A VENTURE OF SEEDLING SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED TO :- SUBMITTED BY:-

MR. KUNDAN KUMAR LUCKY KUMAR
PROFESSOR 7CE45
CIVIL DEPARTMENT

A SEMINAR REPORT ON VOCATIONAL TRAINING AT
SNC POWER CORPORATION(P) LTD.
JAIPUR
(20-03-2014 TO 20-04-2014)









(A VENTURE OF SEEDLING GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS)

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR AWARD
OF
THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(CIVIL ENGINEERING)

(SESSION :- 2014-2015)







SUBMITTED TO:-
MR. KUNDAN KUMAR
PROFESSOR
CIVIL DEPARTMENT


JAIPUR NATIONAL UNIVERSITY,JAIPUR
(A venture of seedling group of Institutions)
A SEMINAR REPORT ON VOCATIONAL TRAINING AT
SNC POWER CORPORATION (P) LTD.
JAIPUR
(20-03-2014 TO 20-04-2014)




CANDIDATES DECLARATION


I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the report entitled SNC
CORPORATION PVT LTD. by LUCKY KUMAR in partial fulfillment of the award
degree of B.tech.(Civil Engineering) submitted in the Department of Civil Engineering at
Jaipur National University, Jaipur is an authentic record of my own work.





Signature of the student



The B.Tech 4
th
year, (Civil Engineering) seminar presentation of Lucky Kumar has been
held on ______________________ and accepted.
















ACKNOWLEDGEMENT


I feel extremely lucky to have been given an opportunity to work under such veteran people
in SNC COPEPORATION PVT LTD. JAIPUR..

At the very outset I would like to thank Mr. BABU NARAYAN who consented to the
training program and provided me with the golden opportunity to visit different units of this
corporation, without which the learning experience would not have been possible and this
whole exercise would have proved futile.

I also render my sincere thanks to all the workers at all units for providing me valuable
technical assistance about all the different kinds of machines that proved not only necessary
but also pivotal towards the completion of my project.

I express my whole hearted thanks to MR. P.N. DARDE (head of Department, Civil
Engineering) and MR. KUNDAN KUMAR (Lecturer, Civil Engineering) for their efforts in
accomplishment of this task.

Finally, I would like to express my solidarity towards the snc corporation pvt ltd. jaipur
family for providing me with such an opportunity to get an insight into the system of an
industry, the first experience of its kind for me, which all the way inculcated a technical
temperament in me.



Lucky Kumar
7CE45
4RTH Year, B.Tech
Civll Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
JAIPUR NATIONAL UNIVERSITY,JAIPUR



INDEX



CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

3. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR

4. ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSOR

5. ASSESSMENT OF COMPRESSORS AND COMPRESSED AIR
SYSTEMS

6. OPTION CHECKLIST

7. REFERENCES


1. INTRODUCTION
Industrial plants use compressed air throughout their production operations, which is
produced by compressed air units ranging from 5 horsepower (hp) to over 50,000 hp.
The US Departmentof Energy (2003) reports that 70 to 90 percent of compressed air
is lost in the form of unusable heat, friction, misuse and noise (see figure 1). For this
reason, compressors and compressed air systems are important areas to improve energy
efficiency at industrial plants.




Figure 1. Shanky Diagram for Compressed Air System



It is worth noting that the running cost of a compressed air system is far higher than the cost
of a compressor itself (see Figure 2). Energy savings from system improvements can range
from 20 to 50 percent or more of electricity consumption, resulting in thousands to hundreds
of thousands of dollars. A properly managed compressed air system can save energy, reduce
maintenance, decrease downtime, increase production throughput, and improve product
quality.



Figure 2. Cost components in a typical compressed air system

Compressed air systems consist of a supply side, which includes compressors and air
treatment, and a demand side, which includes distribution and storage systems and
end -use equipment. A properly managed supply side will result in clean, dry, stable
air being delivered at the appropriate pressure in a dependable, cost-effective manner.
A properly managed demand side minimizes wasted air and uses compressed air for
appropriate applications. Improving and maintaining peak compressed air system
performance requires addressing both the supply and demand sides of the system and
how the two interact.






1.1 Main Components of Compressed Air Systems
Compressed air systems consist of following major components: Intake air filters, inter-stage
coolers, after-coolers, air-dryers, moisture drain traps, receivers, piping network, filters,
regulators and lubricators (see Figure 3).

Intake Air Filters : Prevent dust from entering a compressor; Dust causes
sticking valves, scoured cylinders, excessive wear etc.

Inter-stage Coolers : Reduce the temperature of the air before it enters the next
stage to reduce the work of compression and increase efficiency. They are normally water-
cooled.

After-Coolers: The objective is to remove the moisture in the air by reducing the
temperature in a water-cooled heat exchanger.

Air-dryers : The remaining traces of moisture after after-cooler are removed using
air dryers, as air for instrument and pneumatic equipment has to be relatively free of any
moisture. The moisture is removed by using adsorbents like silica gel /activated carbon, or
refrigerant dryers, or heat of compression dryers.

Moisture Drain Traps: Moisture drain traps are used for removal of moisture
in the compressed air. These traps resemble steam traps. Various types of traps used are
manual drain cocks, timer based / automatic drain valves etc.


Receivers : Air receivers are provided as storage and smoothening pulsating air
output - reducing pressure variations from the compressor































Figure 3. Types of Compressor Components





2.COMPRESSOR




A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing
its volume.
Compressor is a machine which increases the pressure of a fluid by mechanically
decreasing its volume (i.e. by compressing it).(The fluid here is generally air since
liquids are theoretically incompressible).
George Medhurst of England designed the first motorized air compressor in 1799 and
used it in mining.

2.1 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

As shown in Figure 4, there are two basic compressor types: positive-displacement and
dynamic.In the positive-displacement type, a given quantity of air or gas is trapped in a
compression chamber and the volume it occupies is mechanically reduced, causing a
corresponding rise in pressure prior to discharge. At constant speed, the air flow remains
essentially constant with variations in discharge pressure.Dynamic compressors impart
velocity energy to continuously flowing air or gas by means of impellers rotating at very
high speeds. The velocity energy is changed into pressure energy both by the impellers
and the discharge volutes or diffusers. In the centrifugal-type dynamic compressors, the
shape of the impeller blades determines the relationship between air flow and the pressure (or
head) generated.







Figure 4. Types of Compressors


2.2 Positive Displacement Compressor

vapour into an enclosed space and then reducing its volume. Since a fixed amount of
refrigerant is trapped each time, its pressure rises as its volume is reduced. When the pressure
rises to a level that is slightly higher than the condensing pressure, then it I expelled from the
enclosed space and a fresh charge of low-pressure refrigerant is drawn in and the cycle
continues. Since In positive displacement type compressors, compression is achieved by
trapping a refrigerant the flow of refrigerant to the compressor is not steady, the positive
displacement type compressor is a pulsating flow device. However, since the operating speeds
are normally very high the flow appears to be almost steady on macroscopic time scale. Since
the flow is pulsating on a microscopic time scale, positive displacement type compressors are
prone to high wear, vibration and noise level. Depending upon the construction, positive
displacement type compressors used in refrigeration and air conditioning can be classified
into:



3. Reciprocating compressor
In industry, reciprocating compressors are the most widely used type for both air and
refrigerant compression (see Figure 5). They work on the principles of a bicycle pump and
are characterized by a flow output that remains nearly constant over a range of discharge
pressures. Also, the compressor capacity is directly proportional to the speed. The output,
however, is a pulsating one.






Figure 5. A cross-sectional view of a reciprocating compressor

Reciprocating compressors are available in many configurations, the four most widely used
are horizontal, vertical, horizontal balance-opposed and tandem. Vertical type reciprocating
compressors are used in the capacity range of 50 150 cfm. Horizontal balance opposed
compressors are used in the capacity range of 200 5000 cfm in multi-stage design and up
to 10,000 cfm in single stage designs (National Productivity Council, 1993).The reciprocating
air compressor is considered single acting when the compressing is accomplished using only
one side of the piston. A compressor using both sides of the piston is considered double
acting. A compressor is considered to be single stage when the entire compression is


accomplished with a single cylinder or a group of cylinder in parallel. Many applications
involve conditions beyond the practical capability of a single compression stage. Too great
a compression ratio (absolute discharge pressure/absolute intake pressure) may cause
excessive discharge temperature or other design problems. Two stage machines are used for
high pressures and are characterized by lower discharge temperature (140 to160oC) compared
to single-stage machines (205 to 240oC).












Figure 6. View of a multistage compressor







For practical purposes most plant air reciprocating air compressors over 100 horsepower are
built as multi-stage units in which two or more steps of compression are grouped in series.
The air is normally cooled between the stages to reduce the temperature and volume entering
the following stage. (National Productivity Council, 1993).Reciprocating air compressors
are available either as air-cooled or water-cooled in lubricated and non- lubricated
configurations, may be packaged, and provide a wide range of pressure and capacity
selections.


3.1 Reciprocating Compressors

Reciprocating Compressor has piston cylinder arrangement .

Reciprocating Compressor has piston, cylinder, inlet valve, exit valve, connecting rod, crank,
piston pin, crank pin and crank shaft. Inlet valve and exit valves may be of spring loaded
type which get opened and closed due to pressure differential across them. Let us consider
piston to be at top dead centre (TDC) and move towards bottom dead centre (BDC). Due to
this piston movement from TDC to BDC suction pressure is created causing opening of inlet
valve. With this opening of inlet valve and suction pressure the atmospheric air enters the
cylinder. Air gets into cylinder during this stroke and is subsequently compressed in next stroke
with both inlet valve and exit valve closed. Both inlet valve and exit valves are of plate type
and spring loaded so as to operate automatically as and when sufficient pressure difference
is available to cause deflection in spring of valve plates to open them. After piston reaching
BDC it reverses its motion and compresses the air inducted in previous stroke. Compression
is continued till the pressure of air inside becomes sufficient to cause deflection in exit valve.
At the moment when exit valve plate gets lifted the exhaust of compressed air takes place.
This piston again reaches TDC from where downward piston movement is again
accompanied by suction. This is how reciprocating compressor. Keeps on working as flow
device. In order to counter for the heating of piston-cylinder arrangement during
compression the provision of cooling the cylinder is there in the form of cooling jackets in the
body. Reciproting compressor described above has suction, compression and discharge as


three prominent processes getting completed in two strokes of piston or one revolution of
crank shaft.



3.1.2 Reciprocating Compressor

Types -



. Single Acting compressor

It is a compressor that has one discharge per revolution of crankshaft.


Double Acting Compressor

It is a compressor that completes two discharge strokes per revolutions of
crankshaft. Most heavy-duty compressors are double acting.

Different parts of double acting compressor are listed below.
Suction valve.


Suction gas jacket.
Piston.
Cylinder.
Discharge valve.
Discharge gas jacket







4. Rotary Screw Compressor

Rotary screw compressors are widely used today in industrial refrigeration for
compression of ammonia and other refrigerating gases.Simple in concept, the screw
geometry is sufficiently difficult to visualize that many people using screws today have only
a vague idea how they actually work. An understanding of the basics of their operation will
help in applying them correctly, avoiding nuisance problems in operation, and achieving the
best overall system designs.

Construction

A typical oil flooded twin screw compressor consists of male and female rotors
mounted on bearings to fix their position in a rotor housing which holds the rotors in
closely toleranced intersecting cylindrical bores. (See Figure 1.) The rotors basic
shape is a screw thread, with varying numbers of lobes on the male and female rotors.The
driving device is generally connected to the male rotor with the male driving the female
through an oil film. In refrigeration, four or five lobed male rotors generally drive six or
seven lobe female rotors to give a female rotor speed that is somewhat less than the male
speed. Some designs connect the drive to the female rotor in order to produce higher rotor
speeds thus increasing displacement. However, this increases loading on the rotors in the area
of torque transfer and can reduce rotor life.










Figure 1




Oil Injection


All common refrigeration screws use oil injection into the compression area for
lubrication, sealing of leakage paths, and cooling. Injected oil quantities are
approximately 10-20 gal/min per 100 HP. The use of such large oil quantities transfers most
of the heat of compression to the oil and allows discharge temperatures to be very low even at
high compression ratios. Running single stage at 20:1 compression ratio on ammonia
would yield 650F discharge temperatures in non-flooded types of compressors. With oil
flooding, the screw discharge temperature does not exceed 200F. Running screws at 20:1 or
even higher, single stage, though not energy efficient compared with two stage systems, will
not harm the compressor. Many such systems are running today.

Fundamentals of operation

A screw compressor is best described as a positive displacement volume


reduction device. Its action is analogous to a reciprocating compressor more than any of the
other common compressor types. It is helpful to refer to the equivalent recip. process to
visualize how compression progresses in a screw. Gas is compressed by pure rotary motion
of the two intermeshing helical rotors. Gas travels around the outside of the rotors, starting at
the top and traveling to the bottom while it is transferred axially from the suction end to the
discharge end of the rotor area.

Suction process

Suction gas is drawn into the compressor to fill the void where the male rotor
rotates out of the female flute on the suction end of the compressor. Suction charge fills the
entire volume of each screw thread as the unmeshing thread proceeds down the length of the
rotor. This is analogous to the suction stroke in a reciprocating compressor as the
piston is drawn down the cylinder.
(See Figure 2.)


The suction charge becomes trapped in two helically shaped cylinders formed by
the screw threads and the housing as the threads rotate out of the open suction port.
The volume trapped in both screw threads over their entire length is defined as the
volume at suction, (Vs). In the recip. analogy the piston reaches the bottom of the
stroke and the suction valve closes, trapping the suction volume, (Vs). (See Figure
3.)









Figure 3. Maximum Suction Volume Trapped



The displacement per revolution of the recip. is defined in terms of suction
volume, by the bore times the stroke times the number of cylinders.The total
displacement of the screw compressor is the volume at suction per thread times the
number of lobes on the driving rotor.







Compression

The male rotor lobe will begin to enter the trapped female flute on the bottom of
the compressor at the suction end, forming the back edge of the trapped gas pocket.
The two separate gas cylinders in each rotor are joined to form a "V" shaped wedge of gas
with the point of the "V" at the intersection of the threads on the suction end. (See Figure 4.)
Further rotation begins to reduce the trapped volume in the "V" and
compress the trapped gas. The intersection point of the male lobe in the female flute is like
the piston in the recip. that is starting up the cylinder and compressing the gas
ahead of it. (See Figure 5.)










Figure 4. Compression.



























Figure 5. Continuation of Compression.


















Discharge Process


In the recip. compressor, the discharge process starts when the discharge valve
first opens. As the pressure in the cylinder exceeds the pressure above the valve, the valve
lifts, allowing the compressed gas to be pushed into the discharge manifold. The screw
compressor has no valves to determine when compression is over. The location of the
discharge ports determine when compression is over. (See Figure 6.) The volume of gas
remaining in the "V" shaped trapped pocket at discharge port opening is defined as the
volume at discharge, (Vd).














Figure 6. Beginning of Discharge.










A radial discharge port is used on the outlet end of the slide valve and an axial


port is used on the discharge end wall. These two ports provide relief of the internal
compressed gas and allow it to be pushed into the discharge housing. Positioning of the
discharge ports is very important as this controls the amount of internal compression.
In the recip., the discharge process is complete when the piston reaches the top
of the compression stroke and the discharge valve closes. The end of the discharge
process in the screw occurs as the trapped pocket is filled by the male lobe at the outlet end
wall of the compressor. (See Figure 7.) The recip. always has a small amount of gas,
(clearance volume), that is left at the top of the stroke to expand on the next suction
stroke, taking up space that could have been used to draw in more suction charge. At the end
of the discharge process in the screw, no clearance volume remains. All compressed gas is
pushed out the discharge ports. This is a significant factor that helps the screw compressor to
be able to run at much higher compression ratios than a recip.














Figure 7. End of Discharge







Volume Ratio


In a reciprocating compressor, the discharge valves open when the pressure in
the cylinder exceeds the pressure in the discharge manifold. Because a screw
compressor does not have valves, the location of the discharge ports determine the
maximum discharge pressure level that will be achieved in the screw threads before the
compressed gas is pushed into the discharge pipe.
Volume ratio is a fundamental design characteristic of all screw compressors.
The compressor is a volume reduction device. The comparison of the volume of
trapped gas at suction, (Vs) to the volume of trapped gas remaining in the compression
chamber when it opens to discharge, (Vd) defines the internal volume reduction ratio
of the compressor. This volume index or "Vi" determines the internal pressure ratio of the
compressor and the relationship between them can be approximated as follows.
Vi = Vs/Vd
where;
Vi=Volume ratio or index
Vs= Volume at suction
Vd= Volume at discharge
Pi = Vi^k
where;
Pi = Internal pressure ratio
k = specific heat ratio of the gas being compressed.
Only the suction pressure and the internal volume ratio determine the internal


pressure level in the trapped pocket before opening to the discharge port. However, in all
refrigeration systems the condensing temperature determines the discharge pressure in the
system, and the evaporating temperature determines the suction pressure.
If the internal volume ratio of the compressor is too high for a given set of
operating conditions the discharge gas will be kept trapped too long and be raised
above the discharge pressure in the piping. This is called over compression and is
represented in the pressure-volume curve in Figure 8. In this case the gas is
compressed above discharge pressure and when the port opening occurs, the higher
pressure gas in the screw thread expands out of the compressor into the discharge line. This
takes more energy than if the compression had been stopped sooner, when the internal
pressure was equal to the system discharge pressure.



















Figure 8



When the compressor volume ratio is too low for the system operating pressures
this is called under compression and is represented in Figure 9. In this case the
discharge port opening occurs before the internal pressure in the compressor trapped pocket
has reached the system discharge pressure level. The higher pressure gas outside the
compressor flows back into the lower pressure pocket, raising the thread pressure
immediately to the discharge pressure level. The compressor then has to pump against this
higher pressure level, rather than pump against a gradual build up to discharge pressure
level if the volume ratio had been higher, keeping the trapped pocket closed longer.














Figure 9




In both cases the compressor will still function, and the same volume of gas will
be moved, but more power will be required than if the discharge ports are correctly
located to match the compressor volume ratio to what the system needs. Variable


volume ratio compressor designs are used in order to optimize discharge port location and
minimize compressor power.
The fact that screws have an internal volume ratio and internal compression sets
them apart from screw pumps or roots blowers even though their structure may look
similar. A roots blower traps gas and moves it to the discharge, but only raises
pressure by pushing against an external resistance. A roots blower always takes more power
to compress gas than a screw because it always runs under compressed, with a built in
volume ratio of 1:1.







Variable Speed


Variable speed is occasionally used as a method of capacity control with screws.
This can be provided with speed controlled engines, steam turbines, or variable
frequency electric drives. Compressor power does not decrease linearly with speed
reduction but rather decreases as a function of rotor tip speed, and operating
compression ratio. In general, the compressor part load efficiency will be slightly better at
low compression ratio and significantly better at high compression ratio with reduced speed
compared to slide valve control, but this is before taking into account the losses in the driver
at reduced speed. Typical variable frequency drives will cause a loss in efficiency of around
3% at full load. They will also cause an additional loss of motor efficiency of 2.5%. This
gives a full load efficiency loss of about 5.5%. With some drives this loss may stay at the
same relative horsepower level as the drive speed is reduced, effectively becoming a larger
percentage loss at lower speeds. If a compressor will operate at part load, and at high
compression ratio for many hours per year, the cost of the drive may be justified. If a
compressor operates near full load for a high percentage of time, or operates primarily at low
compression ratios, it is unlikely that there is any advantage with a variable speed


drive, or that the cost of the drive can be justified against slide valve control. See typical
curves below for differences in power consumption. See Figures These curves are calculated
assuming drive and motor losses are a fixed percentage of power not fixed kw at reduced
speed.



Diff in KW Usage 4:1 CR
Slide Valve vs. vari Speed, 200 p sia Discharge Press


50 100 150 200 250 300
Gas flow.lbm/min
Figure Part Load Power Consumption at Low C.R., Variable
Speed Versus Slide Valve Control.
Whether variable speed is justified as a part load method must consider the load
profile and operating conditions that are expected in a particular application.
Variable speed control with screws should not be implemented without consulting
the compressor manufacturer. There are lower speed limits for compressors below
which bearings may fail due to inadequate bearing lubrication. Large compressors will have
lower minimum speeds than small compressors. Many small compressors may be able to
accommodate drive speeds above the input line frequency, but separator limits, oil cooler
size, and other package limitations must be investigated. It is also possible to fill a


compressor up with oil and cause failure if the speed is reduced below an acceptable range
with the compressor unloaded. Many of these limits are not published but should be
investigated early in a variable speed proposal or study.


Oil Systems: Separation and Cooling


As pointed out, oil injection performs many useful functions in the screw
compressor, however, since oil is not desirable in other parts of the refrigerating system,oil
flooded screws bring with them the need for oil separators. One type of oil separator
design is seen in attached Figure 16. The mixture of discharge gas and oil leaving the
compressor is directed against one head of the oil separator where it experiences a change
in direction and a large reduction in velocity. The larger oil particles are drawn to the oil
sump by gravity, with the smallest particles, or oil smoke being carried into the coalescing
filters. Here, these small particles impact on the internal fibers in the filters and coalesce
into larger oil droplets which can then be collected in the dry end sump and returned to a
low pressure area in the compressor. Besides removing oil from the gas stream, the
separator also gives the oil in the main sump time for any liquid refrigerant droplets to absorb
heat and vaporize, or entrained bubbles to rise to the surface of the oil, giving a more
pure oil for reinjection in the compressor.






















Figure . Screw Compressor Oil Separator Function.






Since most of the heat of compression is transferred to the oil during compression, this heat
must be removed by an oil cooling system. The three most common systems are water
cooled, thermo syphon cooled, or liquid injection. While air cooled coolers are possible they
are not as popular as the above three systems and will not be addressed here.






Water Cooled Oil Cooling


Referring to Figure the hot oil leaves the oil separator, through a strainer into
the oil pump. The oil is pumped through a shell and tube or plate type heat exchanger where
the heat is rejected to circulating water, or glycol. The cool oil is then filtered and
returned to the compressor for reinjection. Primary disadvantages of this system involve the
initial cost and maintenance of the water or glycol system, and risks of tube rupture, or
plugging if proper water condition is not maintained. It is generally preferred to leave water
flow to the cooler at a fixed rate and use a temperature regulated mixing valve on the oil side
of the cooler to blend hot and cold oil to the desired reinjection temperature. This will help to
minimize water side fouling of the tubes by maintaining a higher minimum water velocity.
The use of closed loop glycol eliminates fouling risks.






Figure 17. Screw Compressor with Water Cooled Oil Cooler.






Thermosyphon Oil Cooling


Today, thermosyphon is the most common type of oil cooling in industrial plants.
A typical thermosyphon system is shown in Figures 18 and 19. The thermosyphon
system is similar to the water-cooled system except the water is replaced by refrigerant
boiling on the tube side of the oil heat exchanger.The thermosyphon system is basically a
flooded evaporator, fed by the gravity head of a tank of liquid refrigerant in a thermosyphon
receiver, elevated above the level of the heat exchanger . As hot oil enters the shell side of the
heat exchanger, refrigerant boils in the tube side with the bubbles rising in a return line
back to the thermosyphon receiver. Vapor generated by this process is vented back to the
condenser inlet where it gives up heat and returns with the system liquid. In effect the
thermosyphon oil cooler is a gravity flooded evaporator, with its evaporating temperature set
by the pressure at the condenser.
Thermosyphon systems are popular because they require virtually no maintenance and they
do not degrade compressor performance. Modest cost is required for installation, and piping
can occasionally be challenging, particularly in systems with little headroom, or old
engine rooms where the piping contractor has to get
creative.This subject will be left for another paper.





Figure



Liquid Injection Oil Cooling


Liquid injection cools the oil by direct injection of refrigerant liquid into a low
pressure screw thread, part way down the compression process as seen in Figure 20.The
oil and the discharge gas are controlled to the desired temperature by a thermal expansion
valve. This valve controls the injected liquid flow to maintain the temperature of a thermal
bulb installed in the compressor discharge line.


Some of the injected liquid expands through the expansion valve into the screw


threads, requiring additional power to compress it. All of the remaining liquid mixes with the
oil and is carried down the discharge line with the discharge gas. The injected liquid remains
in the compressor less than 0.01 second. As heat transfer takes time, much of the cooling
takes place in the discharge line and the oil separator, where the liquid has time to absorb heat
and be evaporated. Some of the liquid mixed with the oil will leak through internal
compressor clearances to the suction. Oil leaked to suction has little effect, however, the
liquid will expand into the suction as vapor, with a large increase in specific volume,
reducing the amount of suction charge that can be drawn in. This causes a reduction in
capacity with liquid injection, with larger effect at high compression ratios.


Low initial cost, and low maintenance made liquid injection popular several years ago,
however, the power and capacity penalties make it unattractive for most applications with
high heat of compression. Liquid injection is also not recommended for systems with even
temporary conditions of high suction, and low head, where inadequate differential across the
expansion valve causes erratic liquid feed.







































Figure





Installation Requirements


Following a few simple guidelines will add greatly to trouble free compressor
operation. First, it is always important to follow manufacturer's recommendations, but the
following summarizes a few of the basic issues that are frequently overlooked in typical
installations.


Install compressors on proper foundations. Level package to eliminate stress
and grout under feet to assure full contact with the floor. Good quality anchors should be
used to attach the package to the foundation.


Use pipe hangers on the suction line within 2 ft of the vertical riser to avoid
adding pipe stress to the compressor housing. The discharge line should also be
supported in the case of long pipe runs.


As much as possible, keep dirt out of the system during fabrication. A dirty installation will
cause problems for years with plugged valves, damaged parts, and
potential compressor damage. Screws are very rugged and forgiving but ingestion of
dirt will eventually effect performance or longevity.




Use only refrigerant grade ammonia in systems, never agricultural grade. Use
proper service techniques to avoid contaminating the system with water. A properly
maintained system should not have over 80 ppm of water. Most good systems are 25-35 ppm.


Use the right oil for the application. Not all oils are equivalent. Very low suction
temperatures, (<-50F), should use special low pour point oils. Don't mix different oils in the
same compressor, and make sure to keep engine and hydraulic oils away from the screw
compressors. Additives in non-refrigeration oils are not compatible with
refrigeration systems.


Proper sizing of suction accumulators is vital to trouble free compressor
installations. While screw compressors can accept some amount of liquid without
hydraulic damage, it is possible to cause rotor galling failures in low temperature
ammonia systems with continuous wet ammonia return. Proper sizing of suction
accumulators to avoid liquid carryover can avoid expensive problems.




Maintenance


Follow manufacturer's recommended maintenance schedules as requirements
vary between products. However, some general comments can be made that should fit most
applications.


Oil analysis is an important part of any compressor maintenance program. It is
most important to watch for water content (Karl Fischer test), and viscosity change over time
which would indicate oil breakdown or dilution. Excessive water will kill
compressors if allowed to remain in the system. Metals analysis may detect some
problems, but usually indicates problems rather late in the failure cycle.


Vibration analysis is the best method of monitoring bearing condition. It is very
effective with anti-friction bearings, giving an indication of bearing deterioration in the
very early stages of failure. A good vibration monitoring program or onboard vibration
monitoring employed with anti-friction bearing compressor designs can eliminate the
need for routine disassembly inspection if properly implemented, and greatly minimize the
risk of catastrophic compressor failure.


Troubleshooting


Despite our best efforts compressors may sometimes have problems. It is the
purpose of thoughtful troubleshooting to pinpoint the cause of problems without
expensive component replacement or teardowns of the wrong components.


One of the most useful troubleshooting aids is a careful consideration of


discharge temperature. A discharge temperature higher or lower than predicted at
operating conditions should be investigated, as it may be indicating a potential problem.A
logical troubleshooting process should be followed to determine why the discharge
temperature might be out of line.



Low Discharge Temperature


1. Discharge temperature could be too low because liquid refrigerant is being carried
into the suction or economizer lines. Excessive foaming in the separator or frost
appearing far down the compressor suction housing can also indicate this.


2. Low discharge temperature may indicate condensing in the discharge line during off cycle,
running back into the oil separator, and feeding excess liquid to the
compressor until the package warms up.


3. Low discharge temperature could indicate oil flow above design level. Is main
injection adjusted properly or could balance piston wear be increasing the flow of oil.

High Discharge Temperature


1. High discharge temperature can be caused by suction or economizer superheat
running above design level.


2. Restricted oil flow to the compressor will cause high discharge temperature. Check for
main injection valve, oil orifice, or filter blockage.


3. Is the volume ratio and slide valve correctly calibrated and working properly. If the
compressor is running at the incorrect volume ratio for the application, excessive
horsepower will be consumed in the compression. Excess power consumption
always shows up as too high a discharge temperature.




4. Is the compressor in the early stages of failure or loosing axial rotor position due to thrust
bearing wear? Any condition that causes a loss of rotor position will lead to
excessive thread to thread leakage and higher discharge temperatures. If this is
suspected, vibration analysis is the best way to assess compressor condition. If
vibration analysis is not possible, teardown inspection may be called for if all other
possibilities have been investigated.


5. Is the oil cooling working correctly? This is easy to sort out as a possibility with
rating software for the compressors if the actual operating oil temperature is input to
the rating program. If the measured discharge temperature at an elevated oil
temperature is still in agreement with predictions, it is fairly certain the compressor is
healthy but perhaps the oil cooler should be investigated.

The Future of Screw Compressors in Refrigeration


Conditions in our industry are changing and screw compressors are also
changing to meet customer's demands. Some of the areas that we see as opportunities with
todays screw compressors are listed below.


Modern machine tools and automated inspection equipment are making it
possible to hold tighter tolerances in day to day manufacturing environments. This
improves compressor performance and consistency from one compressor to the next.


Greater use of electronics to save energy, simplify maintenance, and anticipate
problems before they occur will reduce energy consumption, operating costs, and
maintenance costs. Just as personal computers have changed all our lives they are
also changing the engine room. I believe these changes are still in their infancy. Our


industry is significantly behind automotive in use of electronics but I believe it is
inevitable and coming very fast.

We see the regulatory requirements and concern over leakage driving
compressor designs to new levels. New shaft seal designs, elimination of pipe threads,
smaller charge requirements, and more welded construction are all areas that are here now or
coming fast.


Lower noise requirements in engine rooms are becoming increasingly important.
Quieter compressor and motor designs are being specified in an increasing number of
applications.


It is certain that change will occur in our industry. The screw compressor has
proven to be a strong central component in many of our systems because of its inherent
efficiency, safety, and flexibility. It is certain that continuing innovation in screw compressor
design will be key in improving our system designs for the future.













MARKET TRENDS




flexibility, low maintenance, and good efficiency in many industries. Screws have a large
market share in the portable and stationary air markets, industrial refrigeration, air-
conditioning, and in the oil, gas, and petrochemical refrigeration markets. As gathering
pressures in the gas patch decrease, the same arguments that have allowed screws to take
large market shares in other industries are becoming obvious to packagers and operators. We
have seen a large increase in screw compressor usage in natural gas gathering in the last five
years. Screw compressors have effectively displaced reciprocating compressors in the
medium displacements and are today the most widely used compressor type in their size
range. With the introduction of larger displacement screws, they are encroaching further on
the lower end of the centrifugal sizes.The Montreal Protocol (Montreal Protocol, 1989) has
dictated the elimination of all chlorine containing refrigerants,withchlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) already banned in most countries and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) slated for
phaseout in new equipment sold after 2010. Oil flooded screw compressors are uniquely
suited to compression of a wide range of new and
conventional refrigerant gases because of positive displacement andlow discharge
temperature. Screws have already been applied on many of the new alternative blend
refrigerants, with numerous systems in operation on R-404a, R-507, R-134a, R-4 10a, and R-
407c. As new refrigeration plants are installed, the life cycle of the plants makes
consideration of long-term refrigerant availability an issue to be considered. The flexibility of
screws gives the advantage that they do not have to be redesigned to handle the new gases.


CONCLUSION


It is certain that change will continue in the petrochemical, chemical, and gas businesses. The
screw compressor has proven to be a strong central component in many of our systems
because ofits inherent efficiency, safety, and flexibility. It is certain that continuing
innovation in screw compressor design and proper
application of screws in new processes will be a key in improving system designs for the
future.














5. ASSESSMENT OF COMPRESSORS AND COMPRESSED
AIR SYSTEMS


5.1 Capacity of a Compressor


The capacity of a compressor is the full rated volume of flow of gas compressed and
delivered under conditions of total temperature, total pressure, and composition prevailing at
the compressor inlet. It sometimes means actual flow rate, rather than rated volume of flow.
This is also called free air delivery (FAD) i.e. air at atmospheric conditions at any specific
location. This term does not mean air delivered under identical or standard conditions
because the altitude, barometer, and temperature may vary at different localities and at
different times.


5.1.1 Assessment of capacity of a compressor




Due to ageing of the compressors and inherent inefficiencies in the internal components, the
free air delivered may be less than the design value, despite good maintenance practices.
Sometimes, other factors such as poor maintenance, fouled heat exchanger and effects of
altitude also tend to reduce free air delivery. In order to meet the air demand, the inefficient
compressor may have to run for more time, thus consuming more power than actually
required. The power wastage depends on the percentage deviation of FAD capacity. For
example, a worn out compressor valve can reduce the compressor capacity by as much as 20
percent. A periodic assessment of the FAD capacity of each compressor has to be carried out
to check its actual capacity. If the deviations are more than 10 percent, corrective measures
should be taken to rectify the same.The ideal method of compressor capacity assessment is
through a nozzle test wherein a calibrated nozzle is used as a load, to vent out the generated
compressed air. Flow is assessed, based on the air temperature, stabilization pressure, orifice
constant, etc.


5.1.2 Simple method of capacity assessment at the shop floor


Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver that are to be taken for a test from
the main compressed air system by tightly closing the isolation valve or blanking it, thus
closing the receiver outlet.


Open the water drain valve and drainout water fully and empty the receiver and the pipeline.
Make sure that the water trap line is tightly closed once again to start the test.


Start the compressor and activate the stopwatch.

Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P2 (in the receiver) from initial
pressure P1.


Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below (Confederation of Indian Industries):







The above equation is relevant where the compressed air temperature is the same as the
ambient air temperature, i.e., perfect isothermal compression. In case the actual compressed
air temperature at discharge, say t2oC is higher than ambient air temperature say t10C (as is
usual case), the FAD is to be corrected by a factor (273 + t1) / (273 + t2).


5.2 Compressor Efficiency


Several different measures of compressor efficiency are commonly used: volumetric
efficiency,adiabatic efficiency, isothermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency.
Adiabatic and isothermal efficiencies are computed as the isothermal or adiabatic power
divided by the actual power consumption. The figure obtained indicates the overall efficiency
of a compressor and drive motor.


5.2.1 Isothermal efficiency




Isothermal Efficiency = Actual measured input power I IsothermalPower Isothermal power
(kW) = P1 x Q1 x loger/36.7
Where P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg/ cm2
Q1 = Free air delivered m3/hr.
r = Pressure ratio P2/P1
The calculation of isothermal power does not include power needed to overcome friction and
generally gives an efficiency that is lower than adiabatic efficiency. The reported value of
efficiency is normally the isothermal efficiency. This is an important consideration when
selecting compressors based on reported values of efficiency.


5.2.2 Volumetric Efficiency





Compressor Displacement = ? x D2/4 x L x S x ? x n
Where D = Cylinder bore, metre
L = Cylinder stroke, metre
S = Compressor speed rpm
? = 1 for single acting and
2 for double acting cylinders
n = No. of cylinders
For practical purposes, the most effective guide in comparing compressor efficiencies is the
specific power consumption, i.e. kW/volume flow rate, for different compressors that would
provide identical duty.

Maintenance Practices




Good and proper maintenance practices will dramatically improve the performance efficiency
of a compressor system. Following are a few tips for efficient operation and maintenance of
industrial compressed air systems:
Lubrication: Compresso r oil pressure should be visually checked daily, and the oil f ilter
changed monthly.
Air Filters: The inlet air filter can easily become clogged, particularly in dusty
environments.
Filters should be checked and replaced regularly.
Condensate Traps: Many systems have condensate traps to gather and (for those traps
fitted with a float operated valve) flush condensate from the system. Manual traps should be
periodically opened and re-closed to drain any accumulated fluid; automatic traps should be
checked to verify they are not leaking compressed air.
Air Dryers: Drying air is energy-intensive. For refrigerated dryers, inspect and replace
prefilters regularly as these dryers often have small internal passages that can become
plugged with contaminants. Regenerative dryers require an effective oil-removal filter on
their inlets, as they will not function well if lubricating oil from the compressor coats the
desiccant. The temperature of deliquescent dryers should be kept below 100F to avoid
increased consumption of the desiccant material, which should be replenished every 3-4
months depending on the rate of depletion.


6. OPTION CHECKLIST


Find and fix current compressed air leaks and try to prevent the same. Check for leaks
and
pressure losses throughout the system regularly (monthly).
Avoid the improper, yet common practice of cracking drains in an effort to insure
moisture free performance at a particular point-of- use.
Regulate all point -of- use operations at the lowest possible pressure using a quality
regulator.


Eliminate the use of air hoists, and air motors.
Shut off the air supply to "off - line" production equipment.
Isolate single users of high pressure air.
Monitor pressure dr ops in piping systems.
Evaluate your need for modulating compressors.
Use high efficiency motors in place of standard motors.
Consider multiple staged compressors.
Lower the output pressure as far as possible.
Use waste heat off the compressor tohelp the rest of the plant save energy.
Avoid delivering higher pressure to the entire plant just to meet the requirements of one
user.
Understand multiple compressor system controls.
Utilize intermediate controls/expanders/high quality back pr essure regulators.
Understand the requirements for clean- up equipment.
Use the drying technology that gives you the maximum allowable pressure dew point.
Choose "best in class" products for all compressor parts in case of replacements.
Monitor thedifferential pressure across the air filter. Excessive pressure drop in filters
also wastes energy.
Use cool outside air for the compressor intake.
Adopt a systematic preventive maintenance strategy for your compressor.
Impart training and create awareness among employees for efficient operation and
maintenance of compressor systems.
Ensure the entire system is monitored by good housekeeping practices.
Ensure condensation can be removed swiftly from the distribution network, or does not
occur.
Check that receivers are sized to store air for short heavy demands.











7. REFERENCES


Confederation of Indian Industries. Manual on Compressors and Compressed Air Systems.
http://greenbusinesscentre.com/documents/compressor.pdf
ECompressedAir. Compressed Air Audits. http://ecompressedair.com/air.shtml
http://superiorsignal.com/usndacr.pdf
King, Julie. MichiganTech, Department of Chemical Engineering
McKane, A. and Medaris, B. The Compressed Air Challenge Making a difference for US
industry. 2003. http://eetd.lbl.gov/ea/indpart/publications/lbnl_52771.pdf
MT University. Compressors.
www.chem.mtu.edu/chem_eng/current/new_courses/CM4120/315,30,Reference
National Productivity Council, India. Compressors. In: Technology Menu for Efficient
Energy
Use, Motor Drive Systems (NPC). 1993
NPC Energy Audit Reports
Sustainable Energy Development Office, Government of Western Australia. Compressed Air
Systems. 2002. www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/uploads
Tashian, Paul. Successful Leak Detection Using Ultrasonics.
US Department of Energy (US DOE), Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Improving
Compressed Air System Performance. DEO/GO-102003-1822. 2003.
www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices/compressed_air
US Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Industrial
Technologies
Program. Energy Tips Compressed Air Tip Sheet 3. 2004.
www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air.pdf