be used in other nonformal
learning programs to enhance learning.

Self-Directed Learning
"Learning on one's own, being self-directed in one's
learning is itself a context in which learning takes place.
The key to placing a learning experience within this
context is that the learner has the primary responsibility
for planning, carrying out, and evaluating his or her own
learning. Participation in self-directed learning seems
almost universal--in fact, an estimated 90 percent of the
population is involved with at least one self-directed
learning activity a yearAdults engaging in self-directed
learning do not necessarily follow a definite set of steps
or linear format. In essence, self-directed learning occurs
both by design and chance--depending on the interests,
experiences, and actions of individual learners and the
circumstances in which they find themselvesSelf-
directed learning does not necessarily mean learning in
isolation--assistance is often sought from friends,
experts, and acquaintances in both the planning and
execution of the learning activity." From: Merriam, S. &
Caffarella, R. (1991). Learning in Adulthood. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 54-55.
A word to teachers: Self-directed learners are not
necessarily students who work alone and need no
guidance from an instructor. As a teacher or trainer, you
may have learners who wish to be more self-directed
than they are capable of being. Brookfield points out that
our function as facilitators is to challenge our learners to
examine their ways of thinking and doing--regardless of
their level of self-direction.
"To say one is meeting felt learner needs sounds
humanistic, learner-centered, and admirably democratic,
yet to do so without allowing one's own ideas,
experience, insights, and knowledge as an educator to
contribute to the educational process makes the
facilitator a service manager, not a full participating
contributor. It also condemns learners to staying within
their own paradigms of thinking, feeling, and behaving."
From: Brookfield. S. Understanding and Facilitating Adult
Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 21.

Candy's Four Dimensions of SDL
12. Personal Autonomy (SDL as a person attribute)
13. Self-Management (SDL as the willingness and
capacity to conduct one's own education)
14. Learner Control ( SDL as a mode of organizing
instruction in formal settings)
15. Autodidaxy (SDL as the individual
noninstitutional pursuit of learning opportunities in
the "natural society setting")
Cranton uses Candy's dimensions as a framework for
some of her writing on this subject; See Cranton. P.
(1996). Professional Development as Transformative
Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 50-74.
How can I use this in my practice?
Read Gerald Grow's article, "Teaching Learners to be Self-
Directed." The on-line version has cartoons, too! Below is
the abstract from the article to whet your appetite.
From: Adult Education Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 3, Spring
1991, pp. 125-149,
Abstract: Based on the Situational Leadership model of
Hersey and Blanchard, the Staged Self-Directed Learning
Model proposes that learners advance through stages of
increasing self-direction and that teachers can help or
hinder that development. Good teaching matches the
learner's stage of self-direction and helps the learner
advance toward greater self-direction. Specific methods
are proposed for teaching students at each stage,
although many different teaching styles are good when
appropriately applied. Several pedagogical difficulties
are explained as mismatches between teacher style and
learner stage, especially the mismatch between a student
needing direction and a non-directive teacher. The model
is applied to a course, a single class, and the overall
curriculum.

The Learning Organization
Just a quick word on one of the latest areas of study. I won't go
into detail here--we could do a whole web site just on this (in
fact, the folks at Stanford already have, visit their site
on Learning Organizations to learn more)--also, we at FSU
offer a course on this very subject, ADE 5280.
"In learning organizations, learning--whether done by
individuals, groups, or the organization as a whole--is a
central, valued, and integral part of organizational life.
The heart of the learning organization is the willingness
of organizations to allow their employees and other
stakeholders related to the organization to suspend and
question the assumptions within which they operate,
then create and examine new ways of solving
organizational problems and means of operating. This
process requires that people at all levels of the
organziation be willing to think within a systems
framework, with the emphasis on collective inquiry,
dialogue, and action. Creating learning organizations
could allow educators of adults, whether they are
associated with formal or nonformal settings, to develop
learning communities in which change is accepted as the
norm and innovative practices are embraced" (Merriam &
Caffarella, 1999, p. 44).



Transformative Learning
Transformative learning is basically the kind of learning we do
as we make meaning of our lives. It's become a very popular
topic in adult education because it doesn't just involve
classroom learning--it involves learning about our lives. This is
important because as adults, the meaning making process can
change everything about how we look at work, family, and the
world.
If you read the literature of adult education, you'll find a lot of
theoretical writing on this subject and quite a few studies. One
of the best known experts in this area is a scholar named Jack
Mezirow, who started studying this area in the 1970s. Mezirow
came up with a set of phases that people go through when they
experience transformation and those steps are:
experiencing a disorienting dilemma
self-examination
critical assessment of assumptions
recognizing that others have gone through a similar
process
exploring options
formulating a plan of action
reintegration
Now, as you can see here, transformation is something that is
usually triggered by a problem, and very often transformative
experiences are painful to go through. After identifying their
problem or challenge, people seem to enter a phase where they
reflect critically on this--this is typically a problem that you've
never experienced before, so it takes a lot of thinking and
talking to others to work through. During the thinking phase,
people may find that they can no longer keep their old ways of
thinking and being--they are compelled to change. Finally, there
is an action phase where people decide to do something. This
could mean that you have to break off certain relationships that
don't fit your beliefs anymore; it could mean that you decide to
make a career change--action can take many forms. Also, the
process itself may take a long time. You could reflect on
something for years before you are ready to accept new beliefs
and act on them.
So clearly, transformative learning is not "little" learning, and
this is one of the problems that people have with this whole
theory. For example, what if you go back to school and get a
degree--have you transformed yourself? This is a tough question
and the answer won't be the same for everybody. What Mezirow
says is that learning "can consist of a change in one of our
beliefs or attitudes" (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 320); this is
what he calls a "meaning scheme." But this isn't transformational
learning in Mezirow's opinion. It's only when we change our
entire perspective on something ( our meaning perspective) that
we really transform. So for example, if you said, "Well, I met
someone from another country and now I think totally
differently about that culture," for Mezirow this wouldn't really
be considered a moment of transformative learning. Mezirow
would say that you'd have to engage in all the phases of
transformation first--but this encounter with this person could
lead you to start questioning your assumptions about a lot of
things and that could, in turn, eventually lead to transformation.
A Quick Word About Critical Reflection
Mezirow distinguishes among three kinds of reflection--and
reflection is key in the transformation process:
Content Reflection: Individuals may reflect on the content or
description of a problem. This is similar to Dewey's ideas on
problem solving (p.81).
Process Reflection: Involves thinking about the strategies used
to solve the problem rather than the content of the problem
itself--this is quite a rational and orderly kind of reflection that
does not incorporate intuition.
Premise Reflection: Leads us to question the relevance of the
problem itself--the assumptions, beliefs, or values underlying
the problem are questioned. This process is distinct from
problem-solving and can lead to transformative learning (p. 82).
If the process of reflection leads to an awareness of an invalid,
undeveloped, or distorted meaning scheme or perspective; if
that scheme or perspective is then revised; and if the individual
acts on the revised belief, the development has been
transformative (p. 113).
From: Cranton, P. (1996). Professional Development as
Transformative Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 75-117.

And People Really Buy This Stuff?
As you might have guessed, many people have criticized
Mezirow's ideas. Some of them feel that the idea of phases (see
the bulleted list above) is rather artificial--isn't it possible to
transform instantly? Couldn't it also be possible to transform
without critical reflection? Some people also critique Mezirow's
theory for dealing too much with individuals; they believe that
transformation involves society and that the individual can
never be isolated from society. Other scholars also feel that
transformative learning has to be put into a context to be really
understood as transformation. Basically, what's important to
understand is that this issue is still not settled, and although
Mezirow is considered by many to be the guru of transformative
learning, even he doesn't represent everyone's ideas about this.
As instructors, what should this area of learning mean to us?
Several adult education experts, Mezirow (of course), Brookfield,
and Freire have also written on this area and they see this kind
of learning as central to the goals of adult education. Again,
context plays a role here, and you might disagree with this
notion completely. But basically, the idea is that by "challenging
our abilities to communicate, understand, and learn" (Merriam &
Caffarella, 1999, p. 322), we become able to free ourselves from
our own distorted ideas of the world--this, according to some, is
what adult education is all about.

A Word on Ethics and Transformative Learning
As an educator or trainer, you have to develop your own
philosophy about all of this. You might not feel that this is the
goal of adult education. However, you also need to be aware of
the kinds of learning that you are promoting in your classroom.
Sometimes we set up activities or assignments that get people
started on critically reflecting on something--what if you asked
your learners to discuss why they weren't unionized after they
told you about how unhappy they were with their employer?
Things like this can get people thinking, and while this certainly
isn't a bad thing, it can be inappropriately disruptive--remember
transformative learning can be a painful process. Of course, our
learners are all adults, they have to make their own decisions
and it is almost impossible for us, as educators, to know how to
censure everything that could cause our learners to think!
The point is, that there are times when we are in the position to
trigger some critical reflection and we have to be careful how we
go about doing this. At the same time, we can't force people to
critically reflect on anything and we certainly cannot "schedule
in" transformative learning experiences. In other words, we need
to engage in some critical reflection of our own when it comes
to our own teaching and training practices:
Why do we teach or train the way we do?
What are our goals for our learners and for ourselves as
professionals?
Is critical reflection something needs to be fostered in the
context in which we teach or train?
Once we've become a little clearer on these questions, we'll be
closer to formulating our own opinions on the whole topic of
transformative learning and how it fits into our practice.
For most of the info above and more on this subject see:
Merriam, S. & Caffarella, R. (1999). Learning in adulthood: A
comprehensive guide, 2nd Ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.




Motives and Barriers for Learning

Why do we participate in learning?
You can probably come up with a long list of reasons on your
own, but as a lowly student, your opinion doesn't count! Here's
what some of the BIG GUYS have come up with:
Houle: Houle divides adult learners into three separate learning
orientations.
Goal Oriented learners use education as a means of
achieving some other goal
Activity Oriented learners participate for the sake of the
activity itself and the social interaction it provides.
Learning Oriented learners seek knowledge for its own
sake.
Houle admits that these are not "pure" types; the orientations
can overlap.

Boshier, Morstain and Smart: Houle wasn't good enough for
these guys--they had to go out and come up with an even longer
list of why adults participate in learning (there's a lot of "list
comparison" that goes on in educational research, isn't there?).
They came up with six factors for participation:
Social Relationships: make friends and meet others.
External Expectations: complying with the wishes of
someone else with authority.
Social Welfare: desire to serve others and/or community.
Professional Advancement: desire for job enhancement or
professional advancement.
Escape/Stimulation: to alleviate boredom and/or to escape
home or work routine.
Cognitive Interest: learning for the sake of learning itself.
Note: Think critically about this! Cross notes that Houle is
classifying groups of people and Boshier, Morstain and Smart
are identifying clusters of reasons. Houle's looking at
characteristic orientations that motivate learners and Boshier,
Morstain and Smart show multiple reasons existing within the
same individual. The above from: Merriam, S. & Caffarella, R.
(1991).Learning in Adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 83-86.
Brookfield: Careful with this one, this is actually my
interpretation of what Brookfield is saying. The typical adult
learner is, "relatively affluent, well-educated, white, middle-class
individual" (p. 5). I take this to mean that people participate in
learning events because they are oriented towards learning--
attaining more education is something they value(and
something they've been socialized to value)--and they have the
financial resources to do this. When we think about
participation we need to ask ourselves what counts as a learning
event and how we define participants--those who are already
involved in learning or those who could potentially be involved?
If the middle-class organizes most of the learning events that go
on, who do you think the most likely participants will be? From:
Brookfield, S. (1986). Understanding and Facilitating Adult
Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 4-9.

Why don't we participate in learning?
Many have done studies on non-participation. The
following researchers have worked out ways of grouping
specific barriers into categories
Johnstone and Rivera: Found two
categories; External or situation barriers and Internal or
dispositional barriers.
Cross: Three categories; Situational barriers (depending
person's situation at a given time), Institutional
barriers(all practices and procedures that discourage
adults from participation--like filling out those application
forms for graduate school), Dispositional
barriers (person's attitude about self and learning).
Darkenwald and Merriam: Add another category to Cross'
list; Informational barriers (person is not aware of
educational activities available). Above taken from:
Merriam, S. & Caffarella, R. (1991). Learning in Adulthood.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 86-90.
Note: All of the above-mentioned studies look at participation
from a psychological perspective, "If one looks at the social
structure rather than individual needs and interests, one
discovers some very different explanations as to why adults do
or do not participate in adult learning activities" (1991, p. 94).
Recent studies have taken a more critical look at non-
participation. Merriam and Caffarella cite several newer studies
in their 1999 edition of Learning in Adulthood, one example is a
study by Hall and Donaldson (1997) who looked at women
without high school educations. Early pregnancies, economic
status, and the amount of education of the women's parents all
played a role in choosing not to participate. Other factors
included not having a support system and lack of time,
information, and child care. Hall and Donaldson also noted "lack
of voice," meaning how a woman feels about herself and how
she can express herself (p.58).
Most of us can come up with many reasons for not participating
in educational activities, but as educators, we may be so used to
participating in learning ourselves that it becomes difficult to
"think outside the box" sometimes. Merriam and Brockett (1997)
devote a whole chapter (the info below is from pp.187-200) to
the issue of access to adult education and list four major
conditions that limit access:
Geographic Conditions: There is a great divide between
urban, suburban, and rural settings. Rural areas tend to
have fewer resources for education. In many
industrialized countries, however, inner cities may be
worse off than some rural areas. Migrant and homeless
people are also at a great disadvantage for receiving
access to education.
Demographic Factors: Age and sex influence who
participates and who doesn't. Young and middle-aged
adults participate more than older adults--of course,
younger adults often continue learning for their jobs. But
older adults tend to have less education in general than
younger people, and level of education is a good predictor
of who will continue to participate in educational
activities. The role of age could change significantly in the
future, however, in countries such as the U.S., where life
expectancy continues to rise.
One's sex can also determine if and how much one will
participate in education. Women tend to participate less
than men and their participation is qualitatively different
from men's. But, this also overlaps with geographic
conditions--women in developed nations may participate
as much as men. In less developed countries, women often
receive very little opportunity to participate. Even in
wealthier nations, men are still more likely to hold higher
and better paid positions than women, and are thus more
likely to receive further (and better) training.
Socioeconomic Conditions and Education: Those who
have relatively affluent backgrounds, tend to remain that
way and also tend to participate more in education. Those
from less wealthy families participate less partly because
they have less money to do so, but also because they don't
fit into the system of education (i.e. they don't speak the
same language, share the same norms, etc.) which is built
and maintained by wealthier people. Formal education is
also the kind of education that "counts the most," but it
also costs the most and has the most prerequisites--less
well-off people may be engaging in a variety of learning
activities, but these activities don't count since they don't
earn the learners an "official" piece of paper.
Cultural Determinants: Minority groups all over the world
tend to participate less than majority groups. This can be
due to majority groups explicitly prohibiting the
participation of minority people. It can also be that
belonging to certain non-majority groups can impact one's
attitudes towards education. As a member of a particular
social group, you may not feel that you can trust certain
forms of education and may feel uncomfortable
participating in them. Additionally, immigrant populations
tend not to participate in educational activities as much as
native-born populations.





Vella's 12 Principles for Effective Adult
Learning
42. Needs Assessment: Participation of the learner in
naming what is to be learned.
43. Safety in the environment between teacher and
learner for learning and development.
44. A sound relationship between teacher and learner
for learning and development.
45. Careful attention to sequence of content
and reinforcement.
46. Praxis: Action with reflection or learning by doing.
47. Respect for learners as subjects of their own
learning.
48. Cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
aspects: ideas, feelings, actions.
49. Immediacy of the learning.
50. Clear roles and role development.
51. Teamwork: Using small groups.
52. Engagement of the learners in what they are
learning.
53. Accountability: How do they know they know?
From: Vella, J. (1994). Learning to Listen, Learning to Teach. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 3-22.






How We Can Become
More Intelligent Learners and Teachers

Twelve Characteristics of Intelligent Behavior:
Note: This is not a complete list!
54. Persistence: Persevering when the solution to a
problem is not readily apparent.
55. Decrease Impulsivity: Think before speaking or
doing.
56. Listen: Listen to others with empathy and
understanding.
57. Flexibility in Thinking: Consider other options--
there's never one right way to do everything.
58. Metacognition: Try to be aware of your own
thinking.
59. Check for Accuracy and Precision: Revise, revise,
revise.
60. Questioning and Problem Posing: Be critical in your
questioning.
61. Use Past Knowledge: Draw on what you know and
apply it to new situations.
62. Precise Language and Thought: Use more descriptive
language to communicate more precisely.
63. Use All the Senses: Utilize as many sensory
pathways as possible--visual, tactile, kinesthetic, auditory,
olfactory, and gustatory.
64. Creativity: Use your ingenuity, originality, and
insightful--we are all creative beings.
65. Be Curious: Work on your sense of wonderment and
inquisitiveness--learn to enjoy problem solving and
develop a sense of efficacy as a thinker.

What We Can Do as Teachers to Promote Intelligent
Behavior:
Have faith that all learners can think
Help learners see thinking as a goal
Present challenging problem solving opportunities
Create a safe, risk-taking environment
Give learners time to learn
Provide a rich responsive environment for learning
Pay attention to learners' developmental readiness and
sequence
Be the kind of learner you would have them be
From: Costa, A. "What Human Beings Do When They Behave
Intelligently and How They Can Become More So."