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Seminar Report

On
C0MPOSITE MASONARY WALL AND CAVITY
WALL
NAME:
ROLL:MIT/CE/S6-
MRS!IDA"AD INSTITTE O# TEC!NOL$Y
INTRODCTION
Simply stated, a cavity wall is two wythes of masonry, separated by a cavity of
varying dimension. The masonry wythes may consist of solid brick, structural clay tile,
or concrete masonry units and are bonded together with masonry ties. The cavity
(ranging from 2 inches to 4 12 inches in width! may or may not contain insulation.
See "igure 1. #ombining these elements with a sound structural design, appropriate
details, $uality materials and good workmanship will result in high performance cavity
walls
!ISTORY
#avity walls are not new, they have been observed in ancient %reek and &oman
structures. 't the %reco &oman town of (ergamum, on the hills overlooking the
Turkish town of )ergama, a stone wall of cavity type construction still
e*ists. Sometime in the early part of the 1+th century, the cavity wall was probably
reinvented by the )ritish. (lans dating as early as 1,-. suggest a type of
construction, featuring two leaves of brickwork, bonded by headers spanning across a
/0inch cavity. 'n early )ritish publication (dated 1,21! suggests the use of cavity
walls as a means of protection against moisture penetration. The use of metal ties
was introduced in Southern 1ngland sometime after 1,.-. These original ties were
made of wrought iron.
#avity walls were first built in the 2nited States late in the 1+th century. "igure 2
illustrates an alternate type of cavity wall system originally featured in an 1,++ te*t
book assembled for people engaged in the engineering professions and construction
trades. 3owever, it was not until 1+45 that this type of construction gained official
acceptance by any building or construction agency in the 2nited States. Since then,
interest in and use of cavity walls in this country has increased rapidly. This has
resulted in e*tensive testing to determine cavity wall properties and performance.
The early use of cavity walls in this country was limited primarily to e*terior load0
bearing walls in low rise construction. 6n the 1+4-s, designers began to recogni7e the
advantages of cavity walls in high0rise buildings. Today, masonry cavity walls are used
e*tensively throughout the 2nited States in all types of buildings. The primary
reasons for their popularity are superior resistance to rain penetration, e*cellent
thermal properties, e*cellent resistance to sound transmission and high resistance to
fire.
PROPERTIES O# CAVITY WALLS
RESISTANCE TO MOISTRE PENETRATION
8o single unreinforced 49 wythe of masonry is totally impervious to moisture
penetration. ' cavity wall is designed and built as a moisture0deterrent system. This
system takes into account the possible moisture penetration through the outer wythe.
:oisture will penetrate masonry walls where hairline cracks e*ist between masonry
unit and mortar. ;ater which runs down the e*terior wall surface will be drawn
towards the inner cavity due to wind pressure e*erted on the e*terior of the wall and
the negative pressure present within the cavity. (roviding a clean air space will allow
this moisture to flow unobstructed down the cavity face of the outer wythe. "lashing
installed at recommended locations will then divert this moisture back to the
building<s e*terior through weepholes. (roper drainage of moisture will reduce the
chance of efflorescence and free7e0thaw damage.

T!ERMAL ENER$Y E##ICIENCY
't one point in time, energy conservation was not a ma=or consideration in building
design. #avity walls were primarily built for their structural and moisture diverting
$ualities. >uring the mid 1+5-<s, designers became aware of the life cycle cost of
buildings so the design of energy efficient walls were initiated. The cavity became an
e*cellent place to insert insulation, minimi7ing heat loss and heat gain. )oth wythes
act as a heat reservoir, positively affecting heating and cooling modes. The isolation of
the e*terior and interior wythes by the air space allows a large amount of heat to be
absorbed and dissipated in the outer wythe and cavity before reaching the inner
wythe and building interior.

This ability is further increased by the use of closed cell rigid insulation in the cavity. '
foil faced, polyisocyanurate insulation is the most beneficial for three reasons? it yields
an & value of ,.- per inch of thickness, its & value is not affected by the presence of
moisture, and its foil back enclosure creates a reflective air space that increase the
walls overall & value by appro*imately 2.,. The & value of a typical cavity wall may
range from 14 to 2/ depending on the type and thickness of insulation selected
PROPERTIES O# CAVITY WALLS
RESISTANCE TO MOISTRE PENETRATION
8o single unreinforced 49 wythe of masonry is totally impervious to moisture
penetration. ' cavity wall is designed and built as a moisture0deterrent system. This
system takes into account the possible moisture penetration through the outer wythe.
:oisture will penetrate masonry walls where hairline cracks e*ist between masonry
unit and mortar. ;ater which runs down the e*terior wall surface will be drawn
towards the inner cavity due to wind pressure e*erted on the e*terior of the wall and
the negative pressure present within the cavity. (roviding a clean air space will allow
this moisture to flow unobstructed down the cavity face of the outer wythe. "lashing
installed at recommended locations will then divert this moisture back to the
building<s e*terior through weepholes. (roper drainage of moisture will reduce the
chance of efflorescence and free7e0thaw damage.

T!ERMAL ENER$Y E##ICIENCY
't one point in time, energy conservation was not a ma=or consideration in building
design. #avity walls were primarily built for their structural and moisture diverting
$ualities. >uring the mid 1+5-<s, designers became aware of the life cycle cost of
buildings so the design of energy efficient walls were initiated. The cavity became an
e*cellent place to insert insulation, minimi7ing heat loss and heat gain. )oth wythes
act as a heat reservoir, positively affecting heating and cooling modes. The isolation of
the e*terior and interior wythes by the air space allows a large amount of heat to be
absorbed and dissipated in the outer wythe and cavity before reaching the inner
wythe and building interior.

This ability is further increased by the use of closed cell rigid insulation in the cavity. '
foil faced, polyisocyanurate insulation is the most beneficial for three reasons? it yields
an & value of ,.- per inch of thickness, its & value is not affected by the presence of
moisture, and its foil back enclosure creates a reflective air space that increase the
walls overall & value by appro*imately 2.,. The & value of a typical cavity wall may
range from 14 to 2/ depending on the type and thickness of insulation selected
Ta%&e ' - R Va&(e o) "ri*+ an, "&o*+ Ca-it. Wa&&
1*terior 'ir "ilm -.15
49 )rick -.44
& of reflective air space 2.,-
29 (olyisocvyanurate 1/
/9 cmu -.4.
1 129 air space -./,
T@T'A & B'A21 22.,.
#IRE RESISTANCE

&esults of the 'ST: 1011+ "ire &esistance Tests and the contents of both the "ire
(rotection (lanning &eport (#:6"#!2 and the "ire &esistance &atings. &eport ('6S%!4
clearly indicate that masonry cavity walls have e*cellent fire resistance. 'll cavity
walls have a fire rating of 4 hours or greater.

STRCTRAL PROPERTIES
:asonry<s capacity as a load bearing material is superb, yet its structural potential is
often overlooked.Three principle factors affecting the overall compressive strength of
a wall are? the compressive strength of the individual units, the type of mortar, and
the $uality of workmanship. Tables 2 and 4 lists the assumed compressive strength
(f<m! for brick and concrete masonry. "or large pro=ects prism testing is preferred
since actual values are usually higher than the assumed strengths.

The tables indicate that a standard concrete masonry unit with a type 8 mortar (1?1?/
by proportion! will yield a minimum f<m of 1.-- psi. This strength is sufficient for
most mid to low0rise bearing wall structures.
6n addition to its e*cellence capacity as a bearing element, concrete masonry<s
performance as a back0up system is superb. 1ach wythe in a cavity wall helps resist
wind loads by acting as a separate wall. The cross wire of the hori7ontal =oint
reinforcement transfer direct tensile and compressive forces from one masonry wythe
to the other. Tests have indicated that =oint reinforcement also provides some transfer
of shear, appro*imately 2- to 4- percent, across the wall cavity. "or a reference on
allowable heights of cavity wall see
De/i0n $(i,e )or Ta&&er Ca-it. Wa&&/
CAVITY TYPE "EARIN$ WALLS
$ENERAL
;hen engineered, a cavity wall system can be designed to provide both structure and
the enclosing skin. )uilding this system consists of constructing a series of single
story structures, one on top of the other. The structure can be erected at a rate of one
floor per week by implementing a tight schedule and sufficient man power. #ombining
load bearing cavity walls and precast concrete plank floors can make for efficient,
economical and speedy construction.
The system relies upon composite reaction between the masonry walls, the precast
concrete plank floor, and the roof system. #oncrete masonry and precast concrete
plank connections transfer wind induced shear stresses through the floor diaphragm
to interior masonry shear walls (which may also be utili7ed as bearing walls!. This
type of construction is ideal for low and mid0rise construction like the %reen #astle
apartments shown here.
CALCULATIONS
"loor loads on /9 #:2
,9 #oncrete plank C /- Dft2
(artitions E misc. C 2- Dft2
>ead load C ,-Dft * 242 C +/- Dft
/9 #:2 C ,*2/ C 21- Dft
Aive load C 4- Dft2 * 242 C 4,- Dft
2se Aive Aoad &e$uirement
&oof Aoads?
Aet drainage fill F roofing C 2- Dft2
>ead load C /- F 2- C ,- Dft2 * 242 C +/-Dft
Aive Aoad C 4-*242 C 4/- Dft
;all >esign
2se '#6 .4-0++'S#1 .0++T:S 4-20++!
'ssume?
G ;all height ,< -9
G ,9 concrete plank bears fully on /9 #:2
't &oof H ( C .+/I1 F .4/I1 C 1.42I1
e C ../ 2 0 ../ 4 C .+49 19
'llow. load. C /./4I1 H 1.42 @I
't 2nd "loor H (1 C 1.42 C .(.21! C 4(.+/! F 4 (.5. * .4,! C 5./. I1
e C .+49
(2 C 1.44I1 * (.+4! C 1.44I1
(1 F (2 C +.-+I1
ev C 1.44 +.-+ C -.1.9
(1 F (2
'llow load C +.4,I1 H +.-+I1 @I
'fter the cavity wall has been designed to meet the structural re$uirements,
connections between the precast concrete plank and the masonry wall must be
detailed. @ther details, such as flashing, must
also be developed. The wallfloor connections provide the wall with lateral bracing
against wind loads. This connection should also assist in the transfer of shear
stresses, and in the case of bearing walls, transfer gravity loads to the foundation
CONNECTION #OR LOAD "EARIN$
@ne way to anchor precast concrete plank into load bearing concrete masonry is to
create a positive tie with reinforcing bars bent at +- degree angles, see "igure .. '
structural engineer should determine the si7e and spacing of the reinforcement
re$uired.
The reinforcing bar is set into the layway formed between the concrete planks and
grouted solid. The e*posed portion of the reinforcement fits into the cell of the
concrete masonry unit. 6n the ne*t course, a positive connection is formed when the
cell is grouted.
6f lateral forces are low, an alternative connection should be considered,see "igure /.
This connection bonds the precast concrete planks to the masonry with a solidly
grouted =oint. (lugging the cores of the precast concrete planks creates a continuous
grout cavity. ;hen the grout is poured it flows into the grout pocket formed at the
end of the planks. 'fter the grout cures a positive key connection is formed between
the planks and the concrete masonry units. 'll the precast planks should be in place
and the grout fully set before the wall construction continues. )ecause this detail
relies on the bearing pad<s frictional resistance to help transfer shear stresses, a
structural engineer should determine when this connection is
CONNECTION #OR NON-"EARIN$
8on0bearing walls (which span parallel to the floor planks! must also be laterally
braced by the concrete plank floor system. @ne method re$uires holes to be broken in
the top of the plank at designated intervals, see "igure 5. Specify the plank ad=acent
to the wall to bear on the wall a minimum of 4 inches. The cures of the plank are
plugged on both sides of the hole with inserts to form a grout packet. ' strap anchor
is installed so that one end pro=ects down into the grout pocket and the other end
pro=ects up into the cell of a concrete masonry unit. The grout pocket and cell of the
concrete masonry unit are grouted solid. This connection transfers sear stresses
through the floor diaphragm to interior shear walls while providing lateral support for
the e*terior wall. 'n alternative connection re$uires cutting or breaking the precast
concrete plank continuously and butting the plank against the wall,see "igure ,.
&einforcement is aligned and set into the head =oints of the concrete masonry and
bent at +- degrees into the core of the precast plank. The core of the precast plank is
then grouted solid when the grout cures it forms a positive connection. The
significance of base flashing can never be over emphasi7ed. The success of any cavity
wall system depends on proper flashing details at the base of the wall. "igure +
illustrates a properly flashed cavity wall at the foundation. ;eepholes are re$uired at
1/9 or 249 on center to divert moisture from the cavity to the e*terior of the building.
"igure 1- suggests one method of construction for a window0head condition. ' bond
beam is used in lieu of a steel angle lintel. "lashing should be e*tended beyond the
=amb lines with both ends damned. Solid masonry =ambs should be avoided. 3owever,
for steel windows, the =amb must be partially solid to accept most standard =amb
anchors. Stock si7es of windows may be used in cavity walls, although sometimes
additional blocking is needed for anchorage. ;indow spans may be limited for this
type of construction.
CAVITY "EARIN$ WALLS
GENERAL
Cavity walls have been successfully used in midrise and high rise
construction. Buildings in excess of 40 stories have been utilizing
cavity walls and a structural concrete frame. There are two methods
of support for cavity walls cladded to concrete frame structures. One
is by means of shelf angles the other is to bear the wall directly on
the outer slab edge. !ach system has advantages and
disadvantages.
TALL T!IN CAVITY WALLS
There are two methods for determining the ma*imum unbraced wall height, empirical
design or rational (engineered! design. The empirical design method is discussed in
#hapter . of the )uilding #ode re$uirements for :asonry Structures ('#6 .4-0
++'S#1 . ++!. The code establishes 1,* the nominal wall thickness as a limiting
factor for the distance between lateral supports.
The "piegel warehouse # office is constructed of reinforced cavity walls $4% &'%&(%)
built to a height of '*+&0%.
COMPOSITE MASONARY
REIN#ORCED MASONRY
:asonry is an e*cellent material to resist compressive forces, but is relatively weak in
tension. 3owever, steel is sub=ected to buckling under compressive loads but is
e*cellent when used to resist tension forces. #ombining these two materials will
produce a homogeneous structure capable of resisting substantial lateral and vertical
forces.
&einforced masonry performs because the materials work together. &einforcing steel
placed within a masonry system must be capable of being stressed. The mechanism
used to provide this capability is grout. Solidly grouting a cell of a concrete masonry
unit which contains reinforcing steel, creates a bond between the interface of steel,
grout and concrete masonry. ;hen a wall is laterally loaded, it deflects producing
compression in the masonry. The forces are transferred through the masonry and into
the grout and by bond into the reinforcing steel, thus the steel is stressed in tension.
Structural engineers are now encouraged to use the ultimate strength design method
designated by )@#' &esearch &eport ,/0.1, when designing masonry walls. This
report e*pands the limit on deflection to -.--5h. ' masonry wall can now be designed
to limit lateral deflection under service loads. This limit on lateral deflection insures
that the steel will be stressed below yield strength conditions. The wall will rebound to
its normal vertical conditions when the lateral load is removed because the stress in
the steel is within its elastic limits. >esigning a cavity wall with this method would
enable the builderowner to construct a cost effective system.
DETAILS

>etails for reinforced cavity walls are similar to non reinforced walls. "lashing is
re$uired at all typical locations (e.gJ over openings, under openings, at the top and at
the base of the wall!. Special provisions are re$uired for flashing walls which are
grouted. ;hen flashing e*tends into the cells of #:2 that are reinforced, the ends
must be trimmed. (See "igure 15 below!. This will allow grout to flow freely through
the cells when it is poured. 6f the flashing is allowed to obstruct grout flow, problems
such as grout hangups, honeycombing or cold =oints will develop. >isrupting the
continuity of the grouted cell will affect its structural effectiveness.

CONNECTIONS
Special consideration should be given to connection details. "or bearing walls, pockets
should be formed to house steel beams. There should be some ad=ustability for the
method of attachment, to accommodate for construction tolerances. See "igure ne*t
page.
"earin0 1a&& *onne*tion/
,f steel -oists bear on the masonry wall attachment to the -oists could be welded
to a continuous steel member which is embedded into a bond beam. "ee .igure
/(b above and to the right. .or non&bearing walls a method of attachment must
be detailed which ade0uately braces the wall against movement due to wind
loads.
Latera&&. "ra*e, Wa&&
BOTTOM LINE
1side from the finished product being of considerable beauty and formidable
strengthother initial and long&term benefits are gained when cavity wall systems
are coupledwith the structural entities previously cited.
INITIAL BENEFITS
2 The statement that %3asonry is too expensive% is -ust a myth. Cavity wall
systemsare initially lower in cost than many glass curtain walls metal panel
curtain walls granite panels marble panels and architectural precast concrete
walls. 1dd to this a reduction of 4'5.00 per lineal foot of shelf angle deleted and
additional savings occur.
2 6imiting the number of crafts involved promotes rapid construction resulting in
savings due to early occupancy.
2 1ll materials re0uired are usually available locally which eliminates costly
shipping charges and untimely postponements.
LONG TERM BENEFITS
2 Cavity walls are energy efficient when considering the life cycle cost of a
building. 1typical %7% value can be increased if greater energy&efficiency is
desired.
2 1 structure built with the type of systems previously discussed provides a built&in
'&to&4 hour fire&rated barrier. 1nnual fire insurance premiums can be reduced by
nearly /#* depending upon the type of construction chosen and its occupancy.
2 3asonry construction is very economical with respect to long&term maintenance.
REF:
/. Technical 8ote /5 7ev 9.ire 7esistance: Bric; ,ndustry
1ssociation 7eissued Oct. /<<5.
'. Technical 8ote /( series 9=ifferential 3ovement
Cause and !ffect !xpansion >oints .lexible 1nchorage:
Bric; ,ndustry 1ssociation >an. /<</ =ecember /<</.
*. Technical 8ote '/ series 9Bric; 3asonry Cavity
?alls ,nsulated =etailing Construction: Bric; ,ndustry
1ssociation 1ug. /<<( .eb. /<<< .eb. '00'.
4. 8C31 T!@ *&/' 96oadbearing Concrete Bloc; in Aigh
7ise Buildings: 8ational Concrete 3asonry 1ssociation
/<<(.
B. 8C31 T!@ B&'1 /0&/1 C /0&'B 9Control of ?all
3ovement with Concrete 3asonry: 8ational Concrete
3asonry 1ssociation.

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