CHAPTBR IV.

THWHY m' POLE~ A~J) POLARS.

G:3. Let (.e, y, z)=O be the equation of a curve of the

nth degree in any system of homogeneous co-ordinates
(or in Cartesians made homogeneous by introducing
requisite powi3rsof z=l). vVe shall examine the points
where any line joining two given points intersect the
curve by using the method of Joachimsthal.
Let P (01.', s'. z') be a fixed point and Q (x, y, z) a
variable point in the plane. Then the co-ordinates of any
point A on PQ, dividing PQ in the ratio A : p. (where
A+p.=l), are
AV + fI.G', AY + flY', A; + p...;'.
The co-ordinates of points where the line PQ meets the
curve are found by substituting these values for x, y, z
in the equation of the curve, and tllen determining the
ratio A : p.. from the resulting equation.
'1'hus, 'I'
J '0
(A.l:+ p...l;,' Ay+p..y, , AZ+p..o)= .

This may be expanded in two ways by Taylor's theorem.

We have then-

or
78 THEORY OF' PLANE CUltVES

where
1=/(x, y, z), J'=/(.r:,y', z')

/::;.=( ;v' ox
a +y' .Q.
oy +z' ~
oz )

1\ ,_(
L.J. - ,/
,
aax' + y aay' +_"a a;;' )
Either of these equations gives the n values of the
ratio .\ : JL. Comparing the co-efflcieuts in the two equations,
we obtain the following identities :-

I=! /::;.,nf
n! .

!/::;.
'f= 1_._ /::;.,n-'f
r! . (n-r)!

A-,
_1_ /::;. 1=/::;.'1'
(11,-1) !

64. POJ.AR CURV!>::>:

'I'he several curves defined by the equations /::;./=0,

/::;.
'/=0, etc., are called the ,. Polar of the point curves"
(x', y', z') with regard to 1=0. The curve /::;.1=0 is called
the first polar of the point (e', y', z') with respect to f=O ..
 POU:S AND POL'\.R~

Similarly, the curves 6. ~j=O, etc .. arc called respectively

the second, third, etc., polar curves of the point (a.', y', z')
and the point (.t', y', :/j is called the pole. The equation
of the kth polar curve is

or

the two equations representing the same curve In virtue

of the identities of the preceding article. It follows there-
fore that 6.' -'j=O or 6.'f =0, which represents the
(n-l)th polar curve, is the polar line, and 6. --lj=O, or
L\'sf=Olwhich represent.s the (n-2)th polar curve is the
polar conic, and so on.
From the mode of forming the equations of polar
curves it is seen that successive polars are obtained by
performing the operation L\ successively on f j for instance
L\"j is obtained by operating with 6. on 6.j, which is the
first polar of f. Hence the second polar of (.t', y', ~') with
respect to j is the first polar of the same point with
respect to 6.f. Similarly, the third polar of (.t', y', :')
with respect to f is the first polar of the same point with
respect to L\ Sj and the second polar with respect to 6.f.
In general, since 6. r( 6. 'f) = 6. r + 'I. the (r + e)th polar
of a point with a respect to j is the rth polar of the same
point with respect to 6. "], i.e., with respect to the sth polar
of f. Thus we may state the following general theorem:
The polar Cu,1'·ve of an!! rank of a point is also a polar curt'l'
oj the same point with respect to all polar ourties of a rank lmoll?'
than its own.
It is to be further observed that
6. '(6. rf)=6. '(6. '/)=6. ""]
6. 'f=L\ '-'(6. 'I), and 1'10On.
so THEORY OF PLANE CURVE!'

This shows that the sth polar of a point with respect to

the rth polar of the same point ui.r.i, the original curve is
the rth polar of the point UJ.d. the sth polar of the
original curve.

Ex. 1. If P lies on the kth polar of Q for an n.ic, Q lies on the

(n-k)th polar of P.
Ex. 2. IfP is a node of the (k-l)thpolarofQ, thenQ is a node
of the (n - k )th polar of P for an n.ic.
Ex. 3. Show that the kth polars of the vertices of the triangle of
reference are
a 'f =0, az'
ay'
a'f
=0.

Ex. 4. Prove that the polar line of a point on the curve is the
tangent at the point.
EJJ. 5. Prove that all polar curves of a point on the curve will
touch the curve at tha t point.

65. If P(a:', y', z') and Q(.t", y", e") be any two
points in the plane of a curve J=O, the points where the
line PQ meets the curve are determined, as in §63, by the
equation which we may write in the form
®=}..-J(x', y', z,)+}..a-1fL6,J('l;', y', z')

+}}.. n-. fL' 6,'J(x', y', e') + ...=0 (1)

where 6, =x"a +y" £ +z" a.

-, oa;' Oy" - a?'

Now, if one of the points should coincide with (.~', y', z'),
it is evident that one of the roots of this equation should
be fL=O. This requires that f'=J(.I;', y', .')=0, which if'
otherwise evident, since, when a point lies on the curve,
its co-ordinates satisfy the equation of the curve.
If two of the points where meets the curve should
PQ
coincide with (,,,', y', z'), then the above equation should
give two values of p.=O, i.c. fL" should he a beto!' of (r<),
 POLES AND POLARS 81

This requires that both (=0 and f:::..j'=0. Now then PQ

touches the curve at (,(;',y', z'), and .(x", y", z") is a point
on that tangent (or tangents, if more than one). Hence,
if l;~",y", ;,") be made current, f:::.. becomes

.c
a-,a.v sey ::
+v a +" a-"
a
z ,
and the point (,v", y", ,11) lies on the locus

,',,aaf'
-'a: +Yaaf' aj' _-0,
-,Y +Z a-:'
~
(2)

which is the tangent to the curve at the point (e', y', z'),
But this is evidently the polar line of the point ev', y', z').
Hence, the polar line of a point on the curce is the tangent
at that point.
It follows from the preceding article that the polar line
of a point with respect to a curve will also be the polar
line with respect to each of the polar curves, aud since
the point (.v', y', z') lies on the curve, it is seen that it
lies on all the polar curves. Hence the polar curves will
have the same tangent at the point (,/, y', ;;').
If, however.

af' _ af' _ af' _

a--;·- a-'y - a-:T
, ~O,
(3)
"

"j"
cs:
= a1' + y" aaj'' +
- ,t a '
.II z" at
az'
;c y.
f

vanishes identically, whatever x", y", z" may be.

Hence, in this case the line PQ meets the curve al ways
in two points at (,v', y', z') for all values of ,e" y" z", i.e.,
the point C,t', y', :') is a double point, and every line drawn
through it meets the curve in two coincident points at
(e', y', z').
11
82 TliIWRY os PLAl'<l!l CURVl!'.~

The equations (3) will not, in genp.ral, have a common

solution, unless a certain condition is satisfied, which of
course, is obtained by eliminating ;e',y', .' between the three
equations (3). (See §47.)
Aga.in, the equation 0=0 will have three roots JJ.=O,
i.e., PQ will meet the curve in three points at (x', y', /),
if we have
f=o, f::J.j'=o, 6.'f=o (4)

These show t.hat in this case the line PQ coincides

with the tangent at (.v', y', s'), and that every point on
it is a point on the polar conic 6. if'=O of (,e', y', z'), which
must therefore reduce to two right lines. Hence, 6. If
contains 6.f as a factor, and the point (e', y', z') is a
point of inflexion. (See §42.)
We have thus indirectly obtained the theorem that the
polar conic of a point of infle:eion breaks up into two "ight lines.
If, however, 6.1' and t::. If vanish identically, whatever
.v" y" z" may be, i.e., if the first and second differential
co-efficients of f vanish at (.c' y' z'), the line PQ always
meets the curve in three coincident points at (.e', y', z'),
which is then a triple point. (§44.)
Generally, if for any pointj.e', y', z') 6. k-1f is identi-
ca.lly zero, the curve has at this point a multiple point of
order k. From the mode of formation of 6.1"s, it follows
that, if 6.k-'1'=O, then 6.k-<Jf=O, 6.k-sf=O, ... , M=O.
The equation 6.kf=O gives then the product of the k
tangents at the point in question. For, in the first place,
the curve represented by this equation has also at the
point a multiple point of order k, since its (k-l)th polar,
the point being the pole, is no other than 6. =r,
and
in consequence, vanishes independently of (.v", y", i'). But
a curve of order k having a k-ple point is necessarily
composed of k .lines. Hence thes-e lines touch the k different
branches of the original curve which pass through the
multiple point.
 POUlS AND POLARS 8~

66. :MIXED POLAR~:

The symbolic identities discussed above also hold, if two

different poles are taken with respect to the 1·thand the ,th
polars respectively.
Let P,(.l:u Yu z,) and p.(X., Y., ~.) be any two points
in the plane of a curve f=O.

Then, if

and

=
we have f:l' .f:l/' /1" ,f:l'; whence it follows that the
sth polar of P 1 with respect to the 11h polar of p.
for any curve is the 1,th polar of P, with respect to the sth
polar of P, for the same curve,
The curve obtained by this polar process '*' is called a
" mixed polar" curve of the two points.
For a cubic curve, in particular, we obtain the
following theorem:
If S, and S. are the polar conics of two points P, and
P, with respect to a cubic, and if tangents are drawn from
P I and P, to S. and S, respectively, then the four points
of contact will lie on a right line, which is the" mixed
polar" line of P, and P, with respect to the given cubic.
For, the polar conics of PI and P, are f:lf and f:l'f
respecti vely,

where f:l = "\ ~.

V,('
+ ..,.., an d f:l/ = ,j'. 82.. +
.C
.

Now, the polar line of PI t. S. is the first polar of

W. T.

PI us. 1'. t. S., i.e., /1·/1:f=O which is a right line passing

• Elliot-Algebra of Quantiol, 163.

L
84 TH~ORY OF PLAN~ CURVES

through the points of contact of tangents drawn from

p 1 to S •. Since b.. b. 'J= b..' b.j, the truth of the theorem
follows.

Ea.!. The polar curves of the point (a., a.) 10. ,'. t. the cubic

,l' +y'=a3 are :-

Polar line " + y =a

Polar conic m' +y'=a"

Ex, 2. The equations of the pairs of tangents drawn from the

vertices of the triangle of reference. to the conic

a;c' + by' + cz' + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy=O

are Cy·-2Fyz+Bz·=0,

and Bx· -2Hroy + Ay' =0 respectively,

where A, B, C, etc., are the co- factors of a, b, c, etc., in the determinant

(a b c).
It follows then that the three pairs of lines->

"y' +by.+c;·=O, a'.' +b'.v+c'.v·-O and a"x' +b"xy+c"y'=O

will touch a conic, if aa!a"=cc'c".

Ex. 3. Any polar curve of the curve

(x/a)" +(yfb)" +(zJc)"=O,

is of the same form.

[This curve is called the triaugulnr-aymmetric curve.]
Ex. 4. If the polar conic of P 10. ,'. t. a given n.ic has a self.
conjugate triangle which is inscribed in '" g-iven conic, the locus of P
is an (n- 2).ic.

67. If two roots of either of the equations (1) and (2)

of §63 be equal, the line intersects the curve in two
coincident points and is therefore a tangent. Hence the
discriminant of the above equation, regarded as a binary
quantic in A, p., equated to zero, will gi ve the equation of
the tangents drawn from any poir..t (x', y', z') to the curve.
The weight, i,e., degree in the roots of this discriminant is
 POLES AND POLARS 85

n(n-1),* and therefore n(n-1) tangents can be drawn

from any point to the curve,
The calculation of the tangents by this method is not so
simple, in general; but the method may conveniently be used
in particular cases. Thus, for example, in the case of a cubic
curve, we obtain the following equations for determining'
the values of the ratio ,\ : p.-

(1)

(2)

Writing, for brevity, 6, and 6,' for 6,f and 6,'1' respectively,
the discriminant of (1) or 1,2) becomes:

This equation is symmetrical in the two sets (:1', y, z),

(.r.', y', z'), and of degree 6 in each set. Hence 6 tangents
can be drawn from any point (.v', s', ~') to the cubic.
The form of the equation (3) shows that it represents
a locus touching f at the points where the latter meets 6,f.
The other points where f meets the locus lies on the curve
(6,') 2 -46,.f' =0. Hence the geometrical interpretation of
the equation is:-
If from any point six tangents are draum to a curve of
the third order, their six points of contact lie on a conic
6, =0, and the si , remaining points, in which these tangents
meet the cubic again, lie on another ctniic (6,')' -46,.f' =0,
having double contact with the firet at the points ioliere 6,' =0
meets 6,=0.
If however (./, y', z') is a point on the cubic, 1'=0. The
discriminant equated to zero gives 6,' =46,'}, which is
of the fourth degree in (.v, y, z). Hence, only fOUT tangents
can be drawn to a cubic from any point on the same.

jfo Elliot-Algebra of Quantics, § 77.

86 THEORY OF PLANE CURVES

It has already been saidthat the roots of the equation

(1) of §63 gives the points where the line meets the curve.
Hence, from the conditions that the equation has one or
more pairs of double roots, or has two or more roots
coincident, it will be possible to obtain bitangents or other
multiple tangents of the curve; but the investigation by this
method is by no means simple, and we shall see later that
these can be obtained by other simpler methods.

68. GEOMETRICAL INTERPRBTATION OF THE EQUATIONS OF

POLAR CURVES:

If ll.'f=O, it follows from the equation (2) of §63 that

the Rum of the roots vanishes,

i.e.

where, Au At, As, ..•..• Aft are the n points in which

the line PQ intersects the curve.
If now we put

Then,

i,e. ~ R-r =0,

l'

nil 1 1
or, -=-
R r1
+-+-
r. rs
+...+-.
r.

The geometrical interpretation of this property has been

given by Cotes (1722) in his Harmonia Mensumrmn as
follows :-
 POLES AND POLARS 87
If on each radius vector through a fixed point P, there
be taken a point Q such that

nIl 1
PQ =PA 1.+PA +· .. ·.. +PA' ft

where Au At, are the points of intersection with

Aft

the curve, then the locus of Q will be a right line; or, in

other words,-
The locus of the harmonic mean Q of the points of intersec-
tion with a curve of all lines of a pencil, drawn th1'Ough a
firlJedpoint P, is the polar line of P. Similarly for the polar
conic. The point Q is called the harmonic mean,
In general, we call a point Q the "harmonic mean of
order k," which satisfies the equation

~QA.l QA. QAh -0 .

"PA 'PA ..·..·PA - ,
l' k

thus we can say that the harmonic mean of the kth order
lies on the kth polar, and therefore it geometrically signifies
the vanishing ofthe (k + 1)th term in the equation (2) of
§63.
If the pole P is at infinity, then Q is called the centre- of
mean distances, and the several polars are called the
diametral curves.

E», 1. If the given curve be a conic, it has only one polar line,
and this is the locus of a point Q which is the harmonic conjugate of P
w. r. t. A, and A•.
EtIJ. 2. If the point P lies on a cubic curve, then the two points
:.&. I and A2I where any line through P meets the cubic are determined
by the two values of ,,/,.,.given by

"'f + ",.,.t::.f +,.,.' t::.'f =0.

If now the line meets the polar conic of Pin Q, t::.f=O; and conse-
quently we have-
88 THEORY Q}' pLANE CURVES

i.c., PQ-PA, + PQ-PA. =0

~~
211
i.e., - - - + --
PQ PAl PA.

which shows that P, A" Q, A. form a harmonic range, 01' in other

worda.s--

The P'Jints 10hae any line ilvrouqh: a point on a cubic meets the cubic
and the polar conic of the point [orm. with the point a ha'Y'monic range.

E». 3. The polar line of a point at infinity is the diameter of the

system of parallel chords directed to that point.
E», 4. The polar curves of any point W.1·.t. a curve are projected
into the polar curves of the projected point tv .r,t. the projection of the
given curve.

E». 5. A couic touches a cubic at 0 and cuts it in four other points

P, Q, R, S. Show that OP, OQ, OR, OS meet the cubic again in four
points lying on a conic, which also touches the cubic at O.

69. CE~TRB OF A CURVE:

In a conic the pole of the line at infinity is defined

as the centre. But in the case of a general curve of order
n, a line has (n-l)' poles, and there is therefore no unique
point for such a curve corresponding to the centre of a
conic. If, however, the curve be regarded as an envelope,
every line has a pole, a polar curve of the second, third and
higher class, and finally a polar curve of the (n-l)th class,
which is touched by the n tangents a.t the points where
the line meets the curve. Thus, we may obtain a unique
point-the pole of the line at infinity,-when the curve
is defined by its tangential equation.
Let a,
'1, '), (f, "I', n
be the co-ordinates of any two
lines. Then the co-ordinates of U,llY line through their
intersection, dividing the angle between them in two parts
whose sines are in the ratio A : p-may be taken as
(A~+P-~', +
ATI P-'1', At+p-O·
If we substitute these values for ~,'1,'in the tangential
equation of the curve, the equation corresponding to (1) of
I"
(

POLES AND POLARS 89

§63 now determines the ratios of the sines of the parts

into which the angle between the two lines is divided
by each of the tangents drawn to the CUrTethrough their
intersection.
If now P is a variable point, and 0 a fixed point on any
given line whose pole is to be determined, and Au A~,...A~
the points of contact of tangents drawn from P, the pole Q
of the line has the property

(1)

For the conic, regarded as an envelope of the second class,

this relation becomes

sin QPA1 + sin QPA. =0 (2)

sin A,PO sin AiPO

In the language of geometry this may be stated as

follows :-
If from any point P, on a fixed line 0 P, tangents PAl'
PA2 are drawn to a conic, and a line PQ such that
{P·OA1QAs} is harmonic, then the line OQ passes
through a fixed point."
The relation (1) may be written in the form

(3)

where M, is the foot of the perpendicular drawn from A,

on the line PQ, and N 1 is the foot of the perpendicular from
the same point on the line OP.
If the line OP now moves off to infinity, then all
the denominators in (3) tend to equality, and we have
lM,A, =0, i.e., the sum of the perpendiculars drawn from
the points of contact of any system of parallel tangents
on a parallel line through Q is zero.

•• Salmon, Conics, §57.

12
90 THEORY OF PLANE CURVES

Hence we have the following definition for the centre

of a curve, given b1 Chasles * ;-
The centre of mean distances of the points of contact of
any system of parallel tangents to a given curve is a fixed
point, which may be regarded as a centre of the curve.
Thus, the middle point of the line joining the points of
contact of parallel tangents to a curve of the second class
(a conic) is a fixed point.
Similarly, in a curve of the third class the centre of
gravity of the triangle, formed by the points of contact of
three parallel tagents, is a fixed point, and so on.
lt is to be noticed, however, that in the system of
Cartesian point co-ordinates, when the equation of the curve
contains only terms of odd, or only terms of even degree, the
curve is symmetrical about the origin, and it may be brought
to self-coincidence by rotation through 1800 about the origin.
The origin may, in this case, be called a centre of the curve.

E», 1. If P is a point on a curve and PP 1P •... a secant cutting

the curve in P" P 2 •.•• P 0-1> and the polar conic of P in Q, then
n-I 1
PQ = lpp,
Ew.2. IfPbeapoint of inflexiou on a curve and PP,p•...p.- 1

he s secant cutting the harmonic polar in Q, prove that

n-I =l ~.
PQ PP,
E», 3. If a curve has a centre, the polar curves of the centre have
this point for a centre.
E». 4. The polar curves of any point at infinity, in Ex. 3, have the
centre of the curve as a centre.
Ew. 5. If an n-ic f(w, y) =0 has a centre, all the partial derivatives
of f uur.t. wand y vanish at that point.
[When the origin is taken at the centre (w', y'), the transformed
equation becomes f(w +w', y+y')=O, and the terms of orders (n-I),
(n-3), (n-5) ... must be absent from this new equation.]

* Quetelet, Correspondence Math6matiques et Physique, VI, 8.

 POLES AND POLARS 91

70. MACLALRIN'S THEOREM:

If through any point P a line be drawn meeting the curve

in n points, and at these points tangents be drawn, and if
any other line through P cut the curve in Au A" As, ... A.,
and the system of n tangents in BlI B" B", then
1 1
~- =~ - .
PA PB
Consider two Iines drawn through P which intersect
two curves of order n in the same points R" R., Rs ... R.
and SuS., 8s S. respectively. The polar line of
P with respect to both curves must be the same, since
the two harmonic means Rand S are the same for both.
Now, if PR and PS coincide, the two curves touch each
other at n collinear points-Ru R" Rs, R., but still
the polar line of P for both is the same. The tangents
at the n points Ru R., Rs,'" ... R. may be taken to
constitute a curve of the nth order touching the other original
curve at n collinear points, and therefore, if a line through P
intersect the curve in Au AI, As A. and the tangents
at Bu B., B, B., the harmonic means of the two
systems are the same, and consequently we have-

Em. 1. The tangent drawn from any point on the polar line of a
point P w.r.t, a conic is cut harmonically by the tangents drawn from P.
Ex. 2. A radius vector drawn through II point 0 on a cubic meets
the curve again in P and Q. Shew that the locus of the extremities of
harmonic means between OP and OQ is a conic, which reduces to a
right line when Q is II point of inflexion.

71. POLAl~ CURVES OF 'fHB ORIGIN:

Let the Cartesian equation of a curve be-

uo+ut+u.+ +u.=O
or, this may be written in the homogeneous form:
92 THEORY OF PLANE CURVES

The co-ordinates of the origin may be taken as (0, 0, I).

_
••
A _
L..l.=
a
Oz

Therefore, the different polar curves are respectively-

The polar line of the origin becomes-

The polar conic is-

The polar cubic is-

+(n-2) ! U2 z+(n-3) ! tts

=n(n-l)(n-2)uo+3(n-I)(n-2)u1

+6(n-2)tt. +6tts =0

etc. etc. etc.

From these the polar curves of any point on a curve can

easily be found; the point may be taken as the origin
of a system of Cartesian axes and the corresponding
equation of the given curve may be obtained by the usual
method.
 POLES AND POLARS 93

72. From a study of these equations we at once draw

the following inferences :-
(1) If the origin lies on the curve, Uo =0, all the polar
curves pass through the origin, and U1 =0 is the common
tangent to all.
Thus, the polar curves of any point on the curve pass
through the point and have a common tangent there, i.e.,
the polar curves all touch the curve at that point.
(2) If the origin is a double point on the curve, the
first degree terms are absent from the equation, and it is
found that they are absent also from the equations of all
polars, The terms of the lowest degree are ft. in an
of them.
Hence we infer that all the polar curves of a double
point on the curve have a double point with the same
tangents at the double point on the original curve.
Further, the polar conic of the double point is U1 =0,
which represents the two tangents at that point. Hence
the polar conic of a double point on the curve breaks up
into two right lines.
(3) In general, if the lowest terms in the equation of
a curve are Uk, the lowest terms in all the polar curves

Hence we infer that all the polar curves of any multiple

point of order ,,~on the curve have a multiple point of
the same order with the same tangents at that point.
(4) If the origin is a point of inflexion on the curve,
the linear terms are a factor of the second degr6e terms,
and hence, from the equations of § 71, it follows that the
origin is an inflexion on all the polar curves; and similarly
in general.
Thus, the polar curves of a point on the curve at which
the tangent has r-pointic contact have r-poinoic contact
at the point with the same tangent.
94 THEORY OF PLANE CURVES

Ex. 1. The (n-k)th polar of a k-ple point of at: n-ie consists of

the ktangents at the point.
Ex. 2. If P lies on a given ",-ie, the envelope of the polar line
of P with respect to a given n.ic is of class m(n-l).
Ex. 3. The kth polar of P with respect to an n-ic having an
(n-I)-ple point at O is an (n-k).ic having an (n-k-l)-ple point at O.

73. If a point Q (x", y", z") lies on the kth polar of a

point P (.u', y', z'), then P lies on the (n-k)th polar of Q with
respect to a given ourve.
This is only a geometrical statement of the equations ill

§63. For, the kth polar of P is-

(x'..2ox +s' ~+z,

oy
Q. )kf=o
oz
or, ( X
0 0 0
Oot,+y ail + Z oz'
)"-k 1'=0.
1£ Q.lies on this, we must have

( a/'~'
o x' +y" 0~ y' +z" A-
0 z'
)"-kl'=O_
.

Therefore, the locus of P (x', y', s') is-

which is the (n-k)th polar of Q.

74. 'I'h« locus of all points w hose polar lines pass

through a {i.codpoint is the first polar of that point.
The polar line of any point (x', y', z') is

, 0 0 0 ) _
( :c 0 x' +y cfi/+ Z 0 z' f' -0.
 :POLES AND POLARS 95

If this passes through a fixed point Cr", y", ZU), we must ha:ve

.~"of' +y" of +_"

,0 x' a y' a 0 aof'Zl
=0

which shows that the locus of (x', y', Zl) IS the curve
I:::.f=O, which is the first polar of (a/', y", z"),
In a like manner, it can be shown that the locus of
points whose polar conics pass through a given point is
the second polar of the. point; and in general, the locus of
points whose kth polars pass through a fixed point is the
(n-k)th polar of the point.

75. Every point has only one polar line.

For, the polar line of the point (x', y', Zl) 1S-

of of' of' _
:r~1 +y ~I+Z ~I-O.
va; vy o»

The co-efficients in this equation are known, determinate

functions of (x', y', z'), and therefore the line is determinate
and unique. Consequently, there is only one polar line of a
given pole.

76. The first polar of every point on a 1ight line passes

through the pole of that line.
'I'be polar line of any point (,r', y', Zl) is-

,c of' +y of' +z ~' =0.

a
x' oy' oz'
If (x", y", z") is a point on this line, we must have-

[1;" of' +y" of' +z" of' =0

a ;v' oy' oz'
~\

~. which shows that the first polar of (x", y", z") passes through
~. the point (,f, y, ,'), which ia 'he pole,
96 THEORY Q]' PLA.NE CURVES

77, There are 2(n-2) points on a right line, of which

the fi1'st polars are touched by the line. The polar conics of
these 2(n-2) points of contact are also touched by the same
line.
Let, l.c+my+nz=O (1) be any line, and (x', y', z') any
point on it.
The first polar of (x', y', z') is-

F=a:' of + y' of + z' of =0' (2)

ox Oy 0Z

f=o being the given curve.

The tangent to this curve at a point (.v", y", Zll) is-

o}i' of of _
x -0 x II+Y ~o
y
II+Z -0 z ,,_0,

i.e., x (x'f" 11 +y'f" 1~ +z'f" 1 S) +y(x'f' 1~ +s'I" 2g +Z'f" 2 S)

+z(.v'f" 13 +y'f" 2S +z'f" 3 3) =0 (3)

wheref"=f(x",y", Zll), and flu f12' f13' etc., denote the

second differential co-efficients of f.
If this is to be the same as the line (1), we must have

x'f" 11 +y'f" 11 +z'f" 1S =kl 'I

x'f" 19 +s'F»« +z'f" 23 =km
rI
I (4)
x'f'~ 3 +y'f" 28 +z'f" 3S =kn

also lx"+my"+nz"=O )

Eliminating k ana (x", y", z"] between the equations

(4), we shall obtain the locus of (x', yr, z'). Now the
eliminant" will be of degree 2(n-2) in the variables x', y', z',
which therefore represents a 2(n-2)-ic, and the points

* Clebsoh, Leeons sur la Geometrie, Tom II, p. 13.

I
i

1
 POI.ES AND POLARS 97

where l,e+1ny+nz=O intersects the locus are, the required

points. Hence the truth of the theorem follows.
If, however, we eliminate k and (e', y', e') between the
first three equations in (4) and Z,t' + my' + nz' =0, we obtain
the locus of (.1;", y", z") in the form of a determinant equation,
namely,-
l =0 (5)

n o
Eqnation (5) is of degree 2(n - 2) in the variables, and
nberefore the given line intersects this curve in 2(n-2)
points which are the points of contact of the first polars with
the given line.
Again, the polar conic of (a/', y", z") is-

f' 11:1l"+I", ,y' +I" s sZ' +2". ,yz+2J" S 1:,11+2" 1.;ry=O.

If this touches the line lc+nty+nz=O, we must have

r 1 1 r I' r 1 , =0
r., f' •• f' •• m

"Sl r.. r 8. n

m n 0

which is satisfied, since (z:', y", z") is a point on tlte

curve (5).
From what has been said above, we ma.y deduce the
following theorem:
Through any point we may draw two lines, on each of
which there is a point whose first polar touches the line at the
given point. These are the two tangents wln'ck can be drawn
fmw/' the given point to its polar conic.
l~
98 THEORY OF PLANE CURVES

These two tangents may coincide either when the point

lies on the polar conic, in wh ich case the point must lie on
the original curve, or when the polar conic breaks up into
two right lines, and the tangents coincide with the line
joining the point to the intersection of those two lines. In
this case, as we shall show later on, the point lies on the
Hessian.
From the theorems just stated it will be seen that there
is somewhat of a reciprocal relation between the first polar
and the polar conic of a point, as will appear in the sequel.

78. Every straight line has, in general (n -1)' poles.

For, take any two points A and B on the line. The
first polar of each of these points passes through the pole
of the line (§ 76). Therefore the points of intersection of
these two first polaI'Sare the poles of the line. But each
of these curves is of the (n-I)th degree, and they intersect,
J
in geI!eral, in (n-I)' points, which are the poles of the line.
Cor. The first polars of all points on the line pass
through these (n-I)' poles. For, if P and Q be the first
polars of A and B, then the first polar of any point on AB
1
is P+AQ=O, which evidently passes, for all values of A.
through all the intersections of P and Q.

79. If, however, the curve has a node, the first polar
of every point passes through it (§ 65), and therefore the
two first polars intersect in only (n-l)' -1 other points,
which are the poles of the line. Therefore, if the curve
has 8nodes, the first polars intersect in only (n-I)'-8
other points, which are the poles of the line.
H the curve has a cusp, the first polar of any point not
only passes through it, but also touches the cuspidal
tangent." Therefore the cusp counts as two a.mong
the intersections of the two first polsrs, which then
intersect only in (n-2)S -2 other points, and these are the

• To be proved hereafter in § 85.

 POLBS A.ND POURS 99

poles of the line. If the curve has K cusps, the two first
polars intersect only in (11 -1).- 2K other points, which
are the poles of the line,
Hence, combining all these results, we may enunciate
the following theorem :-
Every 'right line has, in qeuerul (11 -1) ~ poles with reqard.
to a non-singular Cttrve, but if the curve has 15nodes and K cnsp8,
the number of poles is reduced to (n-l)' -15-2K.
Ex. The pole of the line lx + my + nz = 0 with regard to the
degenerate cubic ;uyz=O is the point (1//., 11m, 1/,,),

[The point and the line are called the pole and polar I/};r,t·. the
triangle.]

80. If the polar line (or £Lny other polar curve) of It point
passes through the point, the point lies on the curve.
For. if we put (ol, y, z) for Ce', y', z") in the equation
of the polar, it becomes identical with the equation of the
curve, since the polar curves are obtained by operation with
6., which becomes in this case

the effect of which, by Euler's Theorem, on a homogeneous

function is only to multiply the function by a numerical
factor.
It is to be noted that the polar line of every point on a
curve is the tangent at that point.

81. The converse theorem is also true (§72),i.e., every

polar ctt1'Ve of a point on the curve touches the curve at fhat
point.
Let .I!\ be the rth polar of any point Ce', y', Zl), 80 that
its equation is gi ven by-
~ :
-.;

oza )'1=0
:..I!'r=( ~' Q + y' §.. + .1

ax oy
100 TItEORY 0]' PLANE CURVES

which evidently passes through the point (.e/, y/, z/), since the
point lies on the curve.
Now, the tangent at (<v/, y/, e') to the rth polar F", is--

(X .§ +y 0 +z 2 )F:=O ... t2)

O,l)/ oy/ oz/
But F', is of degree n-r, and therefore, by the identities
of § 63, equation (2) may be written as-

( a/ -~
8;c
+ y/ ~
oy
+ z/ 0
OZ
r: F,=O

i.e., as

or,

which is the equation of the tangent at (.v/, y', z') to the

curvef=O.

82. The points of contact of tangents drawn to a curve

from any point li« on the first polar of that point.
Let (x', y/, z/) be a point on the curve. The tangent
at y', z/) is-
(oll/,

or / +y of'
01l~ ~/+ of' /-0.
Z -~-
_
v<v vy VZ

If this passes through any point (,v", y", Zll), we must

have-

a;"or
o ,c/ +y"Or
0 y/
+Z"Of' -0
0 z/ - ,

which shows that the locus of (:l, y/, z/) is-

:v"of +y"of +z"of =0.

o'{: oy oz '
and this is the first polar of the point (",", y", ~" .
,
i
l

POLES AND POLAR~ 101

From this it fclk-ws that the points of contact of the

tangents drawn from a given point to the curve are the
points of intersection of the curve with the first polar of
the point. Now, the first polar of any point is ('Ii degree
(n-I), and consequently it intersects the curve of the nth
degree in n(n-l) points. Thus we see tbatfro?n a given
point there can be drawn, in general, n(n-I) tangents to a
curve of the nth degree.
DE~'INITION ; The Class of a curve is determined by
the number of tangents which can be drawn from a gi-ven
point to the curve, and will usually be denoted by ?no
The above theorem can therefore be stated as follows r-e-

The Class of a curve is, in general, n(n-l), or as we shall

see later on, the degreeof the reciprocal. polar curve is n (71-1).
83. Let us examine ~he case when the given point lies
on the curve. We have seen (§72) that the first polar
touches thq curve at the given poin t.· Hence that
point counts as two of the intersections of the first polar
with the curve. 'I'herefore, the number of tangents (different
from the tangent at the poinc] which can be drawn from
the point to touch the curve elsewhere is n(n-l)-2, or,
(n+l)(n-2). Hence we obtain the tneor em i-s-
From any point on a curve. not 1nare than (n+l)(n-2),
01', m-2 tangents (excluding the tangent at the point)
can be drawn to the CU1·ve.
If the tangent at a point on a curve has a contact of
the second order with the curve, i.e., if it be a point of
inflexion on the curve, the tangent is to be regarded once
as the caugent at the point and once as one of the tangents
which can be drawn fr nn the point to the curve. Therefore,
t~ere can be drawn only (n+l)(n-2)-I, or, 71(71-1)-3
other tangents to the curve.
Hence we obtain the theorem r->

From a point of inflexion on a cm:ve, only n(n-l)-3, 01',

1l! - 3 tangents can be drawn to toucli the curve eleeuihere.

lO~ THEORY OF PLANE CURVES

84. If, however, the point is a double point on the

curve, we shall have to distinguish between the cases when
(I) it is a node, (2) it is a cusp.
Suppose the point is a node on the curve. We have
seen that the first polar of a uode has a node with the
same nodal ta-igents at the point. Therefore, the double
point connts as SIX among the intersections of the
first p-ilar with the curve ~§51). Of these, however, two
belong to the two nodal tangents.
'I'hus the number oj tanqenis, exciueioe of the nodal
tangents, which can be drawn from a node to toueli a curve
elsewhere is n(n-l)-4, 01', m-4.

Next, suppose that the point is a cusp 011 the curve.

The ficst polar has also :L cusp at. the point with the
common cuspidal ta.ngent. Hence the point counts as three
among' the intersections, besides the two which belong to the
cuspidal tangent.
Therefore the number of tangents, exclusive of the cuspidal
tangent, which I;an be draum. front a cusp to touch. a curve
elsewhere is n(n-I)-3, or, nt-3.
In general, if the point is a multiple point of order k,
there are k tangents at the point, each of which counts
as two among the tangents which can be drawn from
the point to the curve. Thus, the k tangents count
as 2k tangents drawn from the point, and ntn-I)-2k
or m-2k other tangents can je drawn, distinct from
the tangents at the multiple point, to touch the curve
elsewhere.

Ex. 1. Prove that the points of contact of tangents drawn from the
point (h, k) to the curve x' + y' =3 axy lie on a conic through the origin.
Discuss the case when the point is at the origiu.

E», 2. Show that the conic in Ex. 1 will bisect the angle between
the nodal tangents, if h + k = U.

Ex. 3. If the tangent at an) point (XI' !I,) on the cubic x' +.y3+a'
meets it again in (.v", !/:), show that '''.ixi +-Y:/YI +1=0_
 POl,ES AND POLARS )0:1

85.The first polar of a po£nt passes throuqh: every double

point and its tangent at that point is harmonic conjugate
of the line joining the double point with the pole with respect
to the nodal tangents of the curve.
The equation of a curve having the origin for a node,
with the axes of ,I: and y as tangents, may be written as

or, in the homogeneous form-

The first polar of any point (.r', y', z') is-

F(x, y, z)==( x'y+y',r)z·-· + lower powers of z=O

which shows that the first polar passes through the origin
(double point), and that its tangent at that point is-

(I)

Now, the line joining the point (,t', y', Z') to the origin is

;v'y-y'z=O (2)

The lines (I~ and (2) are evidently harmonic conjugates

with respect to the two axes, which are the nodal tangentR.'*'
If, however, the origin is a cusp, with the axis of y as
the cuspidal tangent, the first polar becomes-
F(x, y, a) =( :li'+y')xz'-' + lower powers of z=O .
.~. The axis of y (J~=O) is also a tangent to the first
polar, i.e., the first polar of any point touches the cuspidal
tan~erlt and meets the curve three times at a cusp.
From what has been said in §82, it, f'.)llows that, the
RrBL polar of a point passes through all the double points,
etc., and the points of contact of tangent:; drawn from the
~iven point to the curve.

i
•
~\··.
A_.

i,,..
* Salmon, Conic SectionB, § 57.
104 THEO&Y OF PLANE CU&VE8

Ex. 1. Show that the points of contact of tangents drawn from the
point (a, b) to the cnrve bx' +ay'=llie on a circle.
E». 2. The locns of points of oontact of tangents drawn from any
point to the system of curves y=~Qj' is a rectangular hyperbola.
Ex. 3. Show that all the polar conios of the ourve y=ao +a,'"
+ a,:I)' + + anx' are parabolas.

Ex. 4. Show that tbe points of contact of tangents drawn from the
origin to the curve ilJy=ailJ' + bx'Y + cz'1/' + dtey' + ey' are collinear.

86. If the curve has a multiple point of order k, that

paint will be a multiple point of order k-l on the first polar,
of order k-2 on the second polar, and 80 on.
Let ~he origin be a multiple point of order k on the
curve. The equation of the curve is therefore of the form-

where u i~ a binary r-ic in .l'! and y, or, in the homogeneous

form-e-

The first polar of any point (:1:', y', z') is-

ox + y' oy
.FaoV' of of +z' of
oz =0 (1)

The lowest terms in of and ~fy are of degree (k-I)

ooV v

and those in ~~ are of degree k in .cand y. Therefore, the

lowest terms in J) and y beiug of degree k-I in (I), the

origin is a multiple point of order k -Ion the curve F.
Similarly, the lowest terms in the equation of the
second polar are of degree k-2 in I; nnd y, and FlO on, which
proves the proposition,
 POLES AND POLARS 105

87. It appears from the above that if u ; has a square

faccor U17 i.e., if ttk =u, 'Uk_I' then this factor occurs also
in the lowest terms in the equation of the first polar.

For,

Similarly,

Also the lowest terms in U contains u, 3 as a factor.

Thus the lowest terms in the equation of the first polar

contain 'It, as II. factor, and therefore u, =0 is a tangent to
the first polar. Hence we obtain the following theorem :-
If two tangents at a multiple point coincide, the coincident
tangent touches the ji'rst polar of every point.
In particular, the first polar of; any point touches the
cuspidal tangent, as was proved in § 85.
Again, if has any factcr u, in the lth degree, i.e., if
Uk

Uk=U,I.t'k_l, u, will occur in the

(l-1)th degree in the
lowest terms of the equation of the first polar, in degree
(l-2) in those of the second polar, and so on.
Hence we conclude that, in general, if l tangents at the
k-ple point on a curve coincide, the coincident tangent will
appear as (l-l) coincident tangents at the multiple point
of the first polar, as (l-2) coincident, tangents at the
multiple point of the second polar, and so on.
14
106 THEORY OF PLANE CURVES

Em. 1. Show that the points of contact of tangents drawn from the
point (0, -1,1) to the cubic x3 + y' +z' +611i<vyz=O are collinear on
the line y-z=O.
Ex. 2. The points of contact of parallel tangents to a curve of
the 11th degree lie on a curve of the (n-l)th degree. (Serret.)

(They lie on the first polar of a point at infinity.)

Ex. 3. The polar conics of two points A, B with regard to a cubic

curve are rectangular hyperbolas. Prove that the line AB has four
poles, any one of which is the orthocentre of the triangle formed by
the other three.

Ex. 4. Prove that the properties of polar curves are unaltered by

projection.

Ex. 5. Show that, the envelope of the polar lines of points ou a

given line w. ,'. t. an n.ic is of class (n-l).

Ex. 6. Show that the tangents to the curve x"'y'=am+" drawn

from the point (a, 13) touch the same at poiuts lying on the hyperbola
(m, + n)xy=n13x + may.