Chapter 33: The Development of Modernist Art - The Early 20

th
Century
During the first half of the 20
th
century, rampant industrialization matured into
international industrial capitalism, which fueled the rise of consumer economics. These
developments presented society with great promise and significant problems. Change
brought elation and anxiety, euphoria and alienation. These emotions would characterize
urope for the early decades. !orld !ar ", the #reat Depression, the rise of
totalitarianism, and !orld !ar "" exacerbated this schizophrenic attitude. The arts
reflected this same mind set in the lofty utopian vision of the $auhaus and De %ti&l, on
one hand, and the scathing social commentary of the Dada artists, on the other.
'ew discoveries in many fields forced people and society to revise radically their
understanding of the world. This change was rooted in the %cientific (evolution and the
nlightenment of the previous centuries. )rtists precipitated in this reassessment, often
ac*nowledging these new discoveries by shifting the theoretical bases of their wor*.
Much of the history of early 20
th
century art is a history of a radical rejection of
traditional limitations and definitions oth of art and the universe!
"ne of the fundamental Enli#htenment eliefs $as faith in science! %ecause it $as
ased on empirical or oservale& fact& science provided a mechanistic conception of
the universe $hich provided for many an alternative to traditional reli#ious
teachin#s! )s promoted in the classic physics of "saac 'ewton, the universe was a huge
machine consisting of time, space, and matter. The early 20
th
century witnessed an
astounding burst in scientific activity that challenged this model. The new theories
espoused by +lanc*, instein, (utherford and $ohr, shattered the existing faith in the
ob&ective reality of matter. Time and space were no longer thought of as absolute, rather,
time and space are relative to the observer and lin*ed to a four dimensional space time
continuum. These new scientific theories and understandings of the universe changed the
view of physical nature and raised the curtain on the )tomic )ge.
"n addition to physics, there were great advances in chemistry and biology that yielded
*nowledge of polymers, plastics, fertilizers, vitamins, antibiotics, and many others, which
resulted in many products that improved life. Technological advances led to the
development of radios, radar, television, cinema, municipal transport systems, electrical
street lighting and home appliances.
Chemical technology led to great advance in fighting disease famine, food production,
and processing.
+hilosophy, psychology, and economic theory, underwent significant changes as
challenges to the primacy of reason and ob&ective reality emerged. 'riedrich (iet)sche
*+,---+.00/& a #erman intellectual re&ected the rational. ,e believed that !estern
society was decadent and suppressed because of excessive reliance on reason at the
expense of emotion and passion. ,e blamed Christianity as the reason for this and
insisted that societies could attain liberation and renewal only when they ac*nowledged
that #od was dead.
0i#mund 'reud *+,12-+.3./ examined the irrational mind and destabilized the long held
belief in the rational nature of humanity. ,e developed the principles for what became
*nown as psychoanalysis. ,e argued in his research that the unconscious and inner
drives control human behavior. This unconscious control is due to repression of
uncomfortable past experiences or memories. -a*ing people aware of their suppressed
memories could heal them.
Carl 3un# *+,41-+.2+/ expanded on .reud/s theories. 0ung believed therapists could
understand behavior and personality of an individual by identifying patterns in his or her
dreams. 0ung further said that the unconsciousness is composed of two facets, a personal
unconscious and a collective unconscious. The collective unconscious comprises
memories and associations all humans share, such as archetypes 1original models2 and
mental constructions. )ccording to 0ung, the collective unconscious accounts for the
development of myths, religions, and philosophies.
Mar5ism
"ndustrialization greatly effected society in the 34
th
and 20
th
centuries. The owners and
managers of the industrial giants wielded extraordinary economic and social power. Do
to the widening gap between the leaders of industry and the laborers, the popularity of
-arxism grew.
"n the early 20
th
century people faced fundamental and revolutionary challenges in how
they viewed the world. These changes would be reflected in the art that was produced.
6orld 6ar 7 and the 8ussian 8evolution
The development of advanced uropean and )merican societies led to expansion. This
expansion has been called imperialism. This imperialism was capitalist and expansionist
establishing colonies as raw material resources, manufacturing mar*ets, and territories.
This also brought on the great missionary thrusts into )frica and other places. The goal
was to bring the 5light6 of Christianity and civilization to 5bac*ward peoples6 and
educating 5inferior races.6 Darwin/s influence was evident in the thin*ing that
imperialism was also survival of the fittest.
The development of nation states did not lead to peace and harmony. 'ationalism and
the imperialistic spirit led to competition instead. Countries negotiated treaties and
alliances to protect their interests. These alliances led to !orld !ar ", which lasted from
343783439. !!" destroyed any romantic illusions about war. 'ine million people were
*illed in battle. The introduction of poison gas added to the horror of the inhumanity.
The devastation of !!" brought widespread misery, social disruption, and economic
collapse.
The (ussian (evolution saw the collapse of the Czar and the triumph of the $olshevi*s,
later called Communists, led by 9enin *+,40-+.2-/! (ussia was officially named the
%oviet :nion in 342;.
The end of !!" was followed ten years later by the #reat Depression of the 34;0/s. The
#reat Depression was devastating to !estern economies. $y 34;2 2<= of the $ritish
wor*force was unemployed, 70 = of the #erman wor*ers, and production in the :nited
%tates had fallen to <0 =.
This all created a fertile breeding ground for the totalitarian forces that came to the
forefront in some uropean countries and 0apan> -ussolini in "taly, 0oseph %talin in the
%oviet :nion, and )dolf ,itler in #ermany and To&o in 0apan. These ruthless seizures of
power evolved into !!"".
-illions died in the fighting and the attempt to extinguish the 0ewish race in what has
been termed the ,olocaust. There was also the dropping of the )tomic bombs on 0apan.
!!"" ended in 347<. The war/s economic, physical, and psychological devastation
tempered the elation people felt at the conclusion of the global hostilities.
The Evolution of Modernism and the Avant-:arde
)rtists, li*e others were deeply affected by the devastating events of the early 20
th

century. %ome responded with energy and optimism and others with blea* despair.
Changes in the art world also influenced artistic developments. The challenges of
"mpressionism, +ost8"mpressionism, and the various renegade and alternative exhibitions
diminished the academies/ authority, thought they remained a presence.
.or artists wor*ing within the crucible of historical turmoil, contending with shifting
institutional structures with in the art world, and ac*nowledging the significance of
-odernism led to an incredibly fertile period for the evolution of art, especially the
avant-garde. Early 20
th
century avant-#arde artists $ere in the forefront of
a##ressively challen#in# traditional and often cherished notions aout art and its
relations to society! As the old social order collapsed and ne$ ones * such as
communism and corporate capitalism/ too; their places& one of the self-imposed
tas;s school after school of avant-#arde artists emraced $as the search for ne$
definitions and uses for art in a radically chan#ed $orld! The term avant8garde
emerged in art after it was in use in politics. This prompted the general public to
associate the avant8garde artists with radical political thought and anarchism. !hile this
was so, in contrast, other avant8garde artists in essence withdrew from society and
concentrated their attention on art as a uni?ue activity, separated from society at large.
These artists pursed an introspective examination of artistic principles and elements
1continuing the modernists/ goals2, resulting in an increasing focus on formal ?ualities of
art.
E5pressionism in Early 20
th
Century Art
)spects of all the avant8garde movements contributed to the emergence of expressionism.
E5pressionism refers to art that is the result of the artist<s uni=ue inner or personal
vision that often has an emotional dimension! This contrasts $ith art focused on the
visual description of the empirical $orld! This was a re&ection of (enaissance
sensibilities that had governed the western art world for the previous <00 years.
The term expressionism was popularized in the avant8garde &ournal Der Strum. The
editor ,erwarth !alden proclaimed> >6e call art of this century E5pressionism in
order to distin#uish it from $hat is not art! 6e are thorou#hly a$are that artists of
previous centuries also sou#ht e5pression! "nly they did not ;no$ ho$ to formulate
it!?
There are several movements of the 20
th
century that are classified as expressionist.
%ome of this expressionist art evo*es visceral emotional responses from the viewer,
whereas other such artwor*s rely on the artist introspective revelations. @ften the
expressionists offended viewers and even critics, but the sought empathy A connection
between the internal states of artists and viewers A not sympathy.
'auvism
"n 340<, at the %alon d/)utomne in +aris, a group of young painters under the leadership
of @enri Matisse exhibited canvases so simplified in design and so shoc*ingly bright in
color that a startled critic described the artists as fauves ($ild easts/! The .auves were
totally independent of the )cademy and the official %alon. The fauve movement was
driven by the desire to develop an art that had the directness of "mpressionism but that
also used intense color &uxtapositions and their emotional capabilities, the legacy of
artists such as Ban #ogh and #auguin. The .auves had seen the wor* of these artists in
retrospective exhibitions in +aris in 3403 and 340;, but went even further in liberating
color from its descriptive function and using it for both expressive and structural ends.
They produced wor*s of great spontaneity, rich surface textures, lively linear patterns and
above all bold colors. The fauves went beyond any earlier artists by using contrasting
colors applied in sweeping brushstro*es and bold patterns. They comined out$ard
E5pressionism& in the form of old release of internal feelin#s throu#h $ild color
and po$erful rutal rush$or;& $ith in$ard e5pressionism& a$a;enin# the vie$er<s
emotions y these very devices!
The fauves were never officially organized and disintegrated within five years. !hile
short lived, the movement had tremendous influence in the direction of art by
demonstrating color/s structural, expressive, and aesthetic capabilities.
@enri Matisse *+,2.-+.1-/ was the dominant figure of the group. ,e realized that color
could play a primary role in conveying meaning and focused his efforts on developing
this notion. 6omen $ith a @at is composed in a traditional mannerC however the
seemingly arbitrary colors immediately stri*e the viewer. -atisse explained, >6hat
characteri)ed fauvism $as that $e rejected imitative colors& and that $ith pure
colors $e otained stron#er reactions A more stri;in# simultaneous reactions& and
there $as also the luminosity of our colors!? -atisse/s reference to luminosity lin*ed
him to Cezanne, who argued that painters could only represent light by color and not
reproduce it. Color therefore became the formal element most responsible for pictorial
coherence and the primary conveyer of meaning.
The maturation of these color discoveries can be seen in -atisse/s 8ed 8oom *@armony
in 8ed/! The viewer is confronted with the interior of a comfortable prosperous
household with a maid placing fruit and wine on the table. The color selections and
&uxtapositioning generate much of the feelings of warmth and comfort. The ob&ects are
depicted in simplified, fattened forms. The table and wall are painted the same, bringing
about separation only by a dar* line. The front edge of the table is eliminated. The
painting was originally painted in green, then blue, before -atisse final settled on red.
The blue patterning contrasts greatly with the red. -atisse said, >Color $as not #iven to
us in order that $e mi#ht imitate (ature! 7t $as #iven so that $e could e5press our
o$n emotions!?
Andre Derain *+,,0-+.1-/ shared many of -atisse/s goals. "n The Dance& perspective
is flattened and color delineates space. ,ere, Derain indicates light and shadow not by
value, but by contrasts in hue. Color does not describe the local tones of ob&ectsC instead
it expresses the pictures content.
:erman E5pressionism: Die %ruc;e *The %rid#e/
The boldness and immediacy of the fauves appealed to The #erman xpressionists.
)lthough color plays an important role in their wor*, the expressiveness of their images
is due as much to the wrenching distortions of form, ragged outline, and agitated
brushwor*. This resulted in savagely brutal, powerful, and emotional canvases in the
years leading up to !orld !ar ".
The first of the #erman xpressionist artists gathered in Dresden in 340< under the
leadership of Ernst 9ud$i# Birchner *+,,0-+.3,/! The group thought of themselves as
paving a way for a more perfect age by bridging the old age and the new. Their name Die
%ruc;e *The %rid#e/ is derived from this concept. Dirchner/s early studies had instilled
in him a deep admiration for #erman medieval art. Ei*e the $ritish artists with the )rts
and Crafts movement, members of this group modeled themselves on their ideas of
medieval craft guilds by living together and practicing all the arts e?ually.
These artists protested the hypocrisies and materialistic decadence of those in power.
Dirchner, in particular focused on the detrimental effects of industrialization, such as the
alienation of individuals in cities, which he felt fostered a mechanized impersonal society.
The later move to $erlin by most of the group furthered this belief.
0treet& Dresden& provides a glimpse into the frenzied urban activity of this #erman city
before !!". (ather than offering the distant panoramic urban view of the
"mpressionists, this street is &arring and dissonant. The women coming toward the viewer
are almost confrontational and menacing as they are forced upon the viewer by the steep
perspective. ,arshly rendered, the women/s features seem ghoulish and garish due to the
clashing colors, and add to the expressive impact of the image. These expressive uses of
the formal elements would influence the wor* of dvard -unch.
Emil (olde *+,24-+.12/ was older than other $ridge artists and was invited to &oin the
group in 340F because he was pursuing similar ideas in his wor*. The content of 'olde/s
wor* was centered mainly on religious imagery. "n contrast to the ?uiet spirituality and
restraint of traditional themes, 'olde/s paintings are visceral and forceful. 0aint Mary of
E#ypt amon# 0inners depicts her before her conversion to Christ. %he is shown
entertaining lusty men groping her. .ar from an enticing scene it displays a brutal
ugliness. The distortions of form, color contrasts, and raw brushstro*es amplify the
harshness of the figures.
%orro$in# ideas from Can :o#h& Munch& the 'auves& and African and "ceanic Art&
Die %ruc;e artists created ima#es that derive much of their po$er dissonance and a
seemin# lac; of finesse! The harsh colors& a##ressive rush$or;& and distorted
forms e5pressed the painter<s feelin#s aout the injustices of society and their elief
in a healthful union of human of human ein#s and nature! Their use of such
diverse sources reflects the e5pandin# scope of #loal contact from colonialism and
international capitalism! %y +.+3 the #roup dissolved and each memer $or;ed
independently!
:erman E5pressionism: Der %laue 8eiter *The %lue 8ider/
The $lue (ider was a second ma&or #erman expressionist group formed in -unich in
3433. The two founding members were Cassily Bandins;y *+,22-+.--/ and 'ran)
Marc *+,,0-+.+2/& whimsically selected this name because of their mutual interest in the
color blue and horses. This #roup of artists produced paintin#s that captured their
feelin#s in visual form $hile also elicitin# intense visceral responses from the vie$er!
Dandins*y was born in (ussia and moved to -unich in 394F and soon developed a
spontaneous and aggressive avant8garde style. Dandins*y was one of the first artists to
explore complete abstraction as evidence in 7mprovisation 2,! Dandins*y/s motivation
to eliminate representational elements stemmed from his interest in
Theosophy *a reli#ious and philosophical elief system that incorporates a $ide
ran#e of tenets from other sources& %uddhism and mysticism/ and the occult& as $ell
as advances in science! Dandins*y was a true intellectual, widely read in philosophy,
religion, history, the arts, and music. Dandins*y was one of the few early modernists to
understand the new scientific theories of the era. (utherford/s exploration of atomic
structure convinced Dandins*y that material ob&ects had no real substance, thereby
shattering his faith in the world of tangible things.
Dandins*y articulated his ideas in his influential treatise, Concernin# the 0piritual in
Art& published in 3432. @e elieved that artists must e5press the spirit of their
innermost feelin#s y orchestratin# color& form& line& and space! @e produced many
$or;s adherin# to these principles! Dltimately& Bandins;y sa$ these astractions as
evolvin# lue prints for a more enli#htened and lierated society emphasi)in#
spirituality!
'ran) Marc& li*e many other #erman xpressionists, grew increasingly pessimistic
about the state of humanity as !!" loomed on the horizon. @is perceptions of human
ein#s a deeply fla$ed led him to turn to the animal $orld for his sujects!
Animals& he elieved& $ere >more eautiful& more pure? than humanity and thus
more appropriate as a vehicle to e5press inner truth! "n his ?uest to imbue his
paintings with greater emotional intensity, -arc focused on color and tried to develop an
iconography of color that represented ideas or feelings. $lue is the male principle, severe
and spiritual. Gellow is the female principle, gentle, happy, and sensual. (ed is matter,
brutal and heavy. These efforts li*ed him to other avant8garde artists struggling to
redefine the practice of art.
'ate of the Animals was painted in 343; when tension of the impending war had
pervaded society and emerged in -arc/s art. The animals appear trapped in a forest
while some apocalyptic event is destroying them. The entire scene is distorted and
shattered into fragments. The lighter and brighter colors of his iconography are missing.
The blues and reds, colors of severity and brutality, dominate. -arc found himself at the
front lines in !!" &ust a year after painting this wor*. ,e wrote to his wife that 'ate of
the Animals >is li;e a premonition of this $ar A horrile and shatterin#! 7 can
conceive that 7 painted it.6 The tragic irony of this was his death in action in the !ar in
343F.
Emracin# Astraction
The expressionist departure from any strict adherence to illusionism in art was a path
followed by other artists. Ealo Eicasso *+,,+-+.43/ was among those who most
radically challenged artistic conventions and moved most aggressively into abstraction.
+icasso was a %panish artist whose importance in the history of art is undisputed. ,e
made huge contributions to new ways of representing the surrounding world. ,e was
perhaps the most prolific artist in history and wor*ed in nearly every medium.
+icasso mastered all aspects of observational drawing and the styles of the late 34
th

century by the time he entered the $arcelona )cademy of .ine )rts in the 3940/s. ,is
prodigious talent led him to experiment with a wide range of visual expression first in
%pain and then in +aris when he moved there in 3407. ,e remained a traditional artist in
his sense of preparatory drawings for each ma&or wor*, but he was modernist in his
enduring ?uest for innovation, his lac* of complacency, and his insistence on constantly
challenging himself and others around him. +icasso was constantly experimenting and
shifted from one style to another. ,e went from somber %panish realism, to
impressionism, to the so called %lue Eeriod *+.0+-+.0-/ that reflected +icasso/s
melancholy state of mind. This period is reflected in the art wor*s in which he used
primarily blue colors to depict worn, pathetic, and alienated figures.
"n 340F, +icasso was loo*ing for new ways to depict form. ,e was influenced by ancient
"berian sculpture, and the late paintings of Cezanne, and )frican mas*s. The e5pansion
of colonial empires in the late +.
th
and early 20
th
centuries resulted in $ider e5posure
of European and American artists to art from Africa& 7ndia& and other fara$ay
locales!
This influence can be seen in +icasso/s Eortrait of :ertrude 0tein& who along with her
brother, were friends and patrons of the avant8garde. +icasso struggled with the painting
leaving it unfinished after 90 sittings. +icasso told %tein 5" can/t see you any longer
when " loo*.6 @n resuming the portrait in 340H, +icasso painted %tein/s head as a
simplified planer form, incorporating aspects derived from )frican mas*s and sculptures.
Eater in 340H, the influence of )frican art and Cezanne can be more clearly evidenced in
9es Demoiselles d<Avi#non 1literally 5the young ladies of )vignon62. This painting is
historically very significant because it is viewed as opening the door 1or some would say,
+andora/s $ox2 to a radically new method of representing form in space. The wor*
began as a symbolic picture to be titled Philosophical Bordello, portraying male clients
intermingling with women in the reception room of a brothel. $y the time he finished, he
had eliminated the male figures, simplified the rooms details to a suggestion of drapery
and a schematic foreground still life. +icasso became fully absorbed in the problem of
finding a new way to represent the five figures in their interior space. "nstead of
representing them as continuous volumes, he fractured their shapes and interwove them
with the e?ually &agged shapes of the drapery and empty space to where the distinction
between the foreground and bac*ground is unclear. @ere Eicasso pushed Ce)anne<s
treatment of form and space to a ne$ level!
+icasso furthered the radical nature of this wor* by depicting the figures inconsistently.
The three young women to the left are portrayed with relatively calm and ideal features,
li*e figures from ancient "berian sculpture. The greatly distorted figures to the right
directly display +icasso/s increasing fascination with the power of )frican sculpture.
+icasso must have further distorted the bodies in response to the faces, brea*ing them
into ambiguous planes that suggest multiple points of view at once. :one completely is
the traditional concept of an orderly& constructed& and unified pictorial space that
mirrors the oservale $orld! 7n its place are the e#innin#s of a ne$
representation of the $orld as a dynamic interplay of time and space! Eicasso
e5plained& >7 paint forms as 7 thin; them& not as 7 see them! .or many years +icasso
only showed 9es Demoiselles d<Avi#non to other painters. @ne of the first to see it was
:eor#es %ra=ue *+,,2-+.23/! :sing this painting/s revolutionary ideas as a point of
departure, $ra?ue and +icasso formulated Cubism around 3409.
Cuism
Cubism represented a radical turning point in the history of art, nothing less than the
destruction of pictorial illusionism that had dominated !estern art for the past <00 years.
The Cubists re&ected naturalistic depictions, preferring compositions of shapes and forms
abstracted from the conventionally perceived world. These artists pursued the analysis of
form, brea*ing it into its many parts and then reconstructing it by a new logic of design,
into a coherent aesthetic ob&ect. The art of painting had to move far beyond the
description of observed reality. This re&ection to traditional practice was in the spirit of
the times where everything was being ?uestioned because of the crumbling of the
concrete 'ewtonian world, fostered by the physics of instein and others. The .rench
writer and theorist )pollinaire wrote about Cubism>
Authentic cuism is the art of depictin# ne$ holes $ith formal elements
orro$ed not from the reality of vision& ut from that of conception! This
tendency leads to a poetic ;ind of paintin# $hich stands outside the $orld of
oservationF for even in simple cuism& the #eometrical surfaces of an oject
must e opened out in order to #ive a complete representation of itG!
Everyone must a#ree that a chair& from $hatever side it is vie$ed& never
ceases to have four le#s& a seat and a ac;& and that if it is roed of one of
these elements& it is roed of an important part!
Cubism received its name after -atisse described some of $ra?ue/s wor* to a critic as
having been painted >$ith little cues&? and the critic went on in his review to spea* of
>cuic oddities!?
Analytic Cuism
,istorians refer to the first phase of Cubism, developed &ointly by +icasso and $ra?ue, as
Analytic Cuism! "n order to present multiple views at once to fully describe an ob&ect,
the traditional approach of drawing from one point of view was no longer effective. %o
the Cubists began to dissect the forms for the viewer to inspect on the canvas. "n simple
terms )nalytic Cubism involves analyzing form and investigating the visual vocabulary
1pictorial elements2 for conveying meaning.
$ra?ue/s painting, The Eortu#uese& from 3433, is a great example of this approach. The
sub&ect was from $ra?ue/s memories of a +ortuguese musician in a bar in -arseilles.
$ra?ue concentrated his attention on dissecting the form and placing it in a dynamic
interaction with the space around it. ,e dramatically reduced color, unli*e the .auves
and #erman xpressionists, so that the viewers would focus on form. $ra?ue has so
dissolved the sub&ect that it is difficult to discern. The large intersecting planes suggest
the man and guitarC smaller planes penetrate and hover over the larger planes. The use of
light and shadow to model suggest form and transparency. There is a planned
inconsistency to which areas are in front and which behind. The stenciled letters and
numbers add to the complexity and the confusion between two dimensional and three
dimensional forms and levels of space.
+icasso and $ra?ue pioneered the exploration of visual vocabulary A for example,
composition, two dimensional shape, three dimensional form, and value A and its role in
generating meaning. .urther the inclusion of elements such as recognizable letters and
numbers seems to anchor the painting in a world of representation, thereby exacerbating
the tension between representation and abstraction. Constantly shifting imagery ma*es it
impossible to arrive at any definitive reading of the image, leaving ambiguity and doubt.
+icasso and $ra?ue avoided color to unify paintings that radically disrupted viewer
expectations about the representation of time and space. Their contemporary,
8oert Delaunay *+,,1-+.-+/ wor*ed toward a *ind of color Cubism. )pollinaire
called this style "rphism& after @rpheus, the #ree* god with magical music ma*ing
powers. )pollinaire believed art, li*e music, was divorced from representation of the
visible world. ,e along with his wife, who was also an artist, became convinced that the
rhythms of modern life could best be expressed through color harmonies and
dissonances. Champs de Mars& or The 8ed To$er& was painted between 340483432
and depicted the iffel Tower. "t was still considered an engineering marvel many years
after it was built in 3994. The title refers to the field in which the iffel Tower stands.
Delaunay bro*e the monuments perceptual unity into colored shards the advance or
recede according to the relative hues and values of the bro*en shapes. The structure
ambiguously rises and collapses, and has been interpreted as commentary on societal
collapse prior to !orld !ar ". Delaunay himself $rote& descriin# the ima#ery& >The
synthesis of a period of destruction: li;e$ise a prophetic vision $ith social
repercussions: $ar and the ase crumles!?
Delaunay/s experiments with color strongly influenced the .uturists and the #erman
xpressionists. These artists found in his art a means for intensifying expression by
suggesting violent motion through shape and color.
0ynthetic Cuism
"n 3432, Cubism entered a new phase when the style no longer relied on a decipherable
relation to the observed world. "n, 0ynthetic Cuism& artists constructed paintings and
drawings from ob&ects and shapes cut from paper or other materials to represent parts of a
sub&ect. 0till 9ife $ith Chair-Canin# *+.+2/ is the wor* that mar*ed this point of
change in +icasso/s wor* and history. The painting has pasted onto the canvas a piece of
oilcloth printed to loo* li*e chair8caning. .ramed with a piece of rope the wor*
challenges the viewers understanding of reality. The caning loo*s real, yet it is an
illusion. "n contrast, the painted abstract areas do not imitate real ob&ects, yet does this, in
a sense ma*e them more real than the caning illusionI The letters 0@: appear, as in
many Cubist paintings, and refer to the .rench word 0ournaux or &ournal for newspaper.
+icasso and $ra?ue delighted in visual puns. The 0@: is also referring to the words
&ouer and jouir the .rench words for to play and to enjoy.
Colla#e
+icasso and $ra?ue continued to explore the medium of collage which was introduced
into the realm of ,igh )rt in 0till 9ife $ith Chair Canin#! .rom the .rench word
coller, meaning 5to stic*,6 a collage is a composition of bits of ob&ects, such as
newspaper of cloth, glued to a surface. $ra?ue/s, %ottle& (e$spaper& Eipe and :lass& is
done in a variant of collage called papier colle 1stuc* paper2, or gluing assorted paper
shapes to a drawing or painting. (oughly rectangular shapes of various printed and
colored papers dominate the composition. The faux bois 1false wood2 paper with
molding provides an illusion whose concreteness contrasts with the lightly rendered
ob&ects on the right. .ive pieces of paper overlap each other in the center of the
composition to create a layering of flat planes that both echo the space the lines suggest
and establish the flatness of the wor*s surface. The shapes seem to oscillate bac* and
forth in space. %hapes push planes bac* in some places and ma*es them transparent in
others.
Biewers of this wor* must realize that this is not an illusion of the observable world, but
rather it is a visual game to determine all the various changes in representation. $ra?ue
no longer analyzed the observed world, here he constructed or synthesized ob&ects and
space ali*e from the materials he used. +icasso stated at this time in Cubism
development> >(ot only did $e try to displace realityF reality $as no lon#er in the
ojectG! H7nI the papier colleG! H$Ie didn<t any lon#er $ant to fool the eyeF $e
$anted to fool the mindG! 7f a piece of paper can e a ottle& that #ives us
somethin# to thin; aout in connections $ith oth ne$spapers and ottles too!?
Ei*e all collage, the papier colle techni?ue was modern in its medium A mass produced
never before found in 5high art6 A and modern in the way the artist embedded the arts
5message6 in the imagery and in the nature of everyday materials. !hile usually viewed
in terms of formal innovations, Cubism and collage was viewed by the public in
sociopolitical terms as revolutionary and subversive in nature. Cubism/s attac* on artistic
tradition was viewed also as an attac* on society/s complacency and status ?uo. The
deconstruction of the observable world was viewed as anarchist in nature and was part of
the destabilization of society. -any artists and writers of the period allied them selves
with various anarchist groups whose utopian visions appealed to progressive thin*ers.
The impact of Cubism extended beyond the realm of the art world.
Cuist 0culpture
Cubism also inspired new approaches to sculpture. +icasso created :uitar in 3432. ,e
explored the volume via flat planar cardboard surfaces. 1This wor* is a ma?uette, or
modelC the finished sculpture was to be made of sheet metal2. $y presenting what is
essentially a cutaway view of the guitar, +icasso allowed the viewer to examine both
surface and interior space, both mass and void. %ome scholars have suggested that
+icasso derived the cylindrical form that serves as a sound hole on the guitar from the
eyes on mas*s from the "vory Coast of )frica.
3ac=ues 9ipchit) *+,.+-+.43/ was one on the most successful sculptures to adapt into
three8dimensions the planar, fragmented dissolution of form central to )nalytic Cubism
painting. $orn in Eatvia, he lived and wor*ed many years in .rance and the :nited
%tates. ,e wor*ed out his ideas for his sculptures in clay before creating them in stone or
bronze. "n %ather& Eipchitz bro*e up the continuous form into cubic volumes and planes.
This wor* represents a parallel analysis of dynamic form in space that +icasso and
$ra?ue were exploring in paint.
Ale;sandr Archipen;o *+,,4-+.2-/ was a (ussian sculptor who explored similar ideas
to Eipchitz. 6oman Comin# @er @air& is a statuette that introduces, in place of a
head, a void with a shape of its own that figures importantly into the whole design.
nclosed spaces have always existed in figurative sculpture. $ut here the space
penetrates the figures continuous mass and is a defined form e?ual in importance to the
mass of bronze. "t is not simply the negative counterpart to the volume. )rchipen*o/s
shows the same fluid intersecting planes seen in cubist painting and the relation of the
planes is similarly complex. )rchipen*o/s figure is still somewhat representational, but
li*e Cubist painting is casting off the last vestiges of representation.
3ulio :on)ale) *+,42-+.-2/ was a friend of +icasso and shared his interest in the artistic
possibilities of new materials and new methods borrowed from both the industrial
technology and traditional metal wor*ing. $orn to a family of metal wor*ers in
$arcelona, %pain, #onzalez helped +icasso construct a number of welded sculptures.
This contact allowed #onzalez to refine his own sculptural vocabulary. :sing ready
made bars, sheets, or rods of welded or wrought iron and bronze, #onzalez created
dynamic sculptures with both linear elements and volumetric forms. "n his version of
6oman Comin# @er @air& the figure is reduced to interplay of curves, lines, and
planes A virtually complete abstraction. )lthough #onzalez/s sculpture received limited
exposure during his lifetime, it became particularly important for sculptors in subse?uent
decades that focused their attention on the capabilities of !elded metal.
Eurism
Charles douard 0eanneret *nown as Ee Corbusier is today best *nown as one of the
most important modernist architects. )lso a painter, he founded in 3439 a movement
called Eurism& which opposed %ynthetic Cubism on the grounds that it was becoming
merely an esoteric, decorative art out of touch with the machine age. +urists maintained
that machinery/s clean functional lines and pure forms of its parts should direct the
artist/s experiments in design, whether in painting, architecture, or industrially produced
ob&ects. This >machine aesthetic? inspired 'ernand 9e#er *+,,+-+.11/& a .rench
painter who had early on painted with the Cubists. @e devised an effective compromise
of tastes& rin#in# to#ether meticulous Cuist analysis of form $ith the Eurist<s
road simplification and machine li;e finish of the desi#n components! @e retained
from his Cuist practice a preference for cylindrical and tue shaped motifs&
su##estive of machine parts!
"n an early wor*, The City& Eeger incorporated the effects of modern posters, billboard
advertisements, harsh flashing electric lights, the noise of traffic and the robotic
movements of people. ,e depicted the mechanical commotion of contemporary cities.
'uturism
There were artists who pursued many of the ideas of the Cubists, but also had an e?ually
important well defined sociopolitical agenda. They were called The 'uturists! .uturism
began as a literary movement, but soon encompassed the visual arts, cinema, theatre,
music, and architecture. "ndignant over the social and political decline of "taly, the
.uturists published numerous manifestos in which they aggressively advocated
revolution, both in society and in art. Ei*e the #erman xpressionists, they hoped to
usher in a new, more enlightened era.
"n their ?uest to launch "talian society toward a glorious future, the .uturist/s championed
war as a means of washing away the stagnant past. They saw war as a cleansing agent.
The .uturists agitated for the destruction of museums, libraries, and similar repositories
of accumulated culture, which they described as mausoleums. They called for radical
innovation in the arts. @f particular interest was the speed and dynamism of modern
technology. @ne .uturist stated that, 5a speeding automobile is more beautiful than the
'i*e of %amothrace6 by then representative of classicism and the glories of past
civilization. 'uturist art often focuses on motion in time and space& incorporatin#
the Cuist discoveries derived from the analysis of form!
Dmerto %occioni *+,,2-+.+2/ was one of the leaders of the .uturist movement. ,e
was both a painter and a sculpture as were many of the early -odernists. 6hat $e $ant
he claimed& is not fi5ed movement in space ut the sensation of movement itself:
>"$in# to the persistence of ima#es on the retina& ojects in motion are multiplied
and distorted& follo$in# one another li;e $aves in space! Thus a #allopin# horse has
not four le#s& it has t$enty!?
"n Dynamism of a Cyclist& 343283;, $occioni demonstrates this approach.
$occioni also applied this dictum to his sculpture, Dni=ue 'orms of Continuity in
0pace& cast in 343;C it is perhaps the definitive wor* of .uturist sculpture. The piece
hi#hli#hts the formal and spatial effects of motion rather than their source& the
stridin# human fi#ure! The fi#ure is so e5panded& interrupted& and ro;en& in plane
and contour that it seems to disappear in the lur of its movement! )lthough this
wor* bears a curious resemblance to 'i*e of %amothrace, it is evident how far this
modern wor* departs from the ancient one. $occioni/s sculpture is notable for its ability
to capture the sensation of movement.
:ino 0everini *+,,3-+.22/ painted Armored Train& a wor* that encapsulates the
.uturist philosophy artistically and politically. !hat can we tell about this trainI "s war
good or badI !hat leads you to that understanding from the wor*I !here are the
conse?uences of war, death and destructionI ,ow does this differ from #oya/s The
Third of MayJ
@nce !orld !ar " bro*e out, the .uturist group began to disintegrate, largely because so
many of them felt compelled to &oin the "talian army because of their pro8war views.
%ome of them were *illed in the war including $occioni. The ideas that .uturism
promoted became integral to fascism that emerged in "taly shortly their after.
Challen#in# Artistic Conventions
)lthough .uturists celebrated the war and the changes they hoped it would effect, the
mass destruction and chaos, horrified other artists. ,umanity had never before witnessed
such a wholesale slaughter on such a large scale over an extended period of time.
-illions were *illed, wounded, or blown to bits in great battles. The new arms
technology made it a war of guns. -illions of tons of explosives, poison gas, and shells,
made attac* suicidal and trench warfare was stalemated. The mud filth and blood of the
trenches, the pounding and shattering shells, and the terrible deaths and mutilations were
a devastating psychological and physical experience for a generation brought upon the
doctrine of progress and a belief in the fundamental values of civilization.
Dada
!ith war as a bac*drop, many artists contributed to an artistic and literary movement that
became *nown as Dada! This movement emerged, in large part, in reaction to an insane
spectacle of collective homicide. They were 5utterly revolted by the butchery of the
!orld !ar. Dada was international in scope beginning in 'ew Gor* and %witzerland and
spreading to other areas. Dada $as more of a mindset or attitude than a sin#ular
identifiale style! The Dadaists believed reason and logic had been responsible for the
unmitigated disaster of world war, and they concluded that the only route to salvation was
through political anarchy, the irrational, and the intuitive. Thus, an element of absurdity
is a cornerstone of Dada. Dada is a term unrelated to the movement, choosing the word
randomly from the dictionary. The word is .rench for 5hobby horse.6 "t satisfied the
Dadaist/s desire for something irrational and nonsensical
The pessimism and disgust of these artists surfaced in their disdain for convention and
tradition, characterized by a concerted and sustained attempt to undermine cherished
notions and assumptions about art.
)lthough the artist/s cynicism and pessimism inspired Dada, what developed was
phenomenally influential and powerful. $y attac*ing convention and logic, the Dada
artist/s unloc*ed new avenues for creative invention, allowing artists to push boundaries
farther than previous movements. Dada was in its subversiveness, extraordinarily avant8
garde and very liberating. "n addition to disdain, a current of humor and the whimsical,
along with irreverence flows through much of the art. This can be seen in Duchamp/s
Mona 9isa& and .rancis +icabia/s, Eortrait of Ce)anne! The views of the Dadaists
mirrored those of %igmund .reud, Carl 0ung, and others.
"n its emphasis on the spontaneous and the intuitive, Dada had interest in the exploration
of the subconscious that .reud promoted. "mages rising out of the subconscious mind
had a truth of their own, they believed, independent of conventional vision.
3ean Arp *+,,4-+.22/ pioneered the use of chance in composing his images. Tiring of
the Cubist loo* in his collages, )rp too* sheets of paper, tore them roughly into s?uares,
haphazardly dropped them to a sheet of paper on the floor, and glued them into the
resulting arrangement. The rectangular shapes unified the design, which )rp no doubt
enhanced by ad&usting the random arrangement to a ?uasi8grid. ven with some altering,
chance had introduced an imbalance that seemed to )rp to restore to his wor* a certain
mysterious vitality he wanted. Colla#e Arran#ed Accordin# to the 9a$s of Chance is
a wor* done using this method. The operations of chance were for Dadaists a crucial part
of this *ind of improvisation. Chance could restore to a $or; of art its primeval
ma#ic po$er and find a $ay ac; to the immediacy it had lost throu#h contact $ith
Classicism! )rp/s reliance on chance when creating his compositions reinforced the
anarchy and subversiveness inherent in Dada.
The most influential of the Dadaists was .renchman Marcel Duchamp *+,,4-+.2,/& the
central artist in the 'ew Gor* Dada and active in +aris at the end of Dada. "n 343; he
exhibited his first 5ready8made6 sculptures, which were mass produced common, found
objects the artist selected and sometimes 5rectified6 by modifying their substance or
combining them with another ob&ect. %uch wor*s, he insisted, were created free from any
consideration of either good or bad taste, ?ualities shaped by a society he and other Dada
artists found ban*rupt. +erhaps his most outrageous wor* was 'ountain& a porcelain
urinal presented on its bac* and signed 5(. -utt6 and dated. The artist/s signature was in
fact a witty pseudonym derived from the -ott plumbing company/s name and that of the
-utt and 0eff comic strip. Duchamp did not select the ob&ect for exhibition for its
aesthetic ?ualities. The 5artness6 of this wor* lies in the artist/s choice of his ob&ect,
which has the effect of conferring the status of art on it and forces the viewer to see the
ob&ect in a new light. Duchamp wrote, after 'ountain was re&ected from an un&uried
show, 5!hether -r. -utt with his own hands made the fountain or not has no
importance. ,e chose it. ,e too* an ordinary article of life, placed it so that its useful
significance disappeared under a new title and point of view A created a new thought for
that ob&ect.
Duchamp *and the #enerations of artists after him profoundly influenced y his art
and especially his attitude/ considered life and art matters of chance and choice
freed from the conventions of society and tradition! 6ithin his approach to art and
life& each act $as individual and uni=ue! Every person<s choice of found ojects
$ould e different! This philosophy of utter freedom for artists $as fundamental to
the history of art in the 20
th
century! Duchamp spent much of !orld !ar " in 'ew
Gor*, inspiring a group of )merican artists and collectors with his radical rethin*ing of
the role of artists and of the nature of art.
Dada spread throughout much of !estern urope, arriving as early as 343H in $erlin,
where it soon too* on an activist political edge, particularly in response to the economic,
social, and political chaos in the city after !orld !ar ". The $erlin artists developed a
new intensity for a techni?ue called photomonta#e *pastin# parts of many ima#es
to#ether into one ima#e/! This techni?ue had been in popular and private culture and
was used on postcards long before the 20
th
century. ) few years earlier, the Cubists had
named the process colla#e! :nli*e Cubist collage, the parts of Dada collage were made
almost entirely of 5found6 details, such as pieces of magazine photographs, usually
combined into deliberately antilogical compositions. Collage lent itself well to the Dada
desire to use chance when creating art and anti8art.
@ne of the $erlin Dadaists who perfected the photomontage techni?ue was @annah
@och *+,,.-+.4,/! ,er wor*s not only advanced the absurd illogic of Dada by
presenting the viewer with chaotic, contradictory, and satiric compositions, but they also
provided scathing and insightful commentary on two of the most dramatic developments
during the !eimar (epublic 13439834;;2 in #ermany A the redefinition of women/s
social roles and the explosive growth of mass print media. "n, Cut $ith the Bitchen
Bnife Dada throu#h the 9ast 6eimar %eer %elly Cultural Epoch of :ermany& ,och
arranged an eclectic mixture of cutout photos in seemingly haphazard fashion. @n closer
inspection, we see that ,och carefully placed photographs of some of her fellow Dadaists
among images of -arx, Eenin and other revolutionary figures in the lower right. %he
also placed cutout lettering saying >Die #rosse 6elt dada? *the #reat Dada $orld/!
%he also &uxtaposed the heads of #erman military leaders on the bodies of exotic dancers,
providing a wic*ed criti?ue of #erman leaders. ) photograph of ,och/s head appears in
the lower right hand corner, &uxtaposed with a map of urope showing the progress of
women/s enfranchisement.
Burt 0ch$itters *+,,4-+.-,/ wor*ed non8ob&ectively, finding visual poetry in the cast
off &un* of modern society and scavenged in trash bins for materials, which he pasted and
nailed together into designs such as our example Mer) +.! -erz is a word that
%chwitters nonsensically derived from the word ;ommer)an; *commerce an;/& and
used as a generic title for a whole series of wor*s. The recycled elements ac?uire new
meanings through their new uses and locations. levating ob&ects that are essentially
trash to the status of high art fits well with Dada philosophy.
The European Effect on American Art: Transatlantic Artistic Dialo#ue
0ohn %inger %argent, 0ames -c'eil !histler, and -ary Cassatt were )merican arts that
spent much of their productive careers in urope, while many uropean artists ended
their careers in the :nited %tates in anticipation and because of !orld !ar ". Bisionary
patrons supported the efforts of )merican and other artists to pursue modernist ideas.
%ome of the patrons were matrons or women as opposed to men. Thus there support
might be labeled matrona#e!
The art scene in )merica before significant uropean -odernist influence was ?uite
varied yet profoundly realist. -any )merican artists were committed to presenting a
realistic, unvarnished loo* at life, much li*e the mid834
th
century .rench (ealists.
@ne such group has been called The Ei#ht! They were a group of )merican artists who
gravitated to the circle of influential and evangelical artist and teacher 8oert @enri
*+,21-+.2./! ,enri encouraged these artists to ma*e 5pictures from life.6 These images
depicted the rapidly changing urban landscape of 'ew Gor* City. $ecause these
paintings captured the blea* and seedy aspects of city life, The ight eventually became
*nown as The Ashcan 0chool and were referred to as >the apostles of u#liness!?
3ohn 0loan *+,4+-+.1+/ wandered the streets of 'ew Gor* observing human drama. ,is
main focus was on the wor*ing class, which he viewed as the embodiment of the realities
of life. %o immersed was %loan into his views of the wor*ing class, that he &oined the
%ocialist party and ran for office on their tic*et. ,is wor*s often depicted the down
trodden, prostitutes, and drun*ards. %loan/s depiction of these sub&ects was not as one
who saw these things as immoral and evil, something to be removed, li*e the reformers
of the day, rather, he saw them as victims of an unfair social and economic system.
0i5th Avenue and 30
th
0treet *+.04/& depicts the street corner of this name in 'ew Gor*.
!e see the elevated train and shops of that area. ) drun*en woman in a white dress
stumbles toward the viewer as a pair of well dressed ladies or street wal*ers loo* on in
amusement. This scene is not uplifting nor does it show the well to do. "nstead it records
the everyday happenings of the wor*ing class. 0unday-6omen Dryin# Their @air
*+.+3/& depicts three women on the roof of their tenement ta*ing some time to dry their
hair after washing it.
:eor#e %ello$s *+,,2-+.21/ $ellows first achieved notice in 3409, when he and other
pupils of (obert ,enri organized an exhibition of mostly urban studies. !hile many
critics considered these to be crudely painted, others found them audacious and a step
beyond the wor* of his teacher. $ellows taught at the )rt %tudents Eeague of 'ew Gor*
in 3404, although he was more interested in pursuing a career as a painter. ,is fame grew
as he contributed to other nationally recognized &uried shows.
$ellowsJ series of paintings portraying amateur boxing matches were arguably his
signature contribution to art history.

These paintings are characterized by dar*
atmospheres, through which the bright, roughly lain brushstro*es of the human figures
vividly stri*e with a strong sense of motion and direction.
:eor#e 9u;s *+,24-+.33/ also painted scenes of urban life. ,e lived what he painted.
,e was a boxer and had a temper which often landed him in fights. "t is perhaps fitting
that he died in 34;; as a result of in&uries sustained in a bar fight. @uston 0treet painted
in +.+4, is an example of Eu*s wor* that demonstrates his loose, roughly painted style.
Allen 0treet painted in +.01, is also demonstrative of Eu*s/ style.
Everett 0hinn *+,42-+.13/ created paintings which found their sub&ect matter in the
slums as well as in middle8class cafK society and in theatrical activities. ,is theater
scenes were usually done in oil, his slum and lower8class pictures in pastel. :nli*e 0ohn
%loan, who felt a genuine reformer/s commitment to lower8class urban themes, %hinn
viewed the entire city as a bright, glittering spectacle to savor and to en&oy until the end
of his life. ,is art reflects the influences of Daumier, dgar Degas, and 0ean8Eouis
.orain.
The Armory 0ho$ and 7ts 9e#acy
@ne of the ma&or vehicles for disseminating information about uropean )rtistic
developments in the :nited %tates was the )rmory %how, which occurred in early 343;.
This large scale endeavor got its name from its location, the armory of the 'ew Gor*
'ational #uard/s F4
th
(egiment. "t was organized largely by two artists !alt Duhn and
)rthur $. Davies. The )rmory %how contained more than 3,F00 artwor*s by uropean
and )merican artists. )mong the uropean artists represented were -atisse, Derain,
+icasso, $ra?ue, Duchamp, Dandins*y, Dirchner, as well as xpressionist sculpture
!ilhelm Eehmbruc* and organic sculpture Constantin $rancusi. This show exposed
)merican artists and public to the latest in uropean artistic developments.
The %how was immediately controversial. The Ne !or" #imes described the show as
5pathological,6 and other critics demanded the exhibition be closed as a menace to public
morality. The wor* that was most maligned was -arcel Duchamp/s (ude Descendin# a
0taircase! The painting suggests a single figure in motion down a staircase in a time
continuum. The wor* has much in common with the Cubists and .uturists. @ne critic
described the wor* as 5an explosion at a shingle factory,6 and newspaper cartoonists had
a field day lampooning the painting.
Ehoto#raphy
The )rmory %hoe traveled to Chicago and $oston after 'ew Gor* and was a significant
catalyst for discussion and serious thought about recent developments in art. )nother
catalyst was Alfred 0tie#lit) *+,2--+.-2/! Committed to promoting the avant8garde in
the :nited %tates, he established an art gallery at 243 .ifth )venue in 'ew Gor*, which
became *nown as simply 2.+! ,e exhibited the latest in )merican and uropean art.
The gallery played an important role in the history of early 20
th
century art in )merica.
%tieglitz also channeled his energies into photography. ,e too* his camera wherever he
went, photography whatever he saw around him. ,e believed in ma*ing only 5straight
unmanipulated6 photographs, rather than using various techni?ues to alter the image or
add additional information beyond what was original in the scene. %tieglitz said he
wanted >to hold a moment& to record somethin# completely that those $ho see it
$ould relive an e=uivalent to $hat is e5pressed!?
%tieglitz waged a lifelong campaign to win a place for photography among the fine arts.
,e founded the Ehoto-0ecession group which mounted traveling shows in the :nited
%tates and abroad. ,e also published an influential &ournal titled Camera 6or;!
0tie#lit)& in his o$n $or;& sa$ the sujects in terms of form and of the >colors? of
his lac; and $hite materials! @e $as attracted aove all to arran#ements of form
that stirred his deepest emotions! This approach is seen in one of his best *nown wor*s
The 0teera#e& ta*en during a voyage to urope with his first wife and daughter in 340H.
Traveling first class, %tieglitz grew bored with the prosperous passengers and wal*ed as
far forward as he could. ,e discovered a level in the ship that was reserved for steerage
passengers, those who the government was returning to urope after refusing entrance
into the :nited %tates. %tieglitz said of this scene when he saw it,
>7 stood spellound! 7 sa$ shapes relatin# to one another A a picture of shapes& and
underlyin# it& a ne$ vision that held me: simple peopleF the feelin# of the ship&
ocean& s;yF a sense of release that 7 $as a$ay from the mo called rich! 8emrandt
came into my mind and 7 $ondered $ould he have felt as 7 didG 7f 7 had captured
$hat 7 $anted& the photo#raph $ould #o far eyond any of my previous prints! 7t
$ould e a picture ased on related shapes and deepest human feelin# A a step in my
o$n evolution& a spontaneous discovery!?
This description reveals %tieglitz/s abiding interest in formal elements of the photograph
A an insistently modern focus. "ts mixture of found patterns and human activity stirs
viewer/s emotions even to this day.
Ed$ard 6eston *+,,2-+.1,/ experimented with 5straight photography by emphasizing
the abstract through the composition of the picture. $y 5zooming in6 on a segment of a
form !eston forced the viewer to focus on formal ?ualities. (ude is an example of his
style. The images/ simplicity and the selection of a small segment of the human body,
result in a photograph of dar* and light areas that at first glance suggest a landscape. The
photograph, in its reductiveness, formally expresses a study of the body that verges on
abstract.
The )merican )rtist Man-8ay *+,.0-+.42/& wor*ed with Duchamp through the 3420/s
producing art in the spirit of Dada. -an8(ay incorporated found ob&ects in into many of
his wor*s. ,e also brought an interest in mass8produced ob&ects and technology, as well
as a dedication to exploring the psychological realm of human perception of the exterior
world. !ith Cadeau *:ift/& -an8(ay too* the found mass produced iron and glued on a
row of tac*s, subverting its proper function of smoothing and pressing. This malicious
sense of humor gave -an8(ay/s art its characteristic edge.
Marsden @artley *+,44-+.-3/ was an )merican introduced to -odernism at %tieglitz/s
243 gallery. ,e traveled to urope in 3432, visiting +aris, where he became ac?uainted
with the wor* of the Cubists, and -unich where be was drawn to the wor* of the $laue
(eiter, especially Dandins*y/s wor*. ,artley developed his own style called 5Cosmic
Cubism.6 !ith the heightened militarism in #ermany and eventual outbrea* of !orld
!ar ", ,artley immersed himself in military imagery. )mong his most famous paintings
of this period is Eortrait of a :erman "fficer! "t depicts an array of military images:
#erman imperial flags, regimental insignia, badges and an "ron Cross. !hat is the
messageI $eyond the wartime context of militarism, ,artley added personal
significance. "t includes a reference to his homosexual lover, Eieutenant Darl von
.reyberg, who was *illed in battle a few months before this wor* was painted. Bon
.reyberg/s initials are in the Eower left. To the right is his age when he died, 27. ,is
regiment number 7 is in the center next to the letter for his regiment, the $avarian
isenbahn. The influence of %ynthetic Cubism is seen in the flattened planer images
which appear almost as abstract patterns. The somber blac* bac*ground perhaps alludes
to the death of von .reyberg.
0tuart Davis *+,.--+.2-/ was profoundly influenced by the uropean modernist wor*s
he saw in the )rmory %how of 343;. Davis created what he believed was a modern
)merican style by combining the flat shapes of %ynthetic Cubism with his sense of &azz
tempos and his perception of the energy of )merican culture. This painting, while
painted in 34<<, is typical of Davis/s wor*. "n this vibrant painting, 8eady to 6ear& he
explored the )merican invention of ready to wear clothing, a term first employed in an
394< -ontgomery !ard catalog. The broad flattened areas of red, white, blac*, and blue
may represent pieces of fabric, while the angular white shape in the upper right corner
suggests a pair of scissors. !ith its bright palette and energetic composition, the painting
celebrates not only the vitality of the ready to wear clothing industry but also )merica
itself.
The @arlem 8enaissance
!hile these traumatic changes where ta*ing place in )merican art, there were also
indigenous movements ta*ing place. @ne such movement happened in the $lac*
community. "t was called the ,arlem (enaissance. The ,arlem (enaissance began in
the 3420/s and was a manifestation of the desire of )frican )mericans to promote their
cultural accomplishments. They aimed to cultivate pride among blac*s and racial
tolerance across the :nited %tates. The ,arlem (enaissance included writings of authors,
such as Eangston ,ughes, &azz and blues music from Du*e llington to Eouis )rmstrong,
and visual artists.
@ne such artist was Aaron Dou#las *+,.,-+.4./! Douglas arrived in 'ew Gor* in 3427.
,e was very sought after as a graphic artist. ,e was encouraged to create art that would
express the cultural history of his race. Douglas incorporated motifs from )frican
sculpture into compositions painted in a version of %ynthetic Cubism that stressed
angular planes. (oah<s Ar; was one of seven paintings based on a boo* of poems by
0ames !eldon 0ohnson called $od%s #rombones& Seven Negro Sermons in 'erse.
Douglas used flat planes to evo*e a sense of mystical space and miraculous happenings.
"n (oah<s Ar;, lightning stri*es and rays of light criss cross the pairs of animals entering
the ar*, while men load supplies in preparation for departure. The artist suggests deep
space by the size differential of the figures. The unmodulated color shapes create a
pattern that cancels any illusion of three dimensional depth.
)nother events that occurred in the 20
th
century is that of 0acob Eawrence. "n 1343H8
20002 he found his sub&ects in the modern culture and history of )frican )mericans.
Eawrence moved to ,arlem in 342H at the age of ten. ,e was greatly influenced by the
)frican art and )frican )merican stories he found in the library. ,e was inspired by the
political art of #oya, Daumier, and @rozco, as well as ,arlem (enaissance artists.
Eawrence found his sub&ects in the everyday life of ,arlem.
"n 3473, Eawrence began a F0 painting series titled the Mi#ration of the (e#ro! This
series was different than previous historical paintings he created depicting .rederic*
Douglas and ,arriet Tubman. This series called attention to a contemporaneous event A
the ongoing exodus of blac* labor from the %outhern :nited %tates to the 'orth.
,undreds of thousands of $lac* )mericans migrated to the 'orth following !orld !ar ".
They were see*ing improved economic opportunities and more hospitable political and
social conditions. Eawrence was part of the migrating himself but did not realize it till
the 34;0/s when he was older.
This ma&or demographic shift was largely ignored by most )mericans because it involved
)frican )mericans. $lac* )mericans found, however, that the 'orth was as difficult and
discriminatory as the conditions they left behind in the %outh.
Eawrence/s series provides numerous vignettes capturing the migrating experiences.
(o! -. depicts discrimination that $lac* )mericans faced in the 'orth, the segregated
dining room with a barrier running down the center of the painting. To insure continuity
and visual integrity among the F0 paintings, Eawrence interpreted his themes
systematically in rhythmic arrangements of bold, flat, and strongly colored shapes. ,is
style displayed Cubist influence along with his memories of the patterns made by colored
scatter rugs that were on the floors of his childhood homes. Eawrence believed that every
sub&ect he painted during his long career had important lessons to teach viewers.
Erecisionism
-any )merican artists did not &ust passively absorb uropean ideas after the )rmory
%how. 'or many American artists& the challen#e $as to understand the ideas of
modernist European art and filter them throu#h an American sensiility!
Dltimately& many American artists set as their #oal the development of a uni=uely
American art!
@ne such group was called the Erecisionists! This was not an organized movement, and
the artists rarely exhibited together, but they did share certain thematic and stylistic traits
in their art. Erecisionism developed in the +.20<s out of a fascination $ith the
machine<s precision and importance in modern life! The .rench Dada and Cubist
artist .rancis +icabia noted> >0ince machinery is the soul of the modern $orld& and
since the #enius attains its hi#hest e5pression in America& $hy is it not reasonale to
elieve that in America the art of the future $ill flo$er more rilliantly!?
+recisionism, however, expanded beyond the exploration of machine imagery. -any
artists associated with the group gravitated toward the flat, sharply delineated planes of
%ynthetic Cubism as the appropriate vehicle for their imagery by adding to the clarity and
precision of their wor*! Erecisionism came to e characteri)ed y a mer#in# of a
familiar native style in American architecture and artifacts $ith a modernist
vocaulary derived lar#ely from 0ynthetic Cuism!
Charles Demuth *+,,3-+.31/ spent the years 343283437 in +aris experiencing the avant8
garde first hand. Demuth/s wor* incorporated imagery of the industrial sites near his
native Eancaster, +ennsylvania with the spatial discontinuities characteristic of Cubism.
"n, My E#ypt& Demuth depicted the grain elevators of 0ohn !. shelman and %ons, by
reducing them to simple geometric forms. !hile the grain elevators are instantly
recognizable, the painting is disrupted by the 5beams6 of transparent planes and the
diagonal force lines that threaten to destabilize the image and that correspond to Cubist
fragmentation of space.
The meaning of the piece remains unclear. @n one hand Demuth may have been
suggesting a favorable comparison between the storing of grain in the elevators in his
native +ennsylvania and the storing of grain in gypt prior to the seven years of famine,
as recorded in the story of 0oseph at the end of #enesis. @n the other hand it could be
cynically read as a negative comment on the limitations of )merican culture.
The wor* of :eor#ia "<Beeffe *+,,4-+.,2/& li*e that off many artists, changed
stylistically through the years. During the 3420/s she was associated with the
+recisionists. @/Deeffe came to 'ew Gor* in 3439 from the tiny town of Canyon, Texas.
%he was overwhelmed and excited about city life and its pace. !hile in 'ew Gor* she
met %tieglitz. ,e became one of her staunchest supporters and eventually her husband.
%tieglitz/s fascination with the machine age and @/Deeffe/s interest in the pace of city life
were captured in her paintings. (e$ Kor;& (i#ht& depicts the soaring s*yscrapers that
dominate the city. %he reduced her images to flat planes, punctuated with small
rectangular windows that add light and energy to the dar*ness of the buildings and night.
@/Deeffe is best *nown for her paints of cow s*ulls and flowers. "n these wor*s she
stripped her sub&ects to their purist forms and colors to heighten their expressive power.
@/Deeffe simplified the forms almost to complete abstraction.
European Art in the 6a;e of 6orld 6ar 7
)mericans explored modernistic artistic endeavors unhindered because !orld !ar " was
fought on uropean soil. The uropean geopolitical terrain, and the national, as well as,
individual psyches were devastated. )fter the war many uropean artists were drawn to
the expressionist style, both to express and deal with the trauma of world war.
(eue 0achlich;eit *(e$ "jectivity/ grew directly out of the war experiences of a
group of #erman artists. )ll of the artists in the group, at some point, had served in the
#erman military. These military experiences greatly influenced their world views and
informed their art. The lael& coined in +.23 y museum director :! '! @artlau&
captured the aim of the #roup& $hich $as to present a clear-eyed& direct& and honest
ima#e of the $ar and its effects!
:eor#e :ros) *+,.3-+.1,/& was associated with Dada, but soon was lin*ed to 'eue
%achlich*eit, because of the harsh and bitter tone of his wor*. #rosz produced many
drawings and paintings that were caustic indictments of the military. @ne of these wor*s
is 'it for Active 0ervice! "n these wor*s he depicts military officers as heartless or
incompetent. This drawing may be based on #rosz/s personal experiences. @n the verge
of a nervous brea*down in 343H, ,e was sent to a sanatorium where doctors examined
him and declared him 5fit for service.6 'one of the other military doctors or officers
seems to dispute the evaluation. The spectacles on the s*eleton are similar to the ones
worn by #rosz.
Ma5 %ec;man *+,,--+.10/ enlisted in the #erman army and rationalized the war. ,e
believed the chaos would lead to a better society, but his views changed and he was
greatly disillusioned by the mass destruction of the war. ,is wor* began to emphasize
the horrors of war and of a society he saw descending into madness. ,is disturbing view
of society is seen in (i#ht! (i#ht depicts a cramped room three intruders have forcibly
entered. ) bound woman, apparently raped is splayed across the foreground. ,er
husband appears on the left being hanged and tortured by one of the intruders. To the
right a third intruder prepares to carry off a child, while a woman cowers in the
bac*ground.
!hile the image does not depict war, it does depict the wrenching brutality and violence
that $ec*man believed permeated society. $ec*man used himself, wife, and daughter as
models for the tortured figures. The stilted angularity of the figures and the roughness of
the painted surface contribute to the paintings savageness. ,ow does $ec*man handle
space and form to add to the atmosphere of the pictureI ,e dislocates and contorts
ob&ects while creating a collapsed and illogical space. $ec*man distorts adds the imagery
in order to heighten the emotional impact.
"tto Di5 *+,.+-+.1./ thought war was terrible but also could have redeeming value. "t
allowed one to experience the 5Depths of Eife6 as .riedrich 'ietzsche put it. )s war
progressed, Dix lost faith in the potential improvement of society and started depicting
the terrible conse?uences of war. ,is imagery was very direct. "n Der Brie# *The 6ar/&
Dix captures the devastation of war. @n the left soldiers are marching off leaving the
destruction they caused in the center and right panels. -angled bodies riddled with
bullet holes fill the apocalyptic landscape. ) ghostly soldier drags a comrade off in the
right panel. )t the bottom are soldiers that are asleep or dead. Dix felt compelled to lay
bare the realities of his time.
Bathe Boll$it) *+,24-+.-1/ expressed pity for the poor in her drawings and prints.
+rintma*ing, especially the woodcut, was very popular among the #erman
xpressionists. Dollwitz created a powerful wor* of maternal loss, in her etching
6omen $ith a Dead Child! Derived from the Christian tradition of -ary grieving for
Christ, Dollwitz replaced reverence and grace with animalistic passion, as the mother
ferociously grabs the body of her dead child. This wor* had an ironic ?uality to it in that
Dollwitz/s son served as the model for the dead child and that he would later be *illed at
age 23 in !orld !ar ". The primal nature of the image *eeps with #erman xpressionist
aims.
The war also affected 6ilhelm 9ehmruc; *+,,+-+.+./! !hile his wor*s were often
?uiet in mood, they displayed a powerful psychological ?uality. "n 0eated Kouth&
Eehmbruc* used elongated proportions, slumped shoulders, and hands that hang
uselessly, impart an undertone of anguish and despair to a classical type figure. The
figure communicates by pose and gesture alone. Eehmbruc* captured the post war
attitude in urope and seemed to depict his increasing depression. Eehmbruc*
committed suicide in 3434.
Ernst %arlach *+,40-+.3,/ created 6ar Monument for the cathedral in his hometown
of #ustrow in 342H. $arlach usually sculpted powerful figures in wood that were dressed
in flowing robes and were portrayed in strong simple poses that embodied deep human
emotions and combined sharp smoothly planed forms. 6ar Monument is a haunting
human figure made in bronze. The floating figure is suspended above a tomb inscribed
with the dates 343783439, and later added 34;48347<. The figure suggests a dying soul
at the moment when it is about to awa*en to everlasting life A the theme of death and
transfiguration. %o powerful was this sculpture that the 'azis had it melted down for
)mmunition in 34;H. Euc*ily a friend hid another version by $arlach and a new cast
was made from it for the cathedral.
0urrealism and 'antasy Art
The initial intensity and popularity of Dada lasted only a short time. $y 3427, with the
publication of the First Surrealist Manifesto, most of the artists associated with Dada
&oined the %urrealist movement and its determined exploration of the ways to express in
art the psyche and the world of dreams and the unconscious. "nspired impart by the
psychoanalysis of %igmund .reud and Carl 0ung, and the nature of dreams! They vie$ed
dreams as occurrin# at the level connectin# all human consciousness and as
constitutin# the arena in $hich people could move eyond their environments
constrictin# forces to reen#a#e $ith the deeper selves society had lon# suppressed!
Thus& the 0urrealist<s dominant motivation $as to rin# the aspects of outer and
inner reality to#ether into a sin#le position& in much the same $ay life<s seemin#ly
unrelated fra#ments comine in the vivid $orld of dreams! The pro&ection in visible
form of this new conception re?uired new techni?ues of pictorial construction.
%urrealism developed along two lines. %ome artists gravitated toward an interest in
iomorphic *life forms/ 0urrealism! "n biomorphic %urrealism, automatism A
dictation of thou#ht $ithout control of the mind A predominated! $iomorphic
%urrealists such as 0oan -iro produced largely abstract compositions, although the
imagery sometimes suggests organisms or natural forms. (aturalistic 0urrealists& in
contrast, presented recognizable scenes that seem to have metamorphosed into a dream or
nightmare image. The artists %alvador Dali and (ene -agritte are most associated with
this.
:ior#io De Chirico *+,,,-+.4,/ was an "talian painted that produced ambiguous wor*s
that foreshadowed %urrealism. ,is wor* is part of a movement called Pittura
Metafisica, or Metaphysical Eaintin#! De Chirico found hidden reality revealed
through strange &uxtapositions, such as those seen on late autumn afternoons in the city of
Turin, when the long shadows of the setting sun transformed vast open s?uares and silent
monuments into 5the most metaphysical of "talian towns.6 Melancholy and Mystery of
a 0treet depicts a s?uare and palace in (enaissance "taly that pro&ects a sinister
foreboding. .ew incongruous elements punctuate the scenes solitude A a small girl with a
hoop, the empty trailer, and an ominous shadow of a man. The eerie strangeness of De
Chirico greatly influenced other artists out side "taly, including the Dadaists and later
%urrealists.
Ma5 Ernst *+,.+-+.42/ was an originally a Dada artist who became an early adherent to
%urrealism. rnst often used found ob&ects in his wor*. ,e also used a process called
frotta#e 8 a process of rubbing a crayon or other medium across paper placed over
surfaces with a strong and evocative texture pattern to combine patterns. ,e combined
fragments of images he had cut to create hallucinatory collage.
T$o Children Are Threatened y a (i#htin#ale displays a private dream that
challenged the post8(enaissance idea that a painting should resemble a window loo*ing
into a 5real6 scene rendered illusionistically three8dimensional using mathematical
perspective. "n this painting, rnst painted the landscape, distant city, and the bird in
conventional fashion. The three s*etchy figures belong to the dream world. The three
dimensional gate and building brea* out of the picture plane to overlap the frame.
The finished wor* is ambiguous in imagery and meaning. The viewer struggles to
understand the meaning of the title as it relates to the image. %urrealists, Dadaists and
-etaphysical artists often used this 5mind blowing6 contradiction. The impact of
%urrealist wor*s begins with the viewer/s sudden awareness of the incongruity and
absurdity of what is pictured.
0alvador Dali *+.0--+.,./ was a %panish %urrealist painter who explored his psyche and
dreams in his paintings, sculptures, &ewelry, and designs for furniture and movies.
"nfluenced by the writings of %igmund .reud and others, Dali developed what he called
the 5paranoiac8critical method6 to assist his creative process.
7n his paintin# he aimed >to materiali)e the ima#es of concrete irrationality $ith the
most imperialistic fury of precisionG in order that the $orld of ima#ination and of
concrete irrationality may e as ojectively evidentG as that of the e5terior $orld of
phenomenal reality!?
The Eersistence of Memory& painted in 34;3, is a haunting allegory of empty space
where time has ended. )n eerie, never setting sun illuminates a barren landscape. )n
amorphous creature draped with a limp watch sleeps in the foreground. )nother watch
hangs from the branch of a dead tree that springs unexpectedly from a bloc*y form. )
third watch hangs over the bloc*y form. $eside it lies an ant covered time piece resting
face down. Dali rendered every with complete precision striving to ma*e the world of his
paintings as convincingly real as the most meticulously rendered landscape based on an
actual scene from nature.
8ene Ma#ritte *+,.,-+.24/ was a $elgian painter, who also expressed the %urrealist
vision. ,is wor*s administer disruptive shoc*s because they subvert the viewer/s
expectations, based on logic and common sense. Treachery *or Eerfidy/ of 7ma#es
presents a meticulously rendered trompe l%oeil depiction of a pipe. The wording below
the pipe, however, states 5this is not a pipe.6 The discrepancy et$een ima#e and
caption clearly challen#es the assumptions underlyin# the readin# of visual art!
This paintin# $rea;s havoc on the vie$er<s reliance on the conscious and the
rational!
The %urrealists were also enamored with sculpture, whose concrete tangibility made their
art all the more dis?uieting. Meret "ppenheim *+.+3-+.,1/ created "ject *9e
Dejeuner en fourrure/& translated as 59uncheon in 'ur!? This fur8lined tea cup was
inspired by a conversation he had with +icasso. )fter admiring a bracelet @ppenheim
had made from a piece of brass covered with fur, +icasso noted that anything might be
covered with fur. !hen her tea became cold, @ppenheim responded to +icasso/s
comment by ordering a little more fur, and the sculpture had its beginning. The wor*
ta*es on an anthropomorphic ?uality, animated by the ?uir*y combination of the fur with
a functional human ob&ect. Bisitors to the %urrealist exhibition at the -useum of -odern
)rt in 34;H selected "ject as the ?uintessential %urrealist symbol.
'rida Bahlo *+.04-+.1-/ was a #erman8-exican painter, who was married to -exican
muralist Diego (ivera. %he used the details of her life as powerful symbols for the
psychological pain of human existence. Dahlo has often been considered a %urrealist due
to her psychic and autobiographical issues she dealt with in her art, though she distanced
herself from the connection. Dahlo began painting seriously after an accident in her
youth left her with lifelong pain. ,er life was a constant battle of survival against illness
and stormy personal relationships. The T$o 'ridas& is one of few large scale canvas/
Dahlo ever produced& is typical of her self portraits. Dahlo has painted too different sides
of her personality that are lin*ed by the clasped hands and a thin artery that stretches
between her exposed hearts. @ne end of the artery ends in surgical forceps and the other
end in a portrait of her husband Diego (ivera, as a child.
The painting also has political connotations. Dahlo was committed to her -exican
heritage and was deeply nationalistic. %he &oined the Communist party in 3420 and
participated in public political protests. The struggle of -exico to achieve a national
identity appears in the figures attire. @n the right she is dressed in the traditional garb of
the indigenous culture of the Lapotec. The .rida on the left is dressed in a uropean style
white lace dress, representing imperialist forces. The heart was an important symbol of
the )ztecs, whom the -exican nationalists idealized as the last independent rulers of an
indigenous political unit. The T$o 'rida<s represents both Dahlo/s personal struggles
and the struggles of her homeland.
3oan Miro *+,.3-+.,3/ was a %urrealist %panish artist who tried to create art without
conscious control and used various types of planned 5accidents6 to provo*e reactions
closely related to subconscious experience. This approach was called automatism!
!hile -iro resisted association with %urrealism, many considered him the most
%urrealist. ,is wor* contained an element of fantasy and hallucination. %urrealist poets
in +aris introduced -iro to the idea of using chance to create art. Eaintin# is an example
of -iro/s painting method. ,e began the painting by ma*ing a scattered collage
composition with assembled fragments cut from a catalog for machinery. The shapes in
the collage become motifs the -iro freely reshaped to create blac* silhouettes A solid or
in outline, with dramatic accents of white and vermillion. The shapes seem to float in an
immaterial bac*ground.
-iro, describing his process said, 5(ather than setting out to paint something, " begin
painting and as " paint the picture begins to assert itself, or suggest itself under my brush.
The form becomes a sign for a women or a bird as " wor*M The first stage is free,
unconsciousM The second stage is carefully calculated.6 ven -iro could not fully
explain his pictures. They are in the truest sense, spontaneous and intuitive expressions
of the little understood, submerged unconscious part of life.
Eaul Blee *+,4.-+.-0/ also pursed the unconscious though he shunned formal
association with Dada and %urrealist artists. Blee sou#ht clues to humanities deeper
nature in primitive shapes and symols! 9i;e 3un#& Blee seems to have accepted the
e5istence of a collective unconscious that reveals itself in archaic si#ns and patterns!
@e elieved that this $as evident in the art of so-called >primitive? cultures! Dlee
was the son of and himself an accomplished violinist. Dlee thought of painting as similar
to music in its expressiveness and in its ability to touch its viewer/s spirit through a
studied use of color, form, and line. Blee said >Art does not reproduce the visileF
rather it ma;esG The formal elements of #raphic arts are dot& line plane& and space
A the last three char#ed $ith ener#y of various ;indsG 'ormally $e used to
represent thin#s visile on earth& thin#s $e either li;ed to loo; at or $ould have
li;ed to see! Today $e reveal the reality that is ehind visile thin#sG %y includin#
the concepts of #ood and evil& a moral sphere is createdG Art is a simile of
Creation!?
To penetrate the reality behind visible things, Dlee studied nature avidly, ta*ing special
interest in analyzing processes of growth and change. ,e coded these studies in
diagrammatic form in noteboo*s, and the *nowledge he gained in this way became so
much a part of his consciousness that it influenced his 5psychic improvisation6 he used to
create art. ,is wor* was rooted in nature filtered through his mind. :pon starting an
image, he would allow the pencil or brush to lead him until an image emerged, to which
he would then respond to complete the idea.
T$itterin# Machine is based on the tangible world that is far from illusionistic. The
imagery has been simplified, almost child li*e, imbuing the wor* with a poetic lyricism.
The impact of Dlee/s wor* is enhanced by its small size, re?uiring the viewer to draw
near to decipher the forms and enter Dlee/s mysterious dream world. The cran*8driven
machine adds a whimsical ?uality. +erhaps no other artist of the 20
th
century matched
Dlee/s subtlety as he deftly created a world of ambiguity and understatement that draws
each viewer to a uni?ue interpretation of the wor*.
(e$ Art for a (e$ 0ociety A Dtopian 7deals
!hile many artists wallowed in the pessimism of the times, other artists promoted
utopian ideals, believing staunchly in art/s ability to contribute to improving society and
all human*ind. These efforts often surfaced in times of political upheaval, illustrating the
lin* between political revolution and revolution in art. Amon# the utopian art
movements of this time period $ere& 0uprematism and Constructivism in 8ussia& De
0tijl in @olland& and the %auhaus in :ermany!
0uprematism and Constructivism
)lthough (ussia was far from +aris, (ussians had a long history of cultural contact and
interaction with the !est. !ealthy (ussians, such as "van -orozov and %ergei %hchu*in,
amassed extensive collections of "mpressionist and +ost8"mpressionist painting. $y the
mid83430s, %hchu*in had ac?uired ;H -atisse paintings and <3 +icasso. $ecause of their
access to collections such as these, (ussian artists were well informed on 20
th
century
artistic developments. )mong the artists who pursued the avant8garde direction Cubism
introduced was the (ussian painter Basimir Malevich *+,4,-+.31/! Malevich
developed an astract style to convey his elief that the supreme reality in the $orld
is pure feelin#& $hich attaches to no oject! Thus his elief called for ne$&
nonojective forms in art A shapes not related to ojects in the visile $orld!
-alevich had wor*ed in all the avant8garde styles before deciding none we suited to
express the sub&ect he found most important A 5pure feeling.6 ,e christened the new art
approach 0uprematism& explaining, >Dnder 0uprematism 7 understand the
supremacy of pure feelin# in creative art! To the 0uprematist& the visual phenomena
of the ojective $orld are in themselves& meanin#lessF the si#nificant thin# is feelin#&
as such& =uite apart from the environment in $hich it is called forthG The
0uprematist does not oserve and does not touch he feels!?
The basic form of this new ob&ective art was the s?uare. Combined with its relatives, the
straight line and the rectangle, the s?uare soon filled his paintings. "n his wor*,
0uprematist Composition: Airplane 'lyin#& the brightly colored shapes float within a
white space and are placed in dynamic relationship to each other. -alevich believed that
all people would understand his wor* because of the universality of symbols, and the
pure language of shape and color. ,aving formulated this approach, -alevich welcomed
the (ussian (evolution, which bro*e out in 343H, as a political act that would wipe out
past traditions and begin a new culture. )fter the (evolution, avant8garde art was
heralded for a short time. +ost (evolution leaders decided the new society needed a more
5practical6 art that they believe could be more understandable to a wide public. They
promoted a 5realistic6 illusionistic art. They felt that such art would teach citizens about
their new government. -alevich was horrified. Disappointed and unappreciated by his
own country -alevich eventually gravitated toward mathematical theory, geometry, and
logical fields in his pursuit of pure abstraction.
(aum :ao *+,.0-+.44/ was a (ussian born sculptor who believed that art to express
the new reality would spring from sources separate from the everyday world. The new
reality for #abo was the space8time world described by early 20
th
century scientists.
#abo wrote in 8ealistic Manifesto& >0pace and time are the only forms on $hich life
is uilt and hence art must e constructed!? 9ater he e5plained: >6e are realists
ound to earthly mattersG The shapes $e are creatin# are not astract& they are
asolute! They are released from an already e5istent thin# in nature and their
content lies in themselvesG 7t is impossile to comprehend the content of an
asolute shape y reason alone! Are emotions are the real manifestation of this
content!?
#abo was associated with a group of (ussian sculptors *nown as the Constructivists!
The name Constructivism may have come from the title of some relief sculptures that
were created by Bladimir Tatlin. #abo called himself a Constructivist because he
constructed his sculptures piece by piece, rather than by more traditional methods,
modeling or carving. This method freed the Constructivists to wor* with >volume of
mass and volume of space? as >t$o different materials? for creating compositions
filled with the >;inetic rhythms? humans perceive as >real time!?
To indicate the volumes of mass and space more clearly in his sculpture, #abo used some
of the new synthetic plastic materials, including celluloid, nylon, and Eucite, to create
constructions whose space seems to flow through as well as around the transparent
materials. "n Column& the depth of the sculpture is visible, because the columns circular
mass is opened up so the viewer can experience the volume of space it occupies. Two
transparent planes extend through its diameter crossing at right angles at the center of the
implied cylindrical column shape. The opa?ue colored planes at the base and the inclined
open ring set up counter rhythms to the crossed upright planes, They establish the sense
of dynamic *inetic movement that #abo always sought to express an essential part of
reality.
) new art movement emerged following the (ussian (evolution whose members devoted
their talents to designing a better environment for humans. This movement was called
Eroductivism!
Cladimir Tatlin *+,,1-+.13/ was a gifted leader in the movement. ,e was influenced
by Cubism/s formal analysis, .uturism/s dynamism, and the rhythmic compositions of
traditional (ussian icon painting. ,is abstract relief constructions were built with every
*ind of material A to lay the basis for what he called the 5culture of materials.6
The (evolution had been a signal to Tatlin and other avant8garde artists in (ussia that the
old order was ending. "n utopian fashion, they were determined to ma*e play a
significant role in creating a new world, one that would fully use the power of
industrialization to benefit the people. "nitially many artists believed that nonob&ective
art was ideal for the new society, because it was free from past symbolism. (ussian
avant8garde artists wor*ed together designing public festivals and demonstrations, as well
as plays and exhibitions to educate the public about their new government and the
possibilities of the future. The (ussian .uturist8Constructivist poet Bladimir
-aya*ovs*y proclaimed their new goal> >6e do not need a dead mausoleum of art
$here dead $or;s are $orshiped& ut a livin# factory of the human spirit A in
streets& in tram$ays& in the factories& $or;shops& and $or;er<s homes!?
These artists reorganized the art schools to form new educational programs.
Despite this unified effort, a split developed among avant8garde members. @n one side
were artists such as -alevich, #abo, and Dandins*y *who had returned to (ussia in
34372, and other artists who believed that art was an expression of humanities spiritual
nature. @n the other side where the +roductivists, li*e Tatlin and others who felt that
artists must direct art toward creating useful products for the new society. )fter the
(evolution, Tatlin abandoned abstract art for functional art by designing such products as
an efficient stove, and functional wor*ers clothing.
Tatlin/s most famous wor* is his design for Monument to the Third 7nternational&
commissioned by the Department of Artistic 6or; of the Eeople<s Commissariat for
Enli#htenment early in 3434 to honor the (ussian (evolution. ,e envisioned a huge
glass and iron building that would have been twice as high as the mpire %tate $uilding.
5Tatlin/s Tower6 as it became *nown, was viewed as a model for those committed to
wor*ing functioning art. "t was to be built in -oscow and serve as a propaganda and
news center for the %oviet people. !ithin a dynamically tilted cage, three geometrically
shaped chambers would rotate around a central axis at different speeds. The lower
chamber was for lectures and meetings and would revolve once a year. ,igher up was a
cone shaped chamber for intended for administration and it would rotate monthly. )t the
top was a cubic information center with state of the art communication capabilities,
including message pro&ection on clouds.
Tatlin/s design served as a visual reinforcement of a social and political reality. The
whole complex was designed to be a dynamic communications center for the fast pace of
the new age. The designs reductive ?uality lin*s it to %uprematist and Constructivist
thin*ing. The building was never constructed, but existed only in metal and wood
models. The only records of the models are found in a few drawings and photographs.
De 0tijl
:topian ideals were also expressed in ,olland. De 0tijl was a group of young artists that
formed in 343H. "t believed that the end of !orld !ar " was the birth of a new age. The
group was co8founded by Eiet Mondrian *+,42-+.--/ and 9eo Can Doesur# *+,,3-
+.3+/! They felt this time was a balance between individual and universal values, when
the machine would assure ease of living. They declared, in their first manifesto, >There
is an old and a ne$ consciousness of the a#e! The old one is directed to$ard the
individual! The ne$ one is directed to$ard the universal!?
6e must reali)e that life and art are no lon#er separate domains! That is $hy the
>idea? of >art? as an illusion separate from real life must disappear! The $ord
>Art? no lon#er means anythin# to us! 7n its place $e demand the construction of
our environment in accordance $ith creative la$s ased on fi5ed principle! These
la$s& follo$in# those of economics& mathematics& techni=ue& and sanitation& etc!& are
all leadin# to a ne$& plastic unity!?
-ondrian felt that his style revealed the underlying eternal structure of existence. This
style was based on a single principle. De%ti&l artists reduced their artistic vocabulary to
simple geometric elements. )fter his initial introduction to abstraction, -ondrian was
attracted to contemporary theological drawings. -ondrian sought to purge his art of
every overt reference to individual ob&ects in the external world. This combination
produced a conception of non8ob&ective design he called 5pure plastic art6 which he
believed expressed universal reality. >Art is hi#her than reality and has no direct
relation to realityG To approach the spiritual in art& one $ill ma;e as little use as
possile of reality& ecause reality is opposed to the spiritualG 6e find ourselves in
the presence of an astract art! Art should e aove reality& other$ise it $ould have
no value for man!
To express his vision, -ondrian eventually limited his formal vocabulary to the three
primary colors, the three primary values, and the two primary directions 1horizontal and
vertical2. ,e concluded that the primary colors and values are the purist colors and
therefore the perfect tools to construct harmonious composition. Composition in 8ed&
%lue& and Kello$& is one of many paintings -ondrian created loc*ing color planes into a
grid intersecting vertical and horizontal lines. ,e altered the grid patterns and the size
and placement of the color planes to create an internal cohesion and harmony. -ondrian
wor*ed to maintain a dynamic tension in his paintings from the size and position of lines,
shapes, and colors.
The %auhaus
The De %ti&l group influenced other artists through its simplified geometric style, and its
notion that art and life are one. "n #ermany, the architect 6alter :ropius *+,,3-+.2./
developed a vision of >total architecture?! This concept influenced generations of
pupils through the school he directed called the %auhaus! "n 3434, #ropius was
appointed director of the !eimar %chool of )rts and Crafts. :nder #ropius, the school
was renamed Das 0taatliche %auhaus 1roughly translated as >0tate 0chool of
%uildin#?/ and was referred to as the %auhaus!
#ropius/ goal was to train artists, architects, and designers to anticipate 20
th
century
needs. The extensive curriculum was based on certain principles. The first staunchly
advocated the importance of strong basic design and craftsmanship as fundamental to
good art and architecture. ,is belief that there was no essential difference between artist
and craftsman, led him to place both a technical instructor and an artist in each
department.
%econd, #ropius promoted the unity of art, architecture, and design. To eliminate
traditional boundaries that separated art from architecture, and art from craft, the $auhaus
offered a wide range of craft type classes in addition to the more standard courses.
Third, #ropius emphasized the need to produce graduates who could design progressive
environments through the *nowledge and need of machine age technologies and
materials. This re?uired the artist N craftsman to fully understand industrial and mass
production.
#ropius declared, >9et us conceive and create the ne$ uildin# of the future& $hich
$ill emphasi)e architecture and sculpture and paintin# in one unity and $hich $ill
rise one day to$ard heaven from the hands of millions of $or;ers li;e a crystal
symol of a ne$ faith!? The reference to a unity of wor*ers reveals the undercurrent of
socialism present in #ermany at the time.
@ne $auhaus teacher who had a lasting legacy on artists was 3osef Alers *+,,,-+.42/!
,e was a #erman born artist whose greatest contribution to the school was his revision of
the basic design course re?uired of all students. ,e re?uired a systematic and thorough
investigation of arts formal ?ualitiesC what has been termed the elements and principles of
design. )lbers investigated arts formal ?ualities in his own wor*. "n his series, @oma#e
to the 0=uare& painted after he left the $auhaus, between 34<0 and 34HF, encapsulates
the design concepts he developed while at the $auhaus. The series consists of hundreds
of paintings, most of which were simply color variations on the same composition of
concentric s?uares. The series reflects Alers elief that art ori#inates in >the
discrepancy et$een physical fact and psychic effect!
%ecause of their consistency in composition& the $or;s succeed in revealin# the
relativity and instaility of color perception! Alers varied the hue *color/&
saturation *ri#htness and dullness/& and value *li#htness or dar;ness/ of each
s=uare in the paintin#s in the series! As a result& the s=uares from paintin# to
paintin# appear to vary in si)e *althou#h they remained the same/& and the
sensations emanatin# from the paintin#s ran#e from clashin# dissonance to delicate
serenity! )lber/s demonstration of the reactions of colors to one another 5proved that
we see colors almost never unrelated to each other.6 )lber/s ideas about design and color
were widely disseminated.
"n 342<, the $auhaus moved to Dessau, #ermany. #ropius designed the building for the
$auhaus as a sort of architectural manifesto. The building consisted of a wor*shop and
class areas, a dining room, theatre, gym, a wing with studio apartments, and an enclosed
two story bridge housing administrative offices. @f the ma&or wings, the most dramatic
was the 0hop %loc;! The 'azi/s tore down this building, but the main buildings were
later reconstructed. Three stories tall, the %hop $loc* housed a printing shop and dye
wor*s facility, in addition to other wor* areas. The uilder<s constructed the s;eleton
of reinforced concrete ut set these supports $ay ac;& sheathin# the entire
structure in #lass& creatin# a streamlined and li#ht effect! This desi#ns< simplicity
follo$ed :ropius<s dictum that architecture should avoid >all romantic
emellishment and $himsy!? 'urther& he reali)ed the >economy in the use of space?
articulated in his list of principles in his interior layout of the 0hop %loc;& $hich
consists of lar#e areas of free flo$in# undivided space! :ropius elieved such an
open classroom approach encoura#ed interaction and the sharin# of ideas!
#ropius gave students and teachers the tas* of designing furniture and light fixtures for
the building in *eeping with the comprehensive philosophy of the $auhaus.
@ne memorable furniture design to emerge from the $auhaus was the tuular steel chair
crafted by the ,ungarian Marcel %reuer *+.02-+.,+/! $reuer was inspired to use
tubular steel while riding his bi*e and studying his handle bars. 7n ;eepin# $ith
%auhaus aesthetics& his chairs have a simplified& #eometric loo;& and the leather of
cloth supports add to the chairs comfort and functionality! These chairs were also
easily mass produced and thus stand as epitomes of the $auhaus program.
This reductive, spare geometric aesthetic served many purposes A artistic, practical, and
social. This aesthetic was championed by the $auhaus and De %ti&l. This simplified
artistic vocabulary was accepted because of its association with the avant8garde and
progressive though, and it evo*ed the machine. "t could be easily applied to all art forms,
from stage design, to architecture, and advertising, and therefore was perfect for mass
production.
'ier Crafts
The universal intelligibility of this aesthetic is seen in a tapestry designed by :unta
0tol)l *+,.4-+.,3/& the only women on the staff. !hile more lively than other $auhaus
designs, this intricate and colorful wor* retains the emphasis on geometric patterns and
clear intersection of verticals and horizontals. The weaving department was very popular
at the $auhaus. "n accordance with $auhaus principles, %tolzl designed weavings for
machine production that established production lin*s with outside businesses.
9ess is More
9ud$i# Mies van der 8ohe *+,,2-+.2./, too* over the $auhaus in 3429 when #ropius
left, and he moved the school to $erlin. "n architecture and furniture, he made such a
clear and elegant statement of the "nternational style, that his wor* had enormous
influence on modern architecture. Ta;in# as his motto >less is more? and callin# his
architecture >s;in and ones? he conceived the model for a glass s*yscraper building in
3423 that was shown at the first $auhaus exhibition in 342;. The design received much
publicity. !or*ing with glass provided -ies van der (ohr with new freedom and
expressive possibilities. The bold use of glass sheathing on irregularly shaped towers and
inset supports was, at the time, technically and aesthetically adventurous. The web li*e
delicacy of lines of the glass, its radiance, and the illusion of movement created by
reflection and by light changes through it, prefigured many of the glass s*yscrapers found
in ma&or cities throughout the world.
"n 34;;, the 'azis too* power and closed the $auhaus school. During its 37 year
existence, the controversial school graduated fewer than <00 students, yet achieved
legendary status and had phenomenal influence in all areas of art and design. -any of
the instructors at the $auhaus fled #ermany and came to the :nited %tates greatly
influencing art education and training.
De#enerate Art
The 'azis persecuted avant8garde artists. ,itler had been a young aspiring artist and had
produced wor*s reflecting his view 34
th
century realistic genre painting was the zenith of
)ryan art development. ,itler, when in power, confiscated more than 3F,000 art wor*s
that were considered degenerate and unacceptable. ,itler ordered #oebbels to organize a
massive exhibition of 5degenerate art6 that was unworthy of #ermany. ,e targeted 20
th

century avant8garde artists to impress upon viewers the general inferiority of the artists
producing this wor*. The Entartete Bunst or De#enerate Art exhibition opened in
-unich on 0uly 34, 34;H, and included more than F<0 wor*s by 332 artists. )rtists
presented for ridicule, were most of the artists we have seen in this chapter. Despite his
status as a charter member of the 'azi +arty, mil 'olde was singled out for harsh
treatment. -ore than 2H of his wor*s were in the exhibit and more than 3000 had been
confiscated from museums. The %how was very popular attracting ; million viewers by
its end.
The 7nternational 0tyle
The simple aesthetic developed by #ropius and -ies van der (ohe at the $auhaus
became *nown as the 7nternational 0tyle 1different from the arly (enaissance painting
style2, because of its widespread popularity. The purist and staunchest advocate of this
style was the %wiss 9a Corusier *+,,4-+.21/! ,e was trained in +aris and $erlinC he
was also a painter but was best *nown as an influential architect and theorist on modern
architecture. ,e applied himself to designing a functional living space which he
described as a 5machine for living.6
The drawing for his Domino house pro&ect shows the s*eleton of his ideal dwelling.
very level can be used. (einforced concrete slabs serve as both floor and ceiling
supported by steel columns inside the perimeter of the structures interior spaces. The
building is raised above ground on bloc*s in order to incorporate the space underneathC
the roof is also used. xterior walls can be suspended from the pro&ecting horizontals.
The walls bear no structural load and the open space is free to be divided where desired.
This dra$in# illustrates one of the major principles associated $ith the
7nternational 0tyle - the elimination of $ei#ht earin# $alls! (e$ structural
systems used materials such as structural steel and reinforced concrete made this
possile!
The scheme allows architects to provide for what Ee Corbusier saw as the basic physical
and psychological needs of every human being A sun, space, and vegetation, combined
with controlled temperature, good ventilation, and insulation against harmful and
undesired noise. ,e believed in basing dwelling designs on human scale, because the
house is human*ind/s assertion within nature. This thin*ing has been strongly influential
in the design of modern office buildings and s*yscrapers.
Ee Corbusier also used these design principles for single family dwellings. The most
elegant is the Cilla 0avoye located near +aris. This country house stands out on its site.
) cube of lightly enclosed and deeply penetrated space, the Billa %avoye has only a
partially confined ground floor 1containing a three car garage, bedrooms, a bathroom, and
utility rooms2. -uch of the house/s interior space is open, with thin columns supporting
the main living floor, and the roof garden area. The ma&or living rooms are on the second
floor wrapping around a central open court and lighted by strip windows that run along
the thin exterior walls. .rom the second floor court, a ramp leads up to a flat roof terrace
and garden protected by a curving windbrea* along one side. There is no obvious
designed entrance to the house and no traditional faOade. %paces and masses intermingle
rather than separate. The smooth machine planed surfaces are entirely without
adornment.
Ee Corbusier inverted traditional design practice of placing light elements above and
heavy ones below by refusing to enclose the ground story with a masonry wall. This
ma*es the upper lever appear to hover on slender columns above the ground level. The
exterior originally was a dar* green ground floor, cream walls and a rose and blue screen
on the top, reflecting the +urist style of painting of De %ti&l.
Art Deco
"n theory, new architecture re&ected ornament of any *ind. +ure form emerged from
functional structure and re?uired no decoration. Get popular taste still favored
ornamentation, especially in public architecture. ) movement in the 3420/s and 34;0/s
sought to upgrade industrial design in competition with 5fine art.6 +roponents wanted to
wor* new materials into decorative patterns that could be either machined or handcrafted
and that could, to a degree, reflect the simplifying trend in architecture. ) remote
descendant of )rt 'ouveau, this movement became *nown as )rt Deco. 1Ei*e its
predecessor, it was an event in the history of industrial design, not in the history of
architecture.2 )rt Deco had universal applications to architecture, interiors, furniture,
utensils, &ewelry, fashions, illustrations, and many numerous commercial products. Art
Deco products have a 5streamlined,6 elongated symmetrical aspectC simple flat shapes
alternate with shallow volumes in hard patterns. The concept of streamlining
predominated in industrial design circles in the 34;0/s and involved the use of organic
tapered shapes and forms. Derived from nature, these simple forms are inherently
aerodynamic, ma*ing them technologically efficient and aesthetically pleasing. This
streamlined loo* was integral to )rt Deco, which ac?uired its name at the famous
xposition des )rts Decoratifs et "ndustriels -odernes 1xposition of Decorative and
-odern "ndustrial )rts2, held in +aris in 342<. )rt Deco was a cultural phenomenon and
was associated with the flair, flippancy, and elegance of the 0azz )ge, and the gorgeous
salons of the great ocean liners that carrying the carefree rich in the days of the 5lost
generation.6
)rt Deco/s masterpiece is the stainless steel spire of the Chrysler $uilding in 'ew Gor*
City designed by 6illiam van Alen *+,,2-+.1-/! The building and its spire are
monuments to the fabulous 3420/s when )merican millionaires and corporations
competed with each other to build the tallest s*yscrapers in the biggest cities. The
Chrysler $uilding serves as a temple of commerce dedicated to the success of )merican
business, before it/s humbling in the #reat Depression.
Emphasi)in# the "r#anic
"t is impossible for early 20
th
century artists to ignore the increasingly intrusive expansion
of mechanization and growth of technology. ,owever not all artists embraced these
developments, as had the .uturists. "n contrast, many artists attempted to overcome the
predominance of mechanization in society by immersing themselves in the search for the
organic and natural.
(atural Architecture
@ne of the giants and personalities in the development of early 20
th
century architecture
was 'ran; 9loyd 6ri#ht *+,24-+.1./! ,e was born in !isconsin and attended the
:niversity of !isconsin at -adison, where he too* some classes before moving to
Chicago, where he &oined the firm headed by Eouis %ullivan. !right set out to create
5architecture of democracy.6 arly influences where the shapes in a set of wooden
building educational bloc*s that !right had as a child, the organic unity of a 0apanese
building he saw at the Columbian xposition in Chicago in 394;, and a 0effersonian
belief in individualism and populism. )lways a believer in architecture as 5organic6 or
5natural,6 !right saw it as serving free individuals who have a right to move around in a
free space, envisioned as a nonsymmetrical design interacting spatially with its natural
surroundings. ,e sought to develop an organic unity of planning, structure, materials,
and site.
!right fully expressed these elements and concepts in the 8oie @ouse& built in Chicago
between 340H and 3404. "t was called a prairie house because its long sweeping lines
captured the expansiveness of the -idwest/s great flatlands. )bandoning all symmetry,
!right eliminated a faOade, extended the roofs far beyond the walls, and all but
concealed the entrance. ,e filled the 5wandering6 plan of the (obie ,ouse with
intricately &oined spaces 1some large and open, and others closed2, grouped freely around
a great central fireplace. !right designed enclosed patios, overhanging roofs, and strip
windows to provide unexpected light and glimpses of the outdoors as viewers move
through the interior space. These elements with the open ground plan create a sense of
space in motion, inside and out. The flow of the interior space matched the exterior
treatment and determined the sharp angular placement of exterior walls. The (obie
,ouse re?uired !right to constrain the building to the size of the city lot.
The Baufmann @ouse nic*named 'allin#$ater was designed as a wee*end retreat at
$ear (un near +ittsburg was not so constrained. +erched on a roc*y hillside over a small
waterfall, the bloc*y masses extend in all four directions. The contrast of textures
enlivens the shapes as does the use of full length strip windows to create a stunning
interweaving of interior and exterior space.
The implied message of !rights architecture is space, not mass A a space designed to fit
the patron/s life and enclosed and divided as needed. !right often designed all the
furniture, lighting and other accessories for his houses. +atrons often had to sign in their
contracts that everything would stay as designed. "n the 34;0/s !right was able to
pursue another passion of his and design affordable housing for less prosperous clients,
by adapting prairie style ideas into smaller dwellings, less expensive dwellings. These
homes became *nown as Dsonian @ouses and were used as templates for suburban
housing developments in the post8!orld !ar "" housing boom.
!rights wor* influenced architects world wide, especially in ,olland and #ermany. ,is
ideas about open plans were of revolutionary significance 70 years before his career
ended.
"r#anic 0culpture
Constantin %rancusi *+,42-+.14/& was one of many sculptors see*ing to produce wor*s
that emphasized the organic. @ften composed of softly curving surfaces and ovoid
forms, his sculptures refer directly or indirectly to the cycle of life. $rancusi sought to
move beyond surface appearances to capture the spirit or essence of the ob&ect depicted.
,e claimed 5!hat is real is not the external form but the essence of things. %tarting from
this truth it is impossible for anyone to express anything essentially real by imitating its
exterior surface. %ird in 0pace was clearly not a literal depiction of a bird but is the final
result of a long process. $rancusi started with the image of a bird at rest with its wings
folded at its sides and ended with an abstract columnar form sharply tapered at each end.
Despite the abstraction, the sculpture retains the suggestion of a bird about to soar into
flight. $rancusi also captured the essence of flight. The highly reflective surface does
not allow the viewer/s eye to linger on the sculpture itself, but rather invites the eye to
follow the gleaming reflection on the gentle curve of the surface right off the tip.
%arara @ep$orth *+.03-+.41/ developed her own essence of form, combining pristine
shape with a sense of organic vitality. %he sought a sculptural idiom that would express
her sense both of nature and landscape and of the person who is in and observes nature.
%he explained> The forms $hich have had special meanin# for me since childhood
have een the standin# form *$hich is the translation for me to$ards the human
ein# standin# in landscape/F the t$o forms *$hich is the tender relationship of one
livin# thin# esides another/F and the closed form& such as the oval& spherical& or
pierced form *sometimes incorporatin# color/ $hich translates for me the
association and meanin# of #esture in the landscapeG 7n all these shapes the
translation of $hat one feels aout man and nature must e conveyed y the
sculptor in terms of mass& inner tension& and rhythm& scale in relation to our human
si)e& and the =uality of surface $hich spea;s throu#h our hands and eyes!
"n 3424, ,epworth arrived at a brea*through that evolved into an enduring and
commanding element in her wor* from that point on, and that represents her major
contriution to the history of sculpture: the use of the hole or void! ,epworth
introduced the hole or negative space in here sculpture as an abstract element8 it doesn/t
represent anything specific A and one that is as integral and important to the sculpture as
its mass. "val 0culpture is a plaster cast of an earlier wooden sculpture carved in 347;.
+ierced in four places, @val %culpture is as much defined by the smooth, curving holes as
by the volume of white plaster. Ei*e all of ,epworth/s mature wor*s, the forms are basic
and universal, expressing a sense of eternity/s timelessness.
@enry Moore *+,.,-+.,2/ was an nglish sculptor shared ,epworth/s interest in the
void and $rancusi/s love of nature and *nowledge of organic forms. -oore maintained
that every >material had its o$n individual =ualities? and that these ?ualities could
play a role in the creative process> >7t is only $hen the sculptor $or;s direct& $hen
there is an active relationship $ith his material& that the material can ta;e its part in
shapin# of an idea!? )ccordingly, the forms and lines of -oore/s lead and stone
sculptures emphasize the material/s hardness and solidity, whereas his fluid wood
sculptures draw attention to the wood grain. "ne major recurrin# theme in Moore<s
$or; is the reclinin# female fi#ure $ith simplified and massive forms! ) tiny
photograph of a Chac -ool pre8Columbian figure from -exico originally inspired this
motif. Chac -ool figures were usually carved in stone, in semi8circular positions, with
their heads abruptly turned to one side.
)lthough viewers recognize the human figure in most of -oore/s wor*s, the artist
simplified and abstracted the figure, attempting to express a universal truth beyond the
physical world. ,e wrote in the 34;0s >%ecause a $or; does not aim at reproducin#
natural appearances& it is not& therefore& an escape from life A ut may e a
penetration into realityG My sculpture is ecomin# less representational& less an
out$ard visual copyG ut only ecause 7 elieve that in this $ay 7 can present the
human psycholo#ical content of my $or; $ith #reatest directness and intensity!?
8eclinin# 'i#ure& made of elm wood, suggests %urrealist biomorphic forms. $ut
-oore/s handling of the material presents a recumbent woman whose forms and hollows
suggest nurturing human energy. The form also evo*es the contours of the Gor*shire
hills where he was raised. -oore heightened the allusions to landscape and %urrealist
organic forms in his wor* by underplaying mass and void, based on the ?ualities of
cavities in nature. This wor* combines the organic vocabulary central to -oore/s
philosophy A bone shapes, eroded roc*s, and geologic formations A to communicate the
human forms fluidity, dynamism and evocative nature.
Ale5ander Calder *+,.,-+.42/& used his thorough *nowledge of engineering techni?ues
to combine nonob&ective organic forms and motion to create a new *ind of sculpture that
expressed realities innate dynamism.
)s a young artist in +aris in the early 34;0/s, Calder visited -ondrian/s studio and was
filled with the desire to set the brightly colored rectangular shapes of the Dutch painter/s
compositions in motion. 1-arcel Duchamp, intrigued by Calder/s early motorized and
hand cran*ed examples of moving abstract pieces, named them mobiles.2 Calder/s
engineering s*ills soon helped him fashion a series of balanced structures hanging from
rods, wires, and colored, organically shaped plates, such as his wor* Dntitled, designed
for the 'ational #allery of )rt in !ashington DC. ach non mechanized mobile was
carefully planned so that any air current would set the parts moving. !hen air currents
activate the sculpture, its patterns suggest clouds, leaves, or waves blown by the wind.
Calder/s forms can be read as either geometric or organic. #eometrically, the lines
suggest circuitry and rigging, and the shapes are derived from circles and ovoid forms.
@rganically, the lines suggest nerve axons, and the shapes are reminiscent of cells, leaves,
fins, wings, and other bioforms.
Art as Eolitical 0tatement in the +.30<s
!ith the great upheaval the western world experienced during the first half of the 20
th

century compelled many artists to spea* out and use their art to ma*e political statements.
0ocial 8ealism
"n the :nited %tates such artists compelled to ma*e political statements with their art
were called the %ocial (ealists. These artists felt the need to focus on the lives of
ordinary people and the in&ustices often done to them by the structure of an impersonal
society. They were often politically socialist.
%en 0hahn *+,.,-+.2./ completed a series of 2; paintings inspired by the trial and
execution of two "talian anarchists 'icola %acco and $artolomeo Banzetti. )ccused of
*illing two men in a hold up in 3420 in %outh $raintree, -assachusetts, they were
convicted in a trial that many people thought resulted in a grave miscarriage of &ustice.
%hahn was powerfully affected by the event feeling as if he was 5living through another
crucifixion.6 %hahn based the series on newspaper photographs of the events. ,e
devised a style that adapted his *nowledge of %ynthetic Cubism and his training in
commercial art to an emotionally expressive use of flat, intense color in figural
compositions filled with sharp dry angular forms. The ma&or wor* of the series was The
Eassion of 0acco and Can)etti! The tall narrow painting condenses the narrative " terms
of both time and space. The two executed men lie at the bottom of the composition in
coffins. +residing over them are three members of the commission chaired by ,arvard
:niversity president ). Eaurence Eowell, who declared the original trial fair and cleared
the way for the executions to ta*e place. ) framed portrait of 0udge !ebster Thayer, who
handed down the initial sentence, hangs on the wall of a simplified government building.
The stylized distortion of the figures moc*s the men in their roles in this event, and
ma*es it one of %hahn/s most powerful wor*s.
!hile Eicasso focused on his immersion in aesthetic issues, he also maintained a political
commitment throughout his life. ,e declared> >Eaintin# is not made to decorate
apartments! 7t is an instrument for offensive and defensive $ar a#ainst the enemy!?
+icasso was a %paniard. "n 0anuary 34;H, the %panish (epublican government in exile in
+aris as*ed +icasso to produce a wor* for the %panish +avilion at the +aris "nternational
xhibition that summer. Ei*e the -exican muralists, artists interested in disseminating
political and social messages with their art realized the importance of placing wor* in
public arenas. )ware of the opportunity this commission afforded, he accepted it. ,e
was not very motivated to wor* on the pro&ect until he received word that #uernica,
capital of the $as?ue area, 1an area in %outhern .rance and 'orthern %pain populated by
$as?ue spea*ers2, had been almost totally destroyed in an air raid on )pril 2F by 'azi
bombers acting on behalf of the rebel general .rancisco .ranco. 'ot only did the
#ermans decimate the city, they attac*ed at the busiest hour of the mar*et day, *illing or
wounding many of the H000 citizens. This event propelled +icasso into action,
completing the mural sized canvas by the end of 0une.
+icasso produced this monumental painting condemning the senseless bombing without
specific reference to the event A no bombs, no planes. The collection of images in
:uernica combines to create a visceral outcry of human grief. "n the center, along the
lower edge of the painting, lies a slain warrior clutching a bro*en and useless sword. )
gored horse tramples him and rears bac* in fright as it dies. @n the left a shrie*ing,
anguished women cradles her dead child. @n the far right, a woman on fire runs
screaming from a burning building, while another woman flees mindlessly. "n the upper
right corner, a woman, represented only by a head, emerges from the burning building,
thrusting forth a light to illuminate the horror. @verloo*ing the destruction is a bull,
which according to +icasso, represents 5brutality and dar*ness.6
+icasso/s fragmentation gives visual form to the horror. The distortion and contortion of
human form parallels what happened in the event. To emphasize the scenes severity and
star*ness he used a neutral palette.
+icasso refused to allow #uernica to be exhibited in %pain while .ranco was the leader,
so it hung in the -useum of -odern )rt 1-o-)2 in 'ew Gor* after the exhibition
ended. 'ot until .ranco/s death in 34H< did +icasso allow it to be exhibited in %pain. "t
was moved in 3493 and now hangs in -adrid.
The 6or;er and the Collective 'arm 6or;er by (ussian artist Cera Mu;hina *+,,.-
+.23/, was produced in the same year as #uernica and exhibited at the +aris xhibition.
-u*hina produced a monumental stainless steel sculpture glorifying the communal labor
of the %oviet people. -u*hina relied on realism to represent exemplars of the %oviet
citizenry. ,er sculpture mounted upon the top of the %oviet +avilion depicts a male
factory wor*er, holding high his tool of his trade, the hammer. )longside is a female
farm wor*er, raising her sic*le to the s*y. The hammer and sic*le comes together in an
apex above the figures. The figures replicate their appearance on the %oviet flag thereby
celebrating the %oviet system. The heroic tenor of this sculpture is emphasized by the
solidity of the figures who stride forward with their clothes dramatically blowing behind
them. This realist style was officially sanctioned by the %oviet government and -u*hina
earned a high degree of praise for this sculpture. (ussian Citizens hailed the wor* as a
national symbol for decades.
The Depression and 7ts 9e#acy
The !estern world was plunged into depression in the 34;0/s. "n the :nited %tates it
started with the stoc* mar*et crash of @ctober 3424. The #reat Depression, as it was
called, dramatically changed the nation. )rtists were particularly affected. The limited
art mar*et virtually disappeared, and museums curtailed their purchases and exhibition
schedules. -any artists sough financial support from the .ederal government, which
established numerous programs to provide relief, aid recovery, and promote reform.
)mong the programs that supported artists were the Treasury 8elief Art Eroject,
founded in 34;7 to commission art for federal buildings, and the 6or;s Erojects
Administration *6EA/& founded in 34;< to relieve widespread unemployment. :nder
the !+), varied art activities of the 'ederal Art Eroject paid artists, writers, and theater
people a regular wage in exchange for wor* in their professions. )nother important
program was the (esettlement )dministration 1()2, better *nown by its later name, the
'arm 0ecurity Administration! The () oversaw emergency aid programs for farm
families caught in the Depression and provided information to the public about both the
government programs and the plight of the people such programs served.
The () hired )merican photographer Dorothea 9an#e *+,.1-+.21/& in 34;F sending her
to photograph the dire situation of the rural poor the #reat Depression displaced. )t the
end of an assignment to document the lives of migratory pea pic*ers in California, Eange
stopped at a camp in 'ipomo and found migrant wor*ers and their families starving
because the crops had frozen in the fields. )mong the pictures she made on this occasion
was Mi#rant Mother& (ipomo Calley& which, li*e American :othic& has achieved
iconic status. #enerations have been moved by the mixture of strength and worry in the
raised hand and careworn face of a young mother holding her baby on her lap. Two older
children cling to her while turning their faces away from the camera. The response to the
publication of this photo in a %an .rancisco newspaper was powerful. !ithin days
people rushed food to 'ipomo Balley to feed the hungry wor*ers.
Ed$ard @opper *+,,2-+.24/ produced paintings that seemed to reflect the mood of the
#reat Depression. (ather than depict historically specific scenes, he created more
generalized theme of overwhelming loneliness and echoing the isolation of modern life in
the :nited %tates. ,opper concentrated on scenes of contemporary )merican life that are
curiously muted, still, and filled with empty spaces. -otion is stopped and time
suspended. (i#htha$;s depict the dar*ened streets outside a restaurant. The viewer
glimpses the lighted interior through huge plate glass windows, which lend the inner
space a paradoxical sense of being both a safe refuge and a vulnerable place for the three
customers and the counterman. The seeming indifference of ,opper/s characters toward
one another and the empty spaces around them evo*e the pervasive loneliness of modern
humans. Though recalling the realist vision of 34
th
century artists li*e *ins, ,opper
moves toward abstraction in his simplified shapes in order to heighten the mood of the
scene.
8e#ionalism
)lthough many )merican artists were enamored with the city or rapidly developing
technological advances, others chose not to depict these aspects of modern life. The
8e#ionalists& sometimes referred to as American 0cene Eainters& turned their attention
to rural life as )merica/s cultural bac*bone. @ne of the (egionalists, :rant 6ood
*+,.+-+.-2/& published an essay titled >8evolt a#ainst the City? in 34;<. )lthough the
(egionalists were not formally organized, they were ac*nowledged by !ood in 34;3
when he spo*e at a conference. "n his address, he announced a new movement
developing in the -idwest, *nown as 8e#ionalism& which he described as focused on
American sujects and as standin# in reaction to >the astraction of the
modernists? in Europe and (e$ Kor;!
#rant !ood/s paintings focus on rural scenes from "owa, where he was born and raised.
The wor* that brought !ood to national prominence was American :othic& which
became an )merican icon. The artist depicted a farmer and his spinster daughter
standing in front of a neat house with a small lancet window typically found in #othic
cathedrals and popular in -idwest home construction. They man and women wear
traditional attire. The dour expression on both gives the painting a severe ?uality which
!ood enhanced with his meticulous brushwor*. !hen )merican #othic was exhibited,
many praised the wor*, which they perceived as 5?uaint, humorous, and )-("C)', in
the words of one critic. -any saw the couple as embodying 5strength, dignity, fortitude,
resoluteness, integrity,6 and were convinced that !ood had captured the true spirit of
)merica.
6ood<s 8e#ionalist vision involved more than his sujects& e5tendin# to a rejection
of avant-#arde styles in favor of a clearly readale& realist style! This style appealed
to many $ho felt alienated y the increasin# presence of astraction in art! Despite
the accolades this painting received, it was also criticized. 'ot everyone saw this
painting as a sympathetic portrayal of -idwestern lifeC some felt in "owa that it was an
insult. %ome viewed it as a political statement A one of staunch nationalism, that some
viewed as problematic because of the results of nationalism in #ermany.
Thomas @art %enton *+,,.-+.41/ was also one of the giants of (egionalism. $enton
focused on the -idwest and -issouri in particular. ,is father was a :% congressman
from %outhwestern -issouri, and his great uncle was the famous -issouri %enator
Thomas ,art $enton, for whom he was named. ,e traveled around the country meeting
and drawing people. These studies were what he made many of his wor*s from. ,e also
made numerous murals, often reflection historical content. @ne of his ma&or wor*s is
titled A 0ocial @istory of 0tate of Missouri painted in 34;F! "t was painted on all four
walls of the room where the state politicians would meet and wor* out their deals in the
-issouri %tate Capital in 0efferson City, -issouri. The mural consists of many images
from -issouri/s true and legendary history, such as, primitive agriculture, horse trading, a
vigilante lynching, and an old fashioned political painting. @ther scenes portray the
mining industry, grain elevators, 'ative )mericans, and family life. @ne segment,
Eioneer Days and Early 0ettlers& shows a white man using whis*ey as a bartering tool
with a 'ative )merican. To its right is a scene showing ,uc* .inn and 0im, characters
from -ar* Twain/s famous novel ,uc*leberry .inn. .urther to the right are scenes
documenting the building of -issouri. +art documentary and part imaginative, $enton/s
images include both positive and negative aspects of -issouri/s history. (egionalists
were popularly perceived as dedicated to glorifying -idwestern life but that
understanding distorted their aims. #rant !ood observed, >Kour true re#ionalist is not
a mere eulo#istF he may even e a severe critic!? $enton was committed to a visually
accessible style but developed a highly personable aesthetic that included complex
compositions, a fluidity of imagery, and simplified figures depicted with a rubbery
distortion.
3ohn 0teuart Curry *+,.4-+.-2/
During the Depression of the 34;0/s, (egionalist paintings had a popular appeal because
they often pro&ected a reassuring image of )merica/s heartland. The public saw
(egionalism as a means of coping with the national crisis through a search for cultural
roots. Thus people accepted any implicit nostalgia in (egionalist paintings or
mythologies that the wor*s perpetrated because they served a larger purpose.
Me5ican Muralists
3ose Clemente "ro)co *+,,3-+.-./ was one of a group of -exican artists determined to
base their art on the indigenous history and culture existing in -exico before uropeans
arrived. The movement these artists formed was part of the idealistic rethin*ing of
society that occurred in con&unction with the -exican (evolution 13430834202 and the
lingering political turmoil of the 3420/s. )mong the pro&ects these politically motivated
artists undertoo* were vast mural cycles placed in public buildings to dramatize and
validate the history of -exico/s native peoples. @rozco wor*ed on one of the first ma&or
cycles painted in 3422. ,e carried the ideas of this mural revolution to the :nited %tates,
completing many commissions for wall paintings between 342H and 34;7. @ne of his
finest cycles was in the $a*er Eibrary at Dartmouth College in 'ew ,ampshire. The
college let him choose his sub&ect. @rozco created murals that were a panoramic and
symbolic history of ancient and modern -exico, from the pre8Columbian ancients to a
bitter satirical critic of modern education, in 37 large panels and 30 smaller ones.
Epic of American Civili)ation: @ispano-America revolves around the monumental
figure of a heroic -exican peasant armed to participate in the -exican (evolution.
Eooming on either side are mounds crammed with symbolic figures of his oppressors A
ban*ers, government soldiers, officials, gangsters, and the rich. -oney grubbers pour
hoards of gold at the incorruptible peasant/s feet, while cannons threaten him and a
bemedaled general raises a dagger to stab him in the bac*.
@rozco/s early training as a ma*er of political prints and as a newspaper artist had taught
him the rhetorical strength of graphic brevity, which he used here to assure that his
allegory was easily read.
Die#o 8ivera *+,,2-+.14/ achieved great renown for his murals, both in -exico and the
:nited %tates. ) staunch -arxist, (ivera was committed to developing an art that served
his people/s needs. Toward that end, he sought to create a national -exican style
focusing on -exico/s history and also incorporating a popular generally accessible
aesthetic 1in *eeping with the %ocialist spirit of the -exican (evolution2. (ivera
produced numerous large murals in public buildings, among them a series lining the
staircase of the 'ational +alace in -exico City. +ainted between 3424 and 34;<, the
images depict scenes in -exico City. Ancient Me5ico depicts conflicts between the
indigenous people and the %panish colonizers. (ivera included portraits of important
figures in -exican history and in particular, the struggle for -exican independence.
)lthough complex, decorative, and animated murals retain the legibility of fol*lore A the
figures consist of simple monumental shapes and areas of bold color.
David 0i=ueiros
Ener#i)in# American Art at Mid A Century
The )rmory %how in 343; in 'ew Gor* City was important for disseminating
information about the developments in uropean art. ?ually significant was the
emigration of uropean artists from the continent to the :nited %tates. -any artists
originally went to Eondon and +aris, but !orld !ar forced them to the :nited %tates.
)rtists and architects from the $auhaus and other places came here and accepted teaching
positions, providing a way for them to disseminate their ideas.
-useums in the :nited %tates were eager to demonstrate their familiarity and connection
with the most progressive movements in uropean art and mounted exhibitions. @ne
show in 34;9 was at the %t. Eouis )rt -useum and it presented an exhibition of -ax
$ec*mann/s wor*. This interest in persecuted artists driven from their homelands also
had political overtones. !ith the highly charged atmosphere leading up to !orld !ar "",
people often perceived support for these #erman artists and their wor* as support for
freedom and democracy. !hen the :nited %tates entered the war, #erman officially
became the enemy, and it was difficult for the art world to promote them. )fter the war
many of the artists returned to urope. Their collective presence, while in the :nited
%tates, was critical to the development of )merican art and the )vant8garde in )merica.
"n addition, this vitality in the first half of the 20
th
century propelled the :nited %tates into
an increasingly prominent position in the art world 1including the sale, exhibition, and
criticism of art.