Review

Syngas production in downdraft biomass gasiers and its application using

internal combustion engines
Juan Daniel Martnez
a, b
, Khamid Mahkamov
c,
*
, Rubenildo V. Andrade
b
, Electo E. Silva Lora
b
a
Grupo de Investigaciones Ambientales, Instituto de Energa, Materiales y Medio Ambiente, Universidad Ponticia Bolivariana, Circular 1ra N

70 e 01, Bloque 11, Medelln, Colombia

b
Ncleo de Excelncia em Gerao Termeltrica e Distribuda, Instituto de Engenharia Mecnica, Universidade Federal de Itajub, Av. BPS 1303, Itajub, Minas Gerais, Brazil
c
School of Computing, Engineering and Information Sciences, Northumbria University, Ellison Building, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 6 August 2010
Accepted 23 July 2011
Available online 19 August 2011
Keywords:
Biomass gasication
Downdraft gasier
Producer gas
Internal combustion engine
a b s t r a c t
Biomass downdraft reactors, coupled with reciprocating internal combustion engines (RICEs), are
a viable technology for small scale heat and power generation. This paper contains information gathered
from a review of published papers on the effects of the particle size and the moisture content of biomass
feedstock and the air/fuel equivalence ratio used in the gasication process with regard to the quality of
the producer gas. Additionally, data on the parameters of producer gas, such as its energy density, ame
speed, knock tendency, auto-ignition delay period and the typical spark ignition timing, are sys-
tematised. Finally, information on the typical performance of various diesel and spark ignition RICEs
fuelled with producer gas is presented.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Gasication is a process of conversion of any solid or liquid
carbon-based material (feedstock) into gaseous fuel through its
partial oxidation with air, oxygen, water vapor or their mixture. It
could also be dened as the thermo-chemical process limited to
a partial combustion and pyrolysis [1e5]. This process can be
considered as a thermo-chemical treatment which unlike the full
combustion uses air/fuel ratios noticeably belowthe stoichiometric
value. Such a decit in the supply of the oxidation agent prevents
the complete conversion of the carbon and the hydrogen present in
feedstock into CO
2
and H
2
O, respectively, and results in the
formation of combustible components such as CO, H
2
and CH
4
. In
addition to those components, the producer gas also contains
typical products of combustion, namely CO
2
, N
2
, O
2
and H
2
O.
Although the process takes place with a sub-stoichiometric amount
of air, it is usual to nd a low concentration of oxygen in the gasi-
cation products. Finally, hydrocarbons such as ethylene (C
2
H
4
) and
ethane (C
2
H
6
) are also present in very small quantities in the
producer gas. A detailed description of the thermo-chemical
processes taking place during biomass gasication is presented in
[1e4,6e11].
Currently, small scale electricity generation using biomass
gasication is attracting increasing interest as a prospective way to
provide remote districts with electrical power using local renew-
able fuels. An additional benet in such a rural electrication
mechanism is the possibility of the utilization of various organic
wastes from the local industry and agriculture with a considerable
CO
2
emission reduction. In this context, downdraft gasication has
the advantage of higher conversion efciencies with a low rate of
tar and particulate matter generation. Combustion properties of
a product of biomass gasication (producer gas), such as its caloric
value, ame speed and knock tendency, are often inferior to those
of conventional hydrocarbon fuels, such as gasoline and natural gas.
However, they are satisfactory for this gas to be used as fuel in RICEs
or, in some cases, for gas turbines after an appropriate cleaning
process [12].
For small scale applications biomass gasication in downdraft
reactors has been studied extensively and currently is considered to
be a mature technology [1,2,13,14]. Downdraft gasiers are the
most widespread reactors for small scale biomass and carbon
conversion for a power generation using RICEs [13,15e17]. With the
realization of the negative environmental and social effects caused
by a rapid depletion of resources of natural gas and crude oil,
research and development projects on electricity generation with
biomass gasication have gained a new momentum.
Results of theoretical and experimental investigations of
downdraft biomass gasiers are presented in a large number of
publications. For example, the inuence of the gasication process
parameters such as equivalence ratio, biomass particle size, its
moisture content, etc., on gas composition, heating value, yield,
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: khamid.mahkamov@northumbria.ac.uk (K. Mahkamov).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable Energy
j ournal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ renene
0960-1481/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2011.07.035
Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9
power output and process efciency are studied by Jain and Goss
[15], Garca-Bacaicoa et al. [18], Zainal et al. [19], Dogru et al. [20],
Jayah et al. [21], Wander et al. [22], Lv et al. [23], Wang et al. [24],
Garca-Bacaicoa et al. [25], Tiangco et al. [26], Yamazaki et al. [27],
Sheth and Babu [28], Tinaut et al. [29] and Ryu et al. [30].
The aim of this work is to present a review of theoretical and
experimental research undertaken on biomass gasication
employing downdraft reactors with air as an oxidation agent and
the application of producer gas in reciprocating internal combus-
tion engines.
2. Downdraft gasiers
The main advantage of this type of reactor is the lower tar
concentration in the producer gas, which is very important for the
durability of RICEs. The lower tar concentration is due to gas
passing through a high temperature zone (the combustion zone),
which enables the cracking of the tars formed during the gasica-
tion process. According to Bhattacharya et al. [31], tar concentra-
tions in the producer gas during biomass gasication in a moving
bed are in the range between 10 and 100 g/m
3
and from 50 to
500 mg/m
3
for downdraft and updraft gasiers, respectively.
Other advantages of the downdraft gasier are the high char
conversion and the lower ash carry over since gases pass through
the charcoal bed allowing its ltration and catalysis and a quick
response to any load change.
The downdraft gasier implementation is limited to small
capacities and according to Reed and Das [17] there are difculties
in obtaining the homogeneous distribution of air in reactors with
large diameters so preventing the scale-up of this type of gasier.
The largest downdraft gasiers which exist have the power output
in the range from 1.5 MWt to 5 MWt. For reactors with a throat
section, Beenackers [13] recommends a maximum capacity of 1
MWe. Others disadvantages of downdraft gasiers are the potential
difculties with ash fusion and the necessity to have feedstock with
a moisture content less than 25% [20]. Additionally, the fuel to be
gasied needs to have an adequate particle size in order to sustain
a certain biomass consumption rate (or a chemical reaction rate), as
well as to maintain an acceptable pressure drop inside the reactor
without the formation of preferential channels (bridging). The
recommended maximum particle size to be used in the Imbert
downdraft gasier is equal to one-eighth of the reactors throat
diameter [20].
Downdraft gasiers which can be used with RICEs can be cate-
gorized as open and close top designs, respectively. The open top
design(or stratied) conguration, see Fig. 1has anopentop, forcing
air (by suction) to move downwards homogeneously throughout
the gasier in order to prevent hot spot formations. The homoge-
neous airow also reduces inefciencies in the thermo-chemical
process taking place in the reactor, as well as a possibility of the
formation of preferential channels and internal bridges. The strati-
ed downdraft gasier demonstrates high versatility and relatively
high efciency in operation with solid fuels of poly-dispersed
nature, such as rice husk of small particle size and low density. A
number of authors have highlighted the ratio of the biomass mass
owrate and the reactor area, called the specic rate of gasication,
as animportant optimizationandscaling variable. JainandGoss [15]
found this parameter value to be optimal at 192.5 kg/(h,m
2
) for
a rice husk gasication reactor with an internal diameter of 152 mm
at 58%coldefciency. Tiangcoet al. [26] foundthis ratiotobe 200kg/
(h,m
2
) for a similar rice husk gasier with a 300 mm internal
diameter at 60% cold efciency. Singh et al. [32] in experiments with
cashew nut shells found the optimum value of the specic rate of
gasication to be 167 kg/(h,m
2
) at 70% gasication efciency.
The closed top gasiers have two different designs, namely one
with a conventional downdraft with a straight cylindrical reactor as
shown in Fig. 2 and one with a throat in the reactor core, see Fig. 3,
also called Imbert gasier [17]. The throat in the second design
plays an important role in reducing the tar concentration in the
producer gas. In such gasiers air is introduced just above the
throat and this creates a highly uniform temperature eld and
better mixing conditions [13]. However with the increase of gasier
dimensions, some lowtemperature zones appear in the throat zone
resulting in a rise of tar content in the producer gas [13]. In
Fig. 1. Gasier with open top.
Fig. 2. Conventional downdraft gasier.
J.D. Martnez et al. / Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9 2
accordance with Garca-Bacaicoa et al. [18], optimal conditions
exist if the ratio of the biomass consumption rate and the area of
the throat is between 0.05 and 1 kg/(s,m
2
).
The gasication process consists of several stages (drying,
pyrolysis, combustion and reduction) and the relevant equations
describing the chemical reactions in each of these stages are pre-
sented in a number of publications, see for example [1,2,23].
The height of the reduction zone is very important for obtaining
high quality producer gas. The gasiers with a short reactor length
do not provide a sufcient residence time which is necessary for the
conversion of the biomass and this results in a lower operational
efciency. Garca-Bacaicoa et al. recommend in [18] that the ratio of
the volume of the reduction zone and the area of the reactors
throat should be greater than 0.5 m
3
/m
2
. According to Jayah et al.
[21], a greater reactor length may increase its operational efciency,
but this also results in an increase in the manufacturing cost.
A further reduction of the tar concentration in the producer gas
used in RICEs can be achieved in downdraft gasiers with a double
stage air supply, see Fig. 4. This type of reactor has been studied in
detail in the Combustion Gasication and Propulsion Laboratory of
theIndianInstitute of Science (IISc) andinThailandintheframework
of the Energy Program of the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT).
Currently, an extensive investigation of such gasiers is being
undertakenat the Federal Universityof Itajub inBrazil (UNIFEI). The
downdraft gasier of the IISc is an open top reactor inwhich the rst
stage of the air supply is provided at it stop, wherein the feedstock is
fed into the reactor. The second stage of the air supply occurs at the
oxidation zone level where along with oxidation of a part of the char
the volatiles are released into the upper zone of the reactor. The
downdraft gasiers being investigated at AIT and UNIFEI are of the
closed top design. The rst air supply stage is located near the top of
the reactor where the feedstock is partially oxidized and the thermal
energy is generated. This is needed for the drying and pyrolysis
phases occurring above the combustion zone. The second air supply
stage is in the middle of the reactor, more precisely, in the oxidation
zone where the tar decomposition into lighter compounds takes
place. Bhattacharya et al. statedin[33] that the gasier of the AITalso
could be coupled with a xed bed charcoal gasier in order to
decrease the tar concentration during the warm-up period.
The designs described above are also known as two-stage
gasiers. A different design of a two-stage gasier exists, named
Viking, and developed by researchers at the Technical University of
Denmark (DTU). The Viking gasier consists of two separate reac-
tors where the pyrolysis and char gasication take place. Between
the pyrolysis and gasication processes air is supplied to the
partially oxidized products of pyrolysis. This results in the reduc-
tion of the tar content in the volatiles and in the generation of
thermal energy for the endothermic char gasication. Since the
partially oxidized pyrolysis products pass through the char bed in
the char gasication reactor, the tar content is further reduced by
a factor of 100 [34].
Despite a comparatively low content of tar in the producer gas
generated by downdraft gasiers this should be further reduced
using water scrubbers or special condensers in order to satisfy the
requirements for the quality of gas used as fuel in RICEs.
3. The governing parameters in the gasication process to
affect the quality of syngas fuel
The specics of reactor design and ow patterns of air and
biomass particles within a gasier strongly inuence the quality of
syngas fuel generated in the gasication process. For a specic
gasier design there are two major variable parameters which are
used to maintain an acceptable level of the quality of syngas. These
are the equivalence ratio and the supercial velocity.
3.1. Equivalence ratio (ER)
In the gasication process it is the ratio of the actual air volume
supplied per kg of biomass fuel and the volume of air which is
necessary for stoichiometric combustion of the above amount of
Fig. 3. Imbert gasier.
Fig. 4. Downdraft gasier with double stage air supply.
J.D. Martnez et al. / Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9 3
biomass fuel. Typical values of ER for biomass gasication vary
between 0.2 and 0.4. According to a number of studies, ER is one of
the most important variables in the gasication process in xed/
moving and uidized bed reactors [11,20], which affects the quality
of syngas produced. In accordance with Garca-Bacaicoa et al. [25],
Yamazaki et al. [27] and Tinaut et al. [29] the amount of air fed into
downdraft moving bed gasiers controls the biomass consumption
rate. The stoichiometric air/fuel ratio in cubic meters (at normal
conditions) per kg of biomass can be expressed in terms of the
chemical composition of the fuel and its typical value is between 5
and 6 Nm
3
/kg when rewood is used.
3.2. Supercial velocity (SV)
A supercial velocity, SV, is dened as a ratio of the syngas
production rate at normal conditions and the narrowest cross
sectional area of the gasier. A number of authors have indicated
that SV inuences the gas production rate, the gas energy content,
the fuel consumption rate, the power output and char and tar
production rates. It is independent of reactor dimensions, allowing
a direct comparison of gasiers with different power outputs.
Yamazaki et al. [27] reported a case with a good performance of the
gasier when a low tar content in producer gas and high efciency
were obtained for SV values of about 0.4 Nm/s. Low values of SV
result in a relatively slow pyrolysis process with high yields of char
and signicant quantities of unburned tars. On the contrary, high
values of SV cause a very fast pyrolysis process, formation of
a reduced amount of char and very hot gases in the aming zone.
However, such high SV values may signicantly decrease the gas
residence time in the gasier, resulting in lower efciencies in the
tar cracking processes.
4. Output parameters of biomass gasiers
The main output parameters in the gasication process in
moving bed reactors are the producer gas composition, its caloric
value, thermal power of the gasier, gas yield and the thermo-
chemical process efciency.
4.1. Producer gas composition and caloric value
The producer gas composition depends mainly on the temper-
ature in the reactor, which in its turn is inuenced by the ER value.
Additionally, concentrations of CO, H
2
and CH
4
in the producer gas
are also controlled by the kinetics of the chemical reactions
occurring in the gasication process. Therefore the type of the
oxidizing agent used for gasication has a considerable inuence
on the caloric value of the producer gas. CO and H
2
concentrations
reach a maximumvalue as ER increases and then the concentration
of these useful components decreases due to the combustion
intensication at higher ER values. With the rise of ER the CO
2
and
N
2
concentrations also increase in the producer gas, as observed by
Sheth and Babu [28]. Air as an oxidizing agent produces syngas
with relatively high concentrations of nitrogen and this results in
a lower caloric value which usually does not exceed 6 MJ/Nm
3
. In
this case the producer gas is classied as poor quality fuel gas. A
typical gas composition from biomass gasication in a downdraft
reactor with air used as an oxidizing agent is as follows: 15e20% of
H
2
, 15e20% of CO, 0.5e2% of CH
4
, 10e15% of CO
2
and the remaining
part is made of N
2
, O
2
and C
x
H
y
. On the other hand, if oxygen or
water steam or a mixture of both these is used, then the concen-
tration of combustible components is signicantly increased and
the caloric value rises to 18 MJ/Nm
3
[35].
4.1.1. Yield
This parameter is usually used to measure the producer gas
specic production in cubic meters per mass of feedstock supplied
to the system. In both uidized bed and moving bed reactors, the
yield is directly proportional to the ER variation [19,28,36] and to
the residence time of the gases in the reduction zone [18]. The ash
content in the biomass also has a signicant inuence and limits
the producer gas yield. Typical yield values for wood gasication in
a downdraft reactor are between 2 and 3 Nm
3
/kg (Table 1).
4.1.2. Efciency
The gasication efciency or the conversion efciency depends
on the type of biomass used, its particle size, the ER value and the
Table 1
Design characteristics of downdraft gasiers and experimental results published in open literature.
Biomass Diameter (mm) Height of
reactor
(m)
ER Combustion
zone
temperature
(

C)
Gas composition
(%)
Heating
value
(MJ/Nm
3
)
Yield
(Nm
3
/kg)
Power
(kW)
Cold
efciency
(%)
Ref
Reactor Throat CO H
2
CH
4
Wood chips 1000 500 2.5 1.66
c
n.a 26.5 7.0 2.0 5.06
b
1.44 448.04 48.77
h
[2]
22.1 13.4 2.9 5.59
b,d
1.86 765.15 69.42
h
Rice husk 152 n.a 0.40 n.a n.a n.a n.a 3.91
f
2.13
g
8.20 58.11 [3]
203 n.a 0.39 n.a n.a n.a n.a 4.02
f
2.10
g
14.83 58.78
244 n.a 0.40 n.a n.a n.a n.a 4.00
f
2.17
g
21.40 60.44
343 n.a 0.41 n.a n.a n.a n.a 3.98
f
2.22
g
43.89 61.49
Wood chips 600 200 2.5 0.287 1000 n.a n.a n.a 5.19
a
n.a 44.93 76.68 [4]
Hazelnut shells 450 135 0.81 1.51
e
1025 16.8 14.12 1.70 4.55
a
1.97 9.17 51.53 [5]
Rubber wood 920 100 1.15 1.9
c
1000 20.2 18.3 1.1 n.a n.a n.a n.a [6]
Sawdust 270 1.1 0.26 900 19.48 18.89 3.96 6.32
a
1.99
h
n.a 62.5
h
[7]
Pine wood blocks 350 n.a 1.3 0.28 1108 25.53 28.93 6.82 4.76 n.a n.a n.a [8]
Wood chips 440 350 2 1.3
c
1460 9.4 14.8 1.2 3.8
b
n.a n.a n.a [10]
Rice husk 30 n.a 1.5
c
1000 n.a n.a n.a 4.2
a
n.a n.a 60 [11]
Wood chips 250 70 1.05 0.32 900 19.48 18.89 3.96 6.32
a
n.a n.a 62.5 [12]
Wood waste 310 150 1.1 0.205 1050 22 14 0.1 6.34
a
1.62 7.38 55 [13]
n.a: not available.
a
Higher heating value.
b
Lower heating value.
c
Air/Fuel ratio in Nm
3
/kg.
d
Dry, inert free.
e
Air/Fuel ratio (Nm
3
/kg), fuel is dry, ash free.
f
Lower heating value at 25

C.
g
At 25

C.
h
Dry basis.
J.D. Martnez et al. / Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9 4
reactors design. The gasication efciency, usually determined on
the lower heating value basis, can be calculated in two different
ways and is dened as the hot or cold efciency. The hot efciency
is calculated as the ratio of the total energy in the producer gas
(sensible and chemical) and the chemical energy in the feedstock
(the heating value). The cold efciency calculations account only for
the heating value of the producer gas and neglect the value of the
sensible heat. In order to compare the gasication efciencies, the
majority of authors consider the cold efciency value in order to
avoid the uncertainty related to the calculations of the sensible heat
of producer gas discharged from the reactor since the high
temperature of this gas is very often not the objective in the gasi-
cation process. Typical values of the cold efciency for biomass
gasication in a downdraft reactor are between 50 and 80%, see
Table 1.
Overall, the performance parameters of the biomass gasication
in a downdraft reactor, namely the producer gas composition, its
caloric value, the yield and the efciency of the conversion
process, depend on such physicalechemical properties of the
feedstock as the moisture content and the particle size [19,21]. Also
there is the inuence of process parameters such as the equivalence
ratio which determines the temperature levels. Finally, the
performance is affected by a number of design features of the
reactor, such as the locations of the air inlets, the volume of the
gasication zone [19] and the grates design [18]. Table 1 presents
main design dimensions and test results of biomass gasication in
downdraft reactors both with and without throat, as reported by
a number of authors. As it can be seen in Table 1, the low heating
value and the process cold efciency for this type of reactor is
around 4e6 MJ/Nm
3
and 50e70%, respectively. The typical average
temperature in the combustion zone is around 1000

C. The
equivalence ratio varies between 0.2 and 0.4. In gas engine appli-
cations a typical safe turndown ratio of a downdraft gasier, which
is ratio of the maximum and minimum ow of producer gas, is 3.
Any further increase of the turndown ratio compromises the
quality of syngas in terms of the tar content and negatively affects
the durability of the engine.
5. Reciprocating internal combustion engines fuelled with
producer gas
RICEs are traditionally used with downdraft gasiers and
signicant research has beenperformed on studying and improving
the operation of RICEs fuelled by producer gas. The quality of
producer gas as a fuel is considerably poorer compared to gasoline
and natural gas. Hence engines require certain design modications
to be carried out in order to be able to run on producer gas. Spark
ignition and diesel engines fuelled with articial gas with a quality
similar tothat of producer gas were studied by Muoz et al. [37]. The
operation of engines was also investigated using real producer gas
obtained in biomass gasiers and the results were described by
Wang et al. [24], Sridhar et al. [38], Shashikantha et al. [39], Ram-
achandra [40], Bhattacharya et al. [31], Uma et al. [41], Henriksen
et al. [34], Ramadhas et al. [42], Ramadhas et al. [43] and Bana-
purmath and Tewari [44]. The above publications present data
obtained in experimental investigations on the engines brake
power, torque, efciency, power de-rating, emissions, exhaust
temperature and knock tendency, taking into account the inuence
of the air/fuel equivalence and the compression ratios.
Alongside the experimental research, extensive theoretical
investigations have also been performed using various modelling
tools on the operation of RICEs fuelled by producer gas. Thus
Lapuerta et al. [45] employed a chemical equilibrium model which
took into consideration 28 species to calculate the producer gas
composition as a function of the biomass-to-air ratio and its
thermo-chemical parameters, such as the adiabatic ame temper-
ature, the heat release and the auto-ignition period. A quasi-
dimensional two zone combustion model was employed to
describe the working process of a spark ignition engine taking into
account the inuence of the important combustion parameters. In
conclusion the authors in [45] proposed recommendations on
engine design modications, including an increase in the
compression ratio. Rakopoulos et al. [46] used a zero-dimensional,
multi-zone thermodynamic combustion model for the analysis of
the effect of the spark ignition timing on the engines performance.
The model was calibrated using experimental data and applied for
calculations of a multi-cylinder, four-stroke natural gas engine
running on synthetic gas fuel. The above engine was equipped with
a turbocharger with an after-cooling system. Tinaut et al. [16] used
a two zone combustion model for the description of the working
process of an engine and concluded that the main parameter
dening the performance of the engine is the caloric value (per
unit volume) of the stoichiometric air/producer gas mixture. The
above model determines the fraction of the mass burnt, the vari-
ation of the pressure and temperature over the cycle and values of
the engines efciency and of its indicated mean pressure. Using
a parameter named as the Engine Fuel Quality (EFQ) the authors
estimated the magnitude of the power de-rating in the engine
fuelled by the producer gas.
To use the producer gas obtained in the process of biomass
gasication for the electricity generation in both diesel and spark
ignition engines it is necessary to ensure that the quality of gas is
sufciently high in terms of tar and particulates content to maintain
the reliable engines operation and to provide an adequate dura-
bility of major engine components, such as the valves, the
combustion chamber, the piston, etc. Table 2 presents the main
substances contained in producer gas that limit its application in
RICEs. Hasler and Nussbaumer [47] indicate that the allowed
particle and tar concentration in producer gas for satisfactorily
operation of the internal combustion engine must be less than 50
mg/Nm
3
and 100 mg/Nm
3
, respectively. The gas quality require-
ments described in the literature should be interpreted with
caution since the type of the engine used in tests and its design
features play an important role [47]. In some cases a satisfactorily
engine operation was observed at higher tar concentration levels
than those indicated above. It was reported in [38] that producer
gas was used in standard diesel engines in the dual-fuel mode
operation and that diesel fuel savings up to 85% had been obtained.
However, in the case described above, the power produced by the
engine cannot be considered as achieved entirely by the utilization
of only a renewable energy source. The specic design feature of
that engine was its capability to operate on diesel oil in the case
when biomass was not available or when a malfunction occurred in
the operation of the gasier. Diesel engines have certain advantages
such as their higher efciency due to a greater compression ratio
which usually varies between 12 and 24 [48], their better durability
and, in some cases, the lower maintenance compared to
spark-ignition engines. Generally, design modications required in
diesel engines in order to make these machines run on 100%
producer gas include the installation of additional equipment
incorporating spark ignition and air-gas mixing systems. In spark
ignition and diesel engines producer gas and air are usually mixed
in an intake collector and then the air-fuel mixture now ready for
combustion enters the cylinders of the engine.
Test results obtainedusingdiesel engines runningonlowcaloric
gas producedinabiomass gasier arepresentedbySridhar et al. [38],
Shashikantha et al. [39] and Ramachandra [40]. The possibility of
runningRICEs inthedual-fuel modeof operationwithaconsiderable
reduction in the consumption of diesel oil was demonstrated in
a number of publications, such as by Wang et al. [24], Ramachandra
J.D. Martnez et al. / Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9 5
[40], Bhattacharya et al. [31], Uma et al. [41], Ramadhas et al. [42],
Ramadhas et al. [43] and by Banapurmath and Tewari [44]. It was
reportedin[44] that thepower de-ratingof engines observedinsuch
an operational mode was between 20 and 30%.
A case of fuelling modern spark ignition engines with producer
gas was described by Muoz et al. [37]. Due to the relatively low
compression ratio of this type of engine, namely between 8 and 12
[48], the power de-rating observed was considerably greater than
that in diesel engines. According to Sridhar et al. [38], the reduction
in power in an engine run on producer gas is mainly attributed to
the lower net caloric value of the air/fuel mixture. Lapuerta et al.
[45] suggested that the engines power was limited by the volume
of the gas/air mixture which enters the engine cylinders. The
amount of the combustible mixture supplied to a cylinder is
determined by the cylinders displaced volume, pressure and
temperature conditions inside the cylinder and by the pressure and
temperature of the gas/air mixture. The stoichiometric mass ratio in
the air/producer gas mixture is between 1.0 and 1.2, compared to 17
for methane and thus an adequate mixing and dosage device is
necessary for an engine to operate with high performance. The
conventional carburetors are suitable for high caloric gaseous
fuels, such as natural gas, and form a mixture with a high stoi-
chiometric ratio. Low caloric gases require modied carburetors
and Sridhar et al. [49] described such a gas carburetor for low
energy density fuels. This device with its improved control and
minimal pressure losses very accurately maintained the required
air/fuel ratio over a wide load range and provided the smooth
running of the engine at a comparatively high efciency.
6. Parameters affecting the performance of RICEs fuelled
with producer gas
The parameters which mainly affect the performance of RICEs
are the energy density or the heating value of the producer gas/air
mixture, the displaced volume of the engine, the methane or octane
number of the fuel, the ame speed of the fuel/air mixture, the
auto-ignition delay period, the compression ratio of the engine
(which is related to the knock tendency) and the spark timing.
Some results reported in the open literature on RICEs fuelled with
producer gas are systematised in Table 3.
6.1. Energy density
The energy density of any fuel/air stoichiometric mixture (HV
m
)
canbe determinedinterms of thevolumetric heating value (kJ/Nm
3
).
The energy density of the producer gas/air mixture mainly depends
on the concentration of the combustible components in producer
gas. The low heating value of the producer gas obtained from
biomass gasication in a downdraft reactor using air as an oxidizing
agent is around5000kJ/Nm
3
withthefollowingaverage composition
of the combustible components: H
2
- 20%, CO - 20% and CH
4
- 1%.
With such concentrations of combustible substances the energy
density of the producer gas/air mixture is about 2400 kJ/Nm
3
. This
value is lower than the energy density of a natural gas/air mixture
which is 3400 kJ/Nm
3
(natural gas is assumed to be 100% CH
4
). The
theoretical value of the power de-rating when a natural gas engine is
switched to operate on producer gas is about 30%. This value is
consistent withthe estimationmade byTinaut et al. [16]. Inthis study
the authors usedtheEFQparameter toanalyzethe performanceof an
engine operating on a particular fuel. They predicted that the power
of the engine fuelled with producer gas in the full load regime of
operation will be approximately two-thirds of the maximum power
obtained with conventional liquid fuel [16]. However, a thermody-
namic analysis demonstratedthat a lesser valueof power de-ratingat
the level of 15e20% could be achieved if the producer gas is used in
engines with a higher compression ratio [49].
The current engine technology intensively exploits advantages
of lean combustion operation. For producer gas/air mixtures the
lean combustion condition is achieved when the actual air/fuel
ratio is greater than 2 and in such conditions the relative energy
density of the producer gas/air mixture may be higher than some
fossil fuels, such as gasoline [45]. This results in the power de-
rating being lower when the producer gas/air mixture is used.
Producer gas is adequate for a lean burn and combustion of
a corresponding fuel/air mixture results in low NOx emissions due
to the lower combustion temperature and in the low specic fuel
consumption.
6.2. Cylinder volume
The amount of a combustible mixture which can be delivered to
a combustion chamber in a cylinder is determined by the engines
displaced volume and by the fuels initial pressure and tempera-
ture. Thus, to maintain the power level in a conventional natural
gas engine switched to operate on low heating value fuel, such as
producer gas, the fuel amount should be increased signicantly
which would exceed the engines capacity. This can be achieved
using a turbocharger for increasing the pressure of the air-fuel
mixture in the beginning of the compression process in a cylinder.
6.3. Flame speed and spark timing
The speed of the ame depends on the chemical composition of
fuel, the amount of air used in the combustion process, which is
characterized by the parameter ER, and the pressure and tempera-
ture of the fuel/air mixture. Additionally, the speed of the ame
Table 2
Presence of pollutants in producer gas and used controlling mechanisms.
Pollutant Source Possible problems Control mechanism and/or
mitigation
Particulates Ash, bed material Erosion, agglomeration and fouling.
Environmental pollution
Filtration, gas cleaning
(scrubber)
Alkali metals (sodium,
potassium in the ash).
Ash Corrosion Cooling, condensation, ltration,
adsorption.
Nitrogen compounds
(NOx, NH
3
, HCN)
Reaction of nitrogen contained i
n air and feedstock
Corrosion, environmental pollution Treatment with substances of basic
character, use of pure oxygen
in the process
Sulfur and chlorine
compounds (HCl, H
2
S)
Reaction of sulfur and chlorine
contained in the feedstock
Cleaning, capture with CaCO
3
, MgCO
3
Tar (complex
hydrocarbon mixtures).
Low temperatures in the process,
considerable amount of volatile
in the feedstock
Corrosion, agglomerations and fouling.
Health hazard
Removal, cracking
J.D. Martnez et al. / Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9 6
depends onthe turbulence intensity, whichinits turn, is pre-dened
by the engine speed [48]. Rich mixtures ignite more readily and are
characterised with a higher ame speed and therefore provide
a more reliable start of the overall combustion process [48]. The
ame speed in its turn has a signicant effect on the performance of
the engine and on the level of pollutant emissions [50].
Kanitkar et al. [51] reported experimental results on the
combustion of the producer gas/air mixture at ambient conditions
(0.95 atm and 300 K). The ame temperature was 1546 25 K with
the ame speed of 0.5 0.05 m/s and the limits of the ame
propagation varied fromthe mixture being lean (26% of fuel with an
ER value of 0.47) to rich (56% of fuel with an ER value of 1.65). The
peak ame speed was registered to be 0.55 0.05 m/s in an air/fuel
ratio varied between 1.2 and 1.4 and this value is greater than that
for methane and carbon monoxide, but much less compared to that
for hydrogen [51]. In a more recent study Hernndez et al. [50]
reported that an experimental value of the laminar ame velocity
was 0.5 m/s at 300K and 1 bar conditions in the burning process of
the stoichiometric air/producer gas mixture in a combustion bomb.
The authors also used a software tool, namely CHEMKIN, together
with GRI-Mech for computing the laminar ame velocity for
different producer gas compositions at various pressure and
temperature conditions for a range of the producer gas/air equiv-
alence ratios. For the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio at 300 K and 1 bar
conditions the laminar ame velocity of the producer gas was
found to be 0.42 m/s. At typical engine operating conditions, which
are characterized by high pressures and temperatures, the
producer gas laminar ame velocity values were calculated to be
lower than that of isooctane but higher than that of methane.
6.4. Spark timing
According to Sridhar [49] the considerable hydrogen concen-
tration in producer gas makes it necessary to use the smaller spark
advancement (retarding) in the spark timing to achieve a better
engine performance. In this case the spark is red at the instance of
the cycle when the piston is very close to its top dead center (TDC).
This is because of the high hydrogen concentration (around 20%) in
producer gas. Hydrogen has a higher ame speed which is about
2.7 m/s at ambient conditions [51]. However, it is necessary to take
into account that the spark timing also depends on other variables,
such as the level of load and the engines speed. Theoretically the
ideal instance of time for the spark to be red is when the piston is
at the permissible high position in the cylinder and when the fuel/
air mixture is fully compressed so the pistons power stroke occurs
with the extraction of the maximum power. Setting the correct
spark timing results in a high torque exerted at the xed speed
which corresponds to a higher power output from the engine and
to a lower specic fuel consumption. This point is usually known as
a maximum brake torque (MBT) point and can be observed in the
pressure vs. crank angle (p-q) curve as a peak in the instance in the
cycle corresponding to 16-17 degrees of crank angle after the
pistons TDC [48]. Experiments in a single cylinder, four stroke,
water cooled diesel engine with a compression ratio of 17 which
was adapted to run as a spark ignition engine were carried out by
Ramachandra [40] and it was observed that a spark timing set to
10

BTDC provides a smooth running of the engine. The above spark

timings in engines fuelled by producer gas are retarded compared
to the spark timing for conventional spark ignition engines fuelled
with gasoline which vary between 10 and 40

BTDC [48]. Retarding

in the spark timing is necessary for engines fuelled with producer
gas to achieve a higher efciency. According to Sridhar et al. [49]
the ignition timing has to be retarded with an increase in the
compression ratio in order to achieve the MBT point. This is because
the pressure and the temperatures are greater at the higher
compression ratios and therefore the combustion process occurs
faster, requiring the instance of the spark ring to be located close
to the pistons TDC.
Table 3
Performance of some RICEs fuelled with producer gas.
Biomass Engine RPM CR Producer
gas
fuelled
(%)
Modications
in the engine
Power
(kW)
Spark
timing
(
o
BTDC
Power
de-rating
a
(%)
Exhaust gas
temperature
(

C)
Engines
thermal
efciency
(%)
Combustion
equivalence
ratio
Overall
Efciency
b
(%)
Ref
Simulated
gas
Spark
ignition
2500 8.2:1 100 None 2.3
c
n.a n.a 634
@ 2000 rpm
n.a n.a n.a [15]
Wood Diesel 1500 11.5:1 100 Ignition
system
d
12e16
e
35 n.a 360- 430

C 28e32 n.a 21e24
f
[16]
Wood Diesel 1500 17:1 100 Ignition
system
g
2.3
c
10 20
h
310 e 370

C 19.05
i
n.a n.a [17]
Wood chips Diesel n.a n.a 100 Ignition
system
15e20
e
n.a 20 n.a 28
i
n.a 25
f
[20]
Coconut shell Diesel 1500 18.5:1 81 None 11.44
c
n.a 21 488.2 14.7
j
n.a 11.69
f
[18]
13.22
e
Wood Diesel 1500 50 17:1 100 Ignition
system
17.5
e
6 (MBT) 16.7
k
n.a n.a 1.05
l
16.6
m
[14]
Wood Diesel 1500 17.5:1 65% None 4
c
27 20 410 22
i
n.a n.a [23]
60% Ignition
system
450 24
i
n.a n.a
a
Calculated as a fraction of a nominal engine power.
b
Gasication and engine system.
c
Brake power.
d
Combustion chamber was re-designed for the combustion with the turbulent ame propagation, CR was changed from 17 to 11.5.
e
Electric power.
f
From biomass to net electricity.
g
The engine can operate in diesel and dual fuel mode.
h
Assuming the alternator and transmission efciency of 80% and 95% respectively.
i
On the shaft.
j
Engineegenerator system.
k
In brake power.
l
Fuel/air equivalence ratio.
m
From biomass input to shaft output.
J.D. Martnez et al. / Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9 7
6.5. Knock tendency
For gaseous fuels, the methane number is used to compare
knock properties and this is analogous to the octane number used
to quantify knock properties of liquid gasoline fuels. Engines with
a high compression ratio require fuels with the high octane/
methane number in order to avoid an uncontrolled self-ignition of
the fuel and the formation of sharp pressure peaks in the engines
cylinder after the start of such a combustion process. Malenshek
[52] developed a model and an experimental apparatus which was
used to blend simulated alternative gaseous fuels and measure
their methane number. Numerous engines were run on natural gas
and the methane number was varied between 75 and 95. Producer
gas has a higher methane number than natural gas and therefore it
is not prone to detonation during the compression stroke.
The knock is caused by a combination of factors, such as the
combustion chamber design, the equivalence ratio, the intake air
temperature and the pressure, the spark timing and fuel properties.
The experiments conducted by Sridhar et al. [38] demonstrated
a smooth engine operation at the compression ratio of 17 without
any traces of knocking when the engine was fuelled with producer
gas with the following composition: 19 1% of H
2
; 19 1% of CO;
2% of CH
4
; 12 1% of CO
2
; 2 0:5% of H
2
O with the remaining
made up of N
2
. Also in [38] the tendency of producer gas to
uncontrolled self-ignition in high compression ratio RICEs due to
the high concentration of the hydrogen in the gas was addressed by
the authors. The high concentration of inert gases in producer gas,
such as CO
2
and N
2,
namely 12e15% and 48e50%, respectively, acts
as a knock suppressor and explains the high methane number
compared to that of natural gas. Shrestha and Rodrigues [53]
demonstrated the increased knock resistance within the extended
engines operational range due to the presence of carbon dioxide
and nitrogen in gaseous fuels. The carbon dioxides presence in the
fuel is an efcient knock suppressor, providing the controlled
combustion of the fuel composition with the lowmethane number,
which otherwise would be prone to a high intensity knock.
Nitrogen also demonstrates a similar knock suppressing quality,
but not to the such extent as the carbon dioxide does [53]. Addi-
tionally, the maximumame temperature attainable with producer
gas is lower compared to conventional fuel such as methane and
therefore a better knock resistivity could be expected when an
engine runs on producer gas [49]. All the above results substantiate
the possibility of running RICEs on producer gas with a higher
compression ratio.
Gaseous fuels with high hydrogen concentrations usually are
less resistant to detonation. However, the high ame speed of the
corresponding fuel/air mixture reduces the probability of knocking.
According to [48], the greater the ame speed in an air/fuel mixture
the higher is the octane number of the fuel. With a high ame
speed, the portion of the air/fuel mixture that is heated above the
self-ignition temperature will be burnt off during the ignition delay
period and therefore the occurrence of knocking will be avoided.
6.6. Auto-ignition period
The auto-ignition delay period of a fuel/air mixture is an
important parameter in the RICEs operation and also can be used to
characterise the knock tendency. This parameter is dened as the
time required for the mixture to spontaneously ignite at certain
temperature and pressure conditions. The length of the ignition
delay depends on the producer gas composition and on the
producer gas/air ratio in the engine [54]. The auto-ignition delay
time of a fuel/air mixture was theoretically determined by Lapuerta
et al. [45] using CHEMKIN III software. The results obtained
demonstrated that at a constant cylinder pressure of 20 bar the
auto-ignition delay period for producer gas is much longer than
that for gasoline in the low temperature range, namely below
950 K. However, the ignition delay period signicantly shortens at
the high temperature range. With the pressure increased to the
50 bar the auto-ignition delay period for producer gas remains just
slightly shorter than that for gasoline in the high temperature range
[45] and therefore the producer gas/air mixture has a low knock
tendency. According to the authors in [45] the expected lower
combustion temperatures, together with the longer auto-ignition
delay period, for the producer gas/air mixture would make it
possible to increase the compression ratio of the engine without
increasing the knock tendency.
Another problem associated with using producer gas in RICEs is
the possibility of backring which is ignition of the gas/air mixture
in the intake manifold and its burning in an explosive manner
causing the engine to stop. This is attributed to the relatively weak
ionization of the hydrogen/oxygen ame. An electric potential
present in the ignition cables could cause abnormal ignitions in the
RICEs. The authors recommended shielding the ignition cables to
avoid these kinds of difculties.
7. Conclusions
The main parameters governing the gasication process of
biomass in downdraft reactors using air as an oxidizing agent were
discussed. The effects of the equivalence ratio (whichshould be kept
between 0.2 and 0.4), the biomass particle size (which usually
should be less than 5 cm), the moisture content (which should be
less than 25%) and the inuence of gasier design features were
analyzed. The literature review carried out in this subject area
indicates that the low heating value and the process cold efciency
for a downdraft type reactor are around 4e6 MJ/Nm
3
and 50e70%,
respectively. The average temperature in the combustion zone is
about 1000

C. The specics of the use of producer gas in RICEs
(diesel and spark ignition ones) were discussed. The low energy
density of the producer gas/air mixture and the engines volumetric
efciency are the main factors causing the power de-rating of
engines. Due to the relatively high ame speed of the producer gas/
air mixture caused by the presence of hydrogen in the mixture it is
necessary to retard the spark ignition time in order to achieve
a greater efciency in the operation of the engine. Also the possi-
bility of using engines with a higher compression ratio when fuelled
with producer gas without any increase in the knock tendency is
highlighted. The rise of the engines compression ratio results in the
reductionof the power de-rating. The use of air as anoxidizing agent
in the biomass gasication process leads to high concentrations of
nitrogen (between 40 and 50%) in the fuel/air mixture and the
nitrogenacts as a knocksuppressor whichis benecial incases when
engines with the high compression ratio are employed.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Companhia
Paulista de Fora e Luz (CPFL) for the nancial support received
through project PD153.
Also we would like to thank the Committee on Coordination of
Improvements in Higher Education (CAPES) for the allocation of
a scholarship and the National Research Council of Brazil (CNPq) for
their nancial support.
Furthermore, we would like to acknowledge the Foundation of
Science support from the Minas Gerais State (FAPEMIG).
Finally, we would like to thank the Royal Society (UK) for the
nancial support to perform this collaborative research between
teams at Northumbria University (UK) and the Federal University of
Itajuba (Brazil).
J.D. Martnez et al. / Renewable Energy 38 (2012) 1e9 8
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