Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]

Dept of ECE, K.I.T 1

Experiment No.: - 1(a)
SECOND ORDER ACTIVE LOW PASS FILTER

Aim:- To design an active second order low pass filter for cutoff frequency 5KHz

Components required:-

Sl.no Components Quality Quantity
1 Op-amp IC A741 1
2 CRO 1
3 Signal generator 1
4 Resistors 5.6K, 10K, 3.3K 1-1-2
5 Capacitors 0.01F 2

Circuit diagram:-




















Design:-
Let A
f
=1.568 & f
c
=5KHz
Af = 1 + (Rf / R1)
1.568-1 = Rf / R1
Rf =5.6 K when R1=10K
fc = 1 / 2Rc assume C=0.01F
R=1 / (2 X 5x10
3
X 0.01x10
-6
) = 3.3K


Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 2

Theory for Active Filters:
An electric filter is often a often a frequency-selective circuit that passes a specified band of
frequencies & blocks or attenuates signals of frequencies outside this band.
Filters may be classified in a number of ways.
(1) Analog or Digital (2) Passive or Active (3) Audio(AF) or Radio frequency(RF)

Analog filters are designed to process analog signals.
Digital filters process analog signals using digital techniques.
Passive filters consists of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
Active filters employ transistor or op-amps in addition to the resistors and capacitors .

The type of element used dictates the operating frequency range of the filter. For example
RC filters are commonly used for audio or low frequency operation, whereas LC or crystal filters
are employed at RF or high frequencies. Especially because of their high Q value (Figure of
Merit), the crystals provide more stable operation at higher frequencies. In the audio frequencies,
inductors are often not used because they are very large, costly and may dissipate more power.
Inductors also emit magnetic fields.
An active filters offers the following advantages over a passive filters.
1. Gain and frequency adjustment flexibility: since the op-amp is capable of providing a
gain the input signals is not attenuated as it is a passive filters. In addition, the active filter
is easier to tune or adjust.
No loading problem: Because of the high input resistance and low out put resistance if the op-
amp, the active filter does not cause loading of the source or load.
2. Cost: Typically, active filters are more economical than passive filters. This is because of
cheaper op-amps and absence of indicators.
Applications: Radio, television, telephone, radar, space satellites and biomedical
Equipments.
The most commonly used filters are:
1. Low-pass filter 2.High-pass filter 3. Band-pass filter
4. Band-reject filter 5. All-pass filter

Procedure:-
1.Ckt connections are made as shown in the fig.
2.Input voltage is kept constant at 2V
3.The input frequency is varied from 100Hz to 50KHz
4.At each step corresponding output is measured.
5.The gain in dB is calculated by using the formula Af=20 log vo/vi
6.The graph of gain v/s frequency is plotted on the graph sheet.
7.The higher cut-off frequency, roll-off rate are calculated and compared with theoretical values.

Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 3

Tabular Column:-

Input voltage, vin = _______

F in Hz O/p voltage Gain A= vo/vin Af= 20 log vo/vin

Ideal graph:-














Result: - Cut-off frequency = ___________

Roll-off factor = ___________

Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks



Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 4

Experiment No.: - 1(b)
SECOND ORDER ACTIVE HIGH PASS FILTER

Aim:- To design an active second order high pass filter for cutoff frequency 5KHz

Components required:-
Sl.no Components Quality Quantity
1 Op-amp IC A741 1
2 CRO 1
3 Signal generator 1
4 Resistors 5.6K, 10K, 3.3K 1-1-2
5 Capacitors 0.01F 2

Circuit diagram:-















Design:-
Let A
f
=1.568 & f
c
=5KHz
Af = 1 + (Rf / R1)
1.568-1 = Rf / R1
Rf =5.6 K when R1=10K
fc = 1 / 2Rc assume c=0.01F
R=1 / (2 X 5x10
3
X 0.01x10
-6
) = 3.3K

Procedure:-
1.Ckt connections are made as shown in the fig.
2.Input voltage is kept constant at 5V
3.The input frequency is varied from 100Hz to 50KHz
4.At each step corresponding output is measured.
5.The gain in dB is calculated by using the formula Af=20 log vo/vi
6.The graph of gain v/s frequency is plotted on the graph sheet.
7.The higher cut-off frequency, roll-off rate are calculated and compared with
theoretical values.

Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 5

Tabular Column:-

Input voltage, vin = _______

F in Hz O/p voltage Gain A= vo/vin Af= 20 log vo/vin

Ideal graph:-














Result: - Cut-off frequency = ___________

Roll-off factor = ___________

Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks



Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 6

Experiment No.2
SCHMITT TRIGGER

Aim: Design of OP-AMP Schmitt Trigger Circuit given UTP and LTP values.

Components required:

Sl. No Component Range Quantity
1 OP-AMP A741 01
2 Trainer kit
3 Resistors As per design
4 Power supply (0-30v) 01

Design:
Case1: UTP is +ve and LTP is ve Case2: Both UTP and LTP are positive

Let UTP=2V LTP=-2V Let UTP= +3V LTP= +1V
We have Equation (1)-(2) gives

UTP= R
2
(+Vsat) + R
2
Vref .(1) UTP-LTP= 2R
2
(+Vsat)
(R
1+
R
2
) (R
1+
R
2
) (R
1+
R
2
)

LTP= R
2
(-Vsat) + R
2
Vref (2) (3-1) = 2R
2
(10.8)
(R
1+
R
2
) (R
1+
R
2
) (R
1+
R
2
)
If UTP=LTP then Vref=0 Let R
2=
1k Then R
1
=10k
UTP= R
2
(+Vsat) LTP= R
2
( -Vsat)
(R
1+
R
2
) (R
1+
R
2
) Equation (1)+(2) gives



+Vsat=90% Vcc=90%x12=10.8V UTP+LTP= 2R
1
(Vref)
(R
1+
R
2
)
2= R
2

(R
1
+R
2
) 3+1= 2R
1
(Vref)
Let R
2
=1.2k (R
1
+R
2
)
Then, R
1
=5.28k
Vref=+2.2V

Case3: Both UTP and LTP are negative

Let UTP=-1V & LTP=-3V Equation (1)+(2) gives
Equation (1)-(2) gives UTP+LTP= 2R
1
(Vref)
(R
1+
R
2
)
UTP-LTP= 2R
2
(+Vsat) (-1-3) = 2R
1
Vref
(R
1+
R
2
) (R
1+
R
2
)
(-1+3) = 2R
2
(10.8)
(R
1+
R
2
) Vref= 2.2V
Let R
2=
1k Then R
1=
10k
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 7

Circuit diagram:
i)Without Reference Voltage:


-12v
+12v
R1
1.2K

R2
Vin
3
2
6
4
7
Vo
5.2K

A741
1KHZ
+

-



ii)With Positive Reference Voltage:



Vo
7
4
6
2
3
Vin
R2
R1
+12v
-12v
10K

1K

1KHZ
-
+2.2V +Vref


A741
+

+

-



iii)With Negative Reference Voltage:
















-
-2.2V
-Vref

1KHZ

1k

10k

-12v

+12v


A741
R1
R2
Vin

3
2
6
4
7
Vo
+

+

-

A
n
a
l
o
g

C
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

+

L
I
C

L
a
b


[
1
0
E
C
L
5
8
]











D
e
p
t

o
f

E
C
E
,
















































K
.
I
.
T
































































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a
v
e
f
o
r
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s
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)


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H
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T

































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i
)

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I
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I
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V
E





































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i
i
i
)





W
I
T
H

N
E
G
A
T
I
V
E
























R
E
F
E
R
E
N
C
E

V
O
L
T
A
G
E














R
E
F
E
R
E
N
C
E

V
O
L
T
A
G
E























R
E
F
E
R
E
N
C
E

V
O
L
T
A
G
E








V
o
u
t
V
o
u
t
V
o
u
t
V
i
n
V
i
n

U
T
P
U
T
P
U
T
P
L
T
P
L
T
P
L
T
P
V
i
n

0

0
0
0

0

0
t
t
t
t
t
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 9

Hysterisis curves:
Fig(I) Fig(II) Fig(III)













Procedure:
1. Circuit connections are made as shown above.
2. A time varying signal is applied as input the amplitude of input voltage should be at
least equal or greater than UTP or LTP. whichever is greater in magnitude of the input
signal being 1KHZ.
3. Both input and output are observed simultaneously on the CRO. Input in Ac mode
and output in Dc mode.
4. To get the Hysterisis Curve on CRO input signal is fed to the X channel and output
is fed to Y channel of the CRO (initially X & Y channels are put to GND and the
GND lines are coincides with the reference axis).X Y mode is pressed. The luminn
Dot appearing on the screen is moved to center. Now X channel is put to Ac mode &
Y channel to Dc mode .This displays the hysterisis curve from which UTP & LTP
And voltages are measured and compared with the given values.

Result:

Theoretical Values Practical Values
UTP LTP UTP LTP
+2 -2
+3 1
-1 -3


Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks







Vout
Vout
Vout
UTP
UTP
UTP
LTP
LTP
LTP

Vin Vin

Vin
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 10


Experiment No. :03
PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Aim: To conduct an experiment to generate PAM signal and to measure critical amplitude.

Apparatus:

Sl. No. Particulars Range Quantity
1. Transistor SL100 - 1
2. Resistors &
Capacitors
As per design 1 each
3. CRO Probes - 1 set

Theory:
Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) is a form of signal modulation where the message
information is encoded in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses. Demodulation is performed
by detecting the amplitude level of the carrier at every symbol period. The samples are taken at
regular interval of time. The sample is a pulse whose amplitude of the variable at the instant of
time at which the sample is taken. It is a simple process. PAM is now rarely used, having been
largely superseded by pulsecode modulation and more recently by pulse-position modulation.
The widely popular Ethernet communication standard is a good example of PAM usage.

Procedure:
1. Check the components/ Equipments for their working condition.
2. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Apply the square wave carrier signal of 2V peak to peak amplitude of frequency 5KHz
4. Apply sine wave modulating signal of frequency f
m
= 100Hz with 5V peak to peak
amplitude and 3V DC shift.
5. Observe the PAM waveform
6. Observe the demodulated signal at the output of the low pass filter and note f
o
and Vo.
7. Repeat the above steps for f
c
= 2f
m
and f
c
< 2f
m
.

Circuit Diagram:














Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 11

Design:
Specification: Ic = 1mA, hfe = 100, V
CE
sat = 0.3V, V
BE
sat = 0.7V, fm = 100Hz
Biasing:
Vm(t) = Ic x Rc + V
CE
sat
Let Vm(t) = 2.5V peak + 3 V DC shift = 5.5V peak signal
Then Rc = 5.2 K
Vc(t) = I
B
x R
B
+ V
BE
sat
Let Vc(t) = 2 V peak peak (1V peak), since I
B
= I
C
/ hfe = 10 A, then R
B
= 30 K
Filter :
Cut off frequency of the filter fo >> fm
Choose fo = 500Hz , fo = 1 / 2RC
Assume C = 0.1 f, then R = 3.3 K

Tabular Column :
Sl.
No.
Vc p-p
In Volt
fc in Hz Vm p-p
In Volt
Fm
in Hz
Vo of demodulated
signal in Volt
fo of demodulated
signal in Hz











Waveforms :

















Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 12

Result:
Sl. No fc in Hz fm in Hz fo in Hz












































Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks



Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 13

Experiment No.4(a):
MULTIVIBRATORS

Aim : To rig up a Monostable Multivibrator using IC 555 timer to generate a pulse of
Given width.

Component Required :
Sl.No Particulars Range Quantity
01 IC 555 ------ 1 No
02 Capacitor 0.1f, 0.01f 1each
03 Resistors 10K 1each
04 Trainer Kit . .
05 Connecting wires . .

Design :
O/p pulse width = delay time Td = 0.5msec
O/p delay time Td= 1.1RaC
Ra = 10K & C=0.01F
Vut ,upper threshold Vg = 2/3 Vcc

Choose R
T
C = <<Td
R
T
Ct <Td/10
D=Td/t; f=1/T=1/p trigger pulse freq
F = 1KHz, T=1ms o/p delay time

Circuit digram:




















Discharge
Vcc Reset
Trigger I/P
Threshold
Output
Control
Voltage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Gnd
IC 555
R
A
0.01f
Vo
Vcc = 5V
Input
C
T
R
T
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 14

Procedure :
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. trigger pulses are applied at pin 2 (the duty cycle of trigger pulses is adjusted so that its
off time is less than pulse width W )
3. The pulse width of the waveforms at pin 3 is measured and verified with the designed
value.
4. Capacitor voltage waveforms is observed at pin No.6 or 7.

Result :

Pulse width (W) given =_______________

Pulse width (W) observed = _______________






























Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks



Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 15

Experiment No.4(b):
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Aim : To rig up a Astable Multivibrator using IC 555 timer to generate a square wave of
desired frequency and duty cycle.

Component Required :
Sl.No Particulars Range Quantity
01 IC 555 ------ 1 No
02 Capacitor As per design 1each
03 Resistors As per design 1each
04 Resistor As per design 2Nos
05 Diode BY 127 2Nos
06 Trainer Kit . .
07 Connecting wires . .


Design : Without Diode
i) Charging time T1=0.693*(Ra+Rb)*C--------(1)
Discharging time T2=0.693*Rb*C------------(2)
Let f=1.5kHz and choose duty cycle=66%
D= T1/T With Diode
T=T1+T2 ii) f = 1KHZ D = 50% (square wave)
Ton = 0.69 R
A
C, Toff = 0.69R
B
C,
T=1/f=0.66msec
Let C=0.01f Duty cycle D = Ton
Dutycycle D=T1/T T
T1=DxT=66%x0.66x10
3

T2=T-T1=0.66-0.435=0.22ms Given D = 50%, f = 1KHz

From equn(2) D = Ton / T = 0.5

Rb= T2 = 0.22x10
-3
=31.7k Hence Ton = Toff = 0.5ms
0.693C 0.693x0.01f Let C = 0.1 f,

From equan(1)
Ra+Rb= T1 = 0.435x10
3
=

62.77k Ton = 0.693R
A
C,
0.693C 0.693x0.01f 0.5x10
-3
= 0.69RA x0.1x10-6
Hence,
Ra=62.77k-31.7k=31k RA = 7.2K,
Similarly RB = 7.2K,

Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 16

Circuit Diagram:



















Waveforms:















Procedure :
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The Ton, Toff and T of the output wave forms at pin 3 is measured and is verified with
the designed value.
3. Capacitor voltage wave forms is observed at pin 2 or 6.
Result :
Ton =------- Toff :------ F=----------

Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks



Discharge
Vcc Reset
Trigger I/P
Threshold
Output
Control
Voltage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Gnd
555
33K RA
33K RB
C
0.01
0.01
Vo Vc
Vcc = 5V

V
UT

V
LT
V
CC
V
C
T
2 T
1
V
OH
V
0
t
0
0
t
T
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 17

Experiment No. : 05
GENERATION & DETECTION OF AM WAVE
Aim : To conduct an experiment to generate AM signal and to demodulate the AM signal.

Components Required:-

Sl. No. Particulars Specification Quantity
1. Transistor SL100 - 1
2. Resistors &
Capacitors
As per design 1 each
3. Diode OA79 - 1
4. IFT, AFT - 1 each
5. CRO Probes - 1 set


Theory:

Amplitude modulation (AM): is a form of modulation in which the amplitude of a carrier wave
is varied in direct proportion to that of a modulating signal. AM is commonly used at radio
frequencies and was the first method used to broadcast commercial radio. The term AM is
sometimes used generally to refer to the AM broadcast band. In its basic form, amplitude
modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and in two
adjacent sidebands. Each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating signal and is a
mirror image of the other.
Thus, most of the power output by an AM transmitter is effectively wasted: half the power is
concentrated at the carrier frequency , which carries no useful information; the remaining power
is split between two identical sidebands, only one of which is needed.

Modulation Index
In AM modulation index is also called modulation depth, indicates by how much the modulated
variable varies around its original level. For AM,
M = Am / Ac
Where Am is the peak amplitude of the modulating signal and Ac amplitude of the carrier signal.


Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 18

Circuit Diagram:


















Design :
Specification: f
IFT
= 455 KHz
RC >> T Where T = 1 / f
IFT

Let RC = 100 T Assume C = 0.01f then R = 21.97 K
Envelop Detector :
1/fm > Rd Cd>1/fc Let Rd Cd = 100 / fc
Assume Cd = 0.001f , then Rd = 200 K

Tabular column for modulation:
Sl.
No
Vmax
in
Volt
Vmin
in
Volt
m= (Vmax Vmin)
(Vmax + Vmin)
Vm= (Vmax Vmin)
2
in Volt
Vc= (Vmax + Vmin)
2
in Volt












%m
Vm
%m
Vc
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 19


Tabular column for demodulation:
Sl.
No
Vo in
Volt
fo in Hz












Waveforms:






























Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 20


Transfer Characteristic Curve:













Procedure:
1. Check the components/equipments for their working condition.
2. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. By switching off the modulating signal, find the tuned frequency of IFT by varying
frequency of c(t).
4. Keeping the carrier frequency at the tuned frequency of the IFT switch on the modulating
signal and observe the AM signal.
5. Find the modulation index m, the amplitude of the carrier signal Vc and the amplitude of
the message signal Vm by recording the Vmax and Vmin.(Vmax and Vmin should be
measured from both AM signal and Trapezoidal waveform.)
6. Repeat the above step by varying the amplitude of modulating signal. Plot a graph of Vm
Vs %m.
7. Connect the envelope detector circuit and observe the demodulated signal.

Note: To obtain the trapezoidal waveform, feed the modulating signal to channel (i) and AM
wave to channel (ii) press X Y knob.

Result:







Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks



Vmax
Vmin
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 21

Experiment No.: - 6(a)
SECOND ORDER ACTIVE BAND PASS FILTER

Aim:- To design an active second order band pass filter for a cut-off frequency 5KHz

Components required:-

Sl.no Components Quality Quantity
1 Op-amp IC A741 1
2 CRO 1
3 Signal generator 1
4 Resistors 10K, 2.2K, 3.3K,5.6 2-2-2-2
5 Capacitors 0.01F 1

Circuit diagram:-


Design:-
HPF:- Let A
f
=1.568 & f
c
=5KHz
Af = 1 + (Rf / R1)
1.568-1 = Rf / R1
Rf =5.6 K when R1=10K
fc = 1 / 2Rc assume c=0.01F
R=1 / (2 X 5x10
3
X 0.01x10
-6
) = 3.3K

LPF:- Let A
f
=1.568 & f
c
=8KHz
Af = 1 + (Rf / R1)
1.568-1 = Rf / R1
Rf =5.6 K when R1=10K
fc = 1 / 2Rc assume C=0.01F
R=1 / (2 X 8x10
3
X 0.01x10
-6
) =
1.99K
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 22

Procedure:-
1.Ckt connections are made as shown in the fig.
2.Apply a sine wave input 2V peak to peak & observe the output.
3.The input frequency is varied & the o/p freq is noted down.
4.The gain in dB is calculated by using the formula Af=20 log (vo/vi)
5.The graph of gain v/s frequency is plotted on the graph sheet.
6.Calculate fc & f
H

Tabular Column:-
Input voltage, vin = _______
Frequency in Hz O/p voltage Gain A= Vo / Vin Af= 20 log Vo / Vin



















Ideal graph:-













Result: - Cut-off frequency , fc = ___________, Higher Cut-off frequency , f
H
= ___________
Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks



Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 23

Experiment No.: - 6(b)
SECOND ORDER ACTIVE BAND STOP FILTER

Aim:- To design an active second order band elimination filter for a cut-off frequency 10KHz

Components required:-

Sl.no Components Quality Quantity
1 Op-amp IC A741 1
2 CRO 1
3 Signal generator 1
4 Resistors 10K, 2.2K, 3.3K,5.6 5-2-2-2
5 Capacitors 0.01F 1

Circuit diagram:-



Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 24

Design:-
HPF:- Let A
f
=1.568 & f
c
=5KHz
Af = 1 + (Rf / R1)
1.568-1 = Rf / R1
Rf =5.6 K when R1=10K
fc = 1 / 2Rc assume c=0.01F
R=1 / (2 X 5x10
3
X 0.01x10
-6
) = 3.3K

Procedure:-
1.Ckt connections are made as shown in the fig.
2.Apply a sine wave input 5V peak to peak & observe the output.
3.The input frequency is varied from 100Hz to 100KHz & the for each o/p freq is noted down.
4.The gain in dB is calculated by using the formula Af=20 log (vo/vi)
5.The graph of gain v/s frequency is plotted on the graph sheet.
6.Calculate fc & bw = f
H
-f
L


Tabular Column:-

Input voltage, vin = _______

Frequencyin Hz O/p voltage Gain A= vo/vin Af= 20 log vo/vin

























LPF:- Let A
f
=1.568 & f
c
=8KHz
Af = 1 + (Rf / R1)
1.568-1 = Rf / R1
Rf =5.6 K when R1=10K
fc = 1 / 2Rc assume C=0.01F
R=1 / (2 X 8x10
3
X 0.01x10
-6
) = 1.99K
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 25

Ideal graph:-


















Result: - Cut-off frequency , fc = ___________

Higher Cut-off frequency , f
H
= ___________






















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Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 26

Experiment No.: - 7
DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER
AIM: Design of 4-bit R-2R ladder DAC using OP-AMP

Components required:
Sl.
No
Component Range Quantity
1 OP-AMP A741 01
2 Trainer kit
3 Resistors As per design
4 IC 7493 01
Design:
Choose R
f
=R=470
2R=2x470=1k
Given n=step size=4
Vo= -Vref R
f
[B0 2
0
+B1 2
1
+B2 2
2
+B3 2
3
]
2
n
R
For example:
B0 B1 B2 B3= 1 0 0 0

Vo= -5 470

[1x 2
0
+0x2
1
+0x 2
2
+0x 2
3
]
2
4
470
Vo= -0.3125V
Tabular Column:

Sl No. Binary Inputs Theoretical Values Practical
Values B3 B2 B1 B0
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 1 -0.3125
3 0 0 1 0 -0.625
4 0 0 1 1 -0.9375
5 0 1 0 0 -1.25
6 0 1 0 1 -1.5625
7 0 1 1 0 -1.875
8 0 1 1 1 -2.1875
9 1 0 0 0 -2.50
10 1 0 0 1 -2.8125
11 1 0 1 0 -3.125
12 1 0 1 1 -3.4375
13 1 1 0 0 -3.75
14 1 1 0 1 -4.0625
15 1 1 1 0 -4.375
16 1 1 1 1 -4.6875
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 27

Circuit diagram:

-12V
+12v
Vo
7
6
2
3
2R
1K

2R
1K

2R
1

K
2R 1K

2R 1K

Rf
470

4
470

R
470

R
470

R
B
0

B
1
B
2
B
3


A741


Ideal graph for binary input versus output voltage:



Output


-5
-4.5





-4



-3.5

-3

-2.5

2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15







Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 28

Generation of Staircase Waveform:




















Procedure:
1.Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2.the input B0 B1 B2 B3 are connected to the input toggle switches.
3.Given the binary form (0000 to 1111) and measure the output of OP-AMP
using digital multimeter and verify it with the theoretical value.
4.Plot the Graph of binary input versus the output Voltage of an OP-AMP.


Result:













Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks



CP0







MR1



B0

B1
DAC
B2

B3
+5V
2
3

14
GND
10
12
9
8
11
Vo
6
1 CP1
1KHZ
Clock Pulse

Q0
Q1
Q2
Q3
MR2
I
C
7
4
9
3
5
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 29

Experiment No. :08(a)
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

Aim : To conduct an experiment to generate PWM signal and to measure critical amplitude.

Apparatus:
Sl. No. Particulars Range Quantity
1. IC 555 - 1
2. Resistors & Capacitors As per design 1 each
3. Diode BY127 - 3
4. CRO Probes - 1 set
Theory:
Pulse width modulation: It is also known as pulse duration modulation. Three variation of pulse
width modulation is possible.
1. The leading edge of the pulse is held constant and change in pulse width accordance to
the information signal.
2. The tail edge is held constant and with respect to pulse width is measured.
3. The center of the pulse is held constant and pulse width changes on either side of the
center of the pulse. Pulse-width modulation of a signal or power source involves the
modulation of its duty cycle, to either convey information over a communications
channel or control the amount of power sent to a load.

Procedure:
1. Check the components/ Equipments for their working condition.
2. Connection are made as shown in the circuit diagram
3. Keeping the modulating signal with minimum amplitude, observe the astable
multivibrator output and verify the frequency and duty cycle.
4. Apply the modulating signal with frequency f
m
at some convenient amplitude.
5. Observe the PWM waveform.
6. Observe the variation of pulse width with respect to clamped modulating signal ( at Pin
No. 5).
Circuit Diagram:















Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 30

Design:
Specifications: fc = 1KHz , duty cycle = 50%
Hence T = 1ms, Ton = 0.5ms and Toff = 0.5ms
Astable multivibrator:
Ton = 0.693 (Rch + Rf) Ct, Toff = 0.693 (Rdch + Rf) Ct
Since duty cycle = 50% , Ton = Toff = 0.5ms
Assume Ct = 0.1f and the forward resistance of diode Rf = 100
Tehn Rch = Rdch = 7.146 K
Clamping Circuit:
Negative peak of the modulating signal should be clamped to zero volt
RC >> 1/ fm, therefore RC = 100fm
Choose C = 10f ,then Response = 100 K
Tabular Column:
fm = _________________Hz

Un modulated carrier signal

Modulated signal

Dynamic range
in Volt
Ton in
ms
Toff in
ms
fc in Hz Max. width
in ms

Min. width
in ms







































Waveforms:















Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 31

To find the critical amplitude and dynamic range:
As the amplitude of the modulating signal is increased the width of the pulses during the
negative half cycle of the modulating signal will reduce and during positive half cycle will
increase. Keep on increasing the amplitude of the modulating signal until the pulses will
disappear for the first time either because the width of the pulse may become zero during
negative half cycle or the width of the pulse may become so large that it combines with
neighboring pulse during positive half cycle. The corresponding amplitude of the modulating
signal is the critical amplitude.
The dynamic range is the difference between the critical amplitude and the amplitude of the
modulating signal at which the PWM just begin.


Result:

Pulse width = _____________ms

Dynamic range = ___________Volt

Critical amplitude = __________Volt






















Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks




Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 32

Experiment No. :08(b)
PULSE POSITION MODULATION

Aim:To conduct an experiment to generate PPM signal and to measure critical amplitude.


Apparatus:

Sl. No. Particulars Range Quantity
1. IC 555 ,IC 741 - 1 each
2. Resistors & Capacitors As per design 1 each
3. Diode BY127 - 1
4. CRO Probes - 1 set

Theory:
Pulse position modulation : In this type the amplitude and width of the pulse are kept constant,
with reference to the position of a reference pulse, is changed according to the instantaneous
sampled value of the modulating signal. Hence transmitter has to send synchronizing pulses to
keep the transmitter and receiver in synchronism. It has advantage over that of PWM i.e. it
handles constant power output. But it requires synchronization at transmitter as well as receiver
which is the disadvantage. Pulse position modulation is a form of signal modulation in which
Modulation message bits are encoded by transmitting a single pulse in one of 2
M
possible time-
shifts. This is repeated every T seconds, such that the transmitted bit rate is M/T bits per second.
It is primarily useful for optical communications systems, where there tends to be little or no
multipath interference.


Procedure:
1. Check the components/ Equipments for their working condition.
2. Connection are made as shown in the circuit diagram
3. Check the output of the mono stable multivibrator (un modulated carrier) for the
designed pulse width by giving un modulated PWM signal (m(t) amplitude set to
zero).
4. By increasing the amplitude of the modulating signal observe the PWM waveform
and then observe the PPM waveform.








Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 33

Circuit Diagram:



















Design:
Specifications: Pulse width = 200s, fc = 1KHz
Monostable Multivibrator:
Pulse width = 1.1 R Ct
Assume Ct = 0.01 f , then R = 18.18 K
Differentiator:
Rs x Cs << 1 / fc , Since fc = 1kHz , choose Rs x Cs = 0.01 / fc
Assume Cs = 0.001f , then Rs = 10 K
Tabular Column:
fm = _________________Hz

Un modulated carrier signal
Dynamic range in Volt
Ton in ms Toff in ms fc in Hz Pulse width in ms



























Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 34

Waveforms:


























To find the critical amplitude and dynamic range:
As the amplitude of the modulating signal is increased the position of the pulses will vary.
Keep on increasing the amplitude of the modulating signal until the pulses will disappear. The
corresponding amplitude of the modulating signal is the critical amplitude.
The dynamic range is the difference between the critical amplitude and the amplitude of the
modulating signal at which the PPM just begin.

Result:

Pulse width = _____________ms

Dynamic range = ___________Volt

Critical amplitude = __________Volt

Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks




Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 35

Experiment No.09
FREQUENCY MODULATION

Aim: To conduct an experiment to generate Frequency modulated wave and to measure
frequency deviation and modulation index.

Apparatus:
Sl.
No.
Particulars Range Quantity
1. IC 8038 - 4
2. Resistors & Capacitors As per design 1 each
3. CRO Probes - 1 set
Theory:
Frequency Modulation (FM) is a form of modulation, which represents information as
variations in the instantaneous frequency of a carrier wave. In analog applications, the carrier
frequency is varied in direct proportion to changes in the amplitude of an input signal. Digital
data can be represented by shifting the carrier frequency among a set of discrete values, a
technique known as frequency shift keying.
FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and
speech. Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. A narrowband form is used for
voice communications in commercial and amateur radio settings. The type of FM used to
broadcast is generally called wide-FM or W-FM. In two-way radio, narrowband fm(N-FM) is
used to conserve bandwidth. In addition, it is used to send signals into space.
Procedure:
1. Check the components/ Equipments for their working condition.
2. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. By switching off the modulating signal m(t) note the frequency of the carrier wave at Pin
No.2 of IC-8038.
4. Apply the modulating signal with suitable amplitude to get the FM signal.
5. Note the maximum(f
cmax
) and minimum(f
cmin
) frequency of the carrier wave in FM signal
6. Calculate the frequency deviation, modulation index and bandwidth.
Circuit Diagram:

Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 36

Design:
Specification: Carrier frequency fc = 3 KHz
fc = 0.3 / (R Ct ) Where R = Ra = Rb
Assume R = Ra = Rb = 10 k then Ct = 0.01f
Choose R
L
= 10 k, R1 = 82 k, Cc = 0.1 f

Waveforms:








































Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 37

Tabular Column:

fc = ________ Hz, fm = __________ Hz,

Sl
no
Vm in
V
fc max
in Hz
fc min
in Hz

1
in
Hz


2
in
Hz

3
in
Hz
= /fm B
T =
2 +2fm
in Hz


T
min
= .
T
max
= .
f
min
= .
f
max
= .

Modulation index = fmax fmin
fm

Result:
Modulation index = ________________
Maximum frequency Deviation = __________ Hz
Bandwidth of Operation = ________________ Hz














Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks



Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 38

Experiment No.: - 10(a)
HALF WAVE PRECISION RECTIFIERS

Aim:- To design a half wave precision rectifier

Components required:-

Sl.no Components Quality Quantity
1 Op-amp IC A741 1
2 Diodes 1+1
3 Resistors 10K,1K 1,2
4 Signal generator 1

Circuit Diagram:-



















Design:-
A = -R
f
/ R
1

Vo = -R
f
/ R
1
(Vi)
R
f
/ R
1
= slope = 10
R
f
= 10 R
1
Let R1=1K, then Rf= 10K

Procedure:-
1. Connections are made as shown in the fig.
2. For chosen values of Rf & R1, note down the Vo value.
3. For design value of V1 & V2 voltage, calculate the values
4. Keep the frequency less than 1KHz and amplitude should be more than 5V
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 39


Waveforms:-














Transfer characteristics:-










Result:-
















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Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 40

Experiment No.: - 10(b)
FULL WAVE PRECISION RECTIFIERS

Aim:- To design a full wave precision rectifier

Components required:-

Sl.no Components Quality Quantity
1 Op-amp IC A741 2
2 Diodes 1+1
3 Resistors 1K,470K 4,1
4 Signal generator 1

Circuit Diagram:-




















Design:-
Let R1=R2=R3=R5=1K
R4=R/2=470
For positive cycle, Vo = -[(R5/R3)Vi + (R5/R4)(-Vi)]
= -[(R/R)Vi + (R / (R/2))(-Vi)]
= -[Vi-2Vi]
Vo = Vi

For negative cycle, Vo = -[(R5/R3)Vi + (R5/R4)(-Vi)]
= -[R/R(-Vi)]
Vo = Vi


Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 41

Procedure:-
1. Connections are made as shown in the fig.
2. For chosen values of R.R2, R3 & R5, note down the Vo value.
3. Keep the frequency less than 1 KHz

Waveforms:-











Transfer characteristics:-











Result:-













Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks




Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 42

Experiment No. :11
CLASS C TUNED AMPLIFIER
Aim:To conduct an experiment to find the efficiency of Class-Characteristics tuned amplifier.

Apparatus :-

Sl.No. Particulars Specification Quantity
1. Transistor SL100 - 1
2. Resistors & Capacitors As per design 1 each
3. DIB, DRB - 1 each
4. Milliammeter 0-20/200mA 1
5. CRO Probes - 1 set

Theory:
An electronic amplifier is a device for increasing the power of a signal. It does this by taking
power from a power supply and controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with a
larger amplitude. An idealized amplifier can be said to be a a piece of wire with gain, as the
output is an exact replica of the input, but larger.
Amplifier circuits are classified as A, B, AB and Characteristics for analog designs and class
D and E for switching designs.
Class C
Class C amplifiers conduct less than 50% of the input signal and the distortion at the output is
high, but efficiencies of up to 90% can be reached. The input signal is used to roughly switch the
amplifying device on and off, which causes pulses of current to flow through a tuned circuit. The
tuned circuit will only resonate at particular frequencies, and so the unwanted frequencies are
dramatically suppresses, and the wanted full signal(sine wave) will be abstracted by the tuned
load. Provided the transmitter is not required to operate over a very wide band of frequencies,
this arrangement works extremely well. Other residual harmonics can be removed using a filter.
Circuit Diagram:











Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 43



Design :
Specification: f
IFT
= 455 KHz
RC >> T Where T = 1 / f
IFT

Let RC = 100 T Assume C = 0.01f then R = 21.97 K

Envelop Detector :
1/fm > Rd Cd>1/fc Let Rd Cd = 100 / fc
Assume Cd = 0.001f , then Rd = 200 K

Tabular column for modulation:
Sl.
No
Vmax
in
Volt
Vmin
in
Volt
M= (Vmax Vmin)
(Vmax + Vmin)
Vm= (Vmax Vmin)
2
in Volt
Vc= (Vmax + Vmin)
2
in Volt









Procedure:
1. Check the components/equipments for their working condition.
2. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. By switching off the modulating signal, find the tuned frequency of IFT by varying
frequency of c(t).
4. Keeping the carrier frequency at the tuned frequency of the IFT switch on the
modulating signal and observe the AM signal.
5. Find the modulation index m, the amplitude of the carrier signal Vc and the amplitude
of the message signal Vm by recording the Vmax and Vmin.(Vmax and Vmin should
be measured from both AM signal and Trapezoidal waveform.)
6. Repeat the above step by varying the amplitude of modulating signal. Plot a graph of
Vm Vs %m.
7. Connect the envelope detector circuit and observe the demodulated signal.

Note: To obtain the trapezoidal waveform, feed the modulating signal to channel (i) and AM
wave to channel (ii) press X Y knob.

%m
Vm
%m
Vc
Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 44

Ideal Graph:












Result:





























Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks



Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 45

Experiment No.: - 12
FREQUENCY SYNTHESIS USING PLL

Aim:- To conduct an experiment to study FM demodulation using 565 IC PLL.

Components required:-

Sl.no Components Quality Quantity
1 PLL IC 565 IC 1
2 CRO 1
3 Capacitor 470PF,0.01F, 0.1F 1,1,1
4 Resistors 560, 10K 1,1
5 Decade
capacitance box
1


Circuit diagram:-




















Design:-
fc = 63.8KHz(fm generator)
fc = 0.3 / R
1
C
1

Let C
1
= 470PF then R
1
=10K
Design of LPF: fc = 1/ 2RC
2

fc>>fm , signal say 500Hz
C=0.08F(DCB)
R= 560



Analog Communication + LIC Lab [10ECL58]


Dept of ECE, K.I.T 46

Procedure:-
1.With Pin no.4 & 5 disconnected & without FM at pin no.
2.Measure the VCO frequency at pin no.4 and make it to be 63.8KHz by adjusting
3.Inter connect pin no.4 & 5 and apply un modulated carrier to pin no.2
4.Slightly vary the carrier frequency, VCO frequency also changes, the PLL is locked.
If VCO frequency doesnot change if PLL is not locked, changes input frequency or
VCO frequency to lock the PLL
5.In the same rate modulate the carrier at pin no.2 and observe demodulate signal at pin
no.7 and compare if m(t) modulation signal.

Waveforms:-











Result:-




















Date of Completion of Exp. Staff Signature Remarks