1 Information Systems

1
Information systems

Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge?
Where is the knowledge we have lost in information?
T S Eliot, poet
Overview
In this first unit we will begin our investigation of IPT by looking at:
what information is and how, by itself, information does not provide knowledge or
wisdom
the different ways information systems can be viewed
some of the different forms of information systems
basic terms and concepts of relational databases
information system security and integrity.
Data, information, knowledge and wisdom
The pessimistic words of the poet T S Eliot above are very apt in the world of the Internet.
Anyone who has run a Google search that has returned hundreds of thousands of hits will agree
with his sentiment. Eliot warns us we can have too much information to be able to derive any
knowledge from it. Even if we do develop knowledge, there may be little chance of wisdom
emerging.
Information is not the same as knowledge, and knowledge is not the same as wisdom. To
understand the distinctions we must go back one further level to data, the basic building block
of comprehension.
Data is the plural of datum. A datum is a simple recognisable fact, such as Red, or 25, or True.
Red might be the colour of a car or a persons nickname, 25 might be a temperature or a score,
and True could be the result of an experiment or an answer in a test.
Each datum is simple (singular) and states a fact. 25 is not 15 and is not 35. It is something that
we recognise stands for the value of two tens plus five units. We do not concern ourselves if the
datum is correct or not. Even though we call it a fact, truth does not come into it. We accept
data as given or, in an information system, as entered.
Kevin Savage 2011 Single user licence issued to Mitchell Ingall
Information systems 9
From the building blocks of data, information may be structured. From information, knowledge
may be constructed and, if we are very lucky, wisdom may arise. To understand this we will
look at an everyday example.
As I listen to the weather on the radio I might hear that the temperature outside is 25C.
Somewhere, someone looked at a thermometer and saw the number 25. This 25 is data
(actually a datum).
The value 25 was reported to the weather bureau where they gave the datum form. They
structured it by adding C. This implies that the 25 exists on a scale of values that represents air
temperature. The datum has now become information. It has been organised using the Celsius
scale so that it has meaning. The meaning would be very different if the weather bureau was in
America and had added F. This is from a different structure on the Fahrenheit scale 25F is
below freezing.
When I hear from the radio the information that the outside temperature is 25C I can construct
some meaning from it, I know it is not too cold and not too hot. By decoding that 25C is a
pleasant temperature, I have drawn inferences from the information and I now have knowledge
of the situation. The information has been arranged within an overriding format so that it is
useful. This overriding format is sometimes called a metacontext. In this case the metacontext
is formed from my experience of weather conditions in the past.
Once I know that it is an agreeable day outside I can use the knowledge in ways that are
compatible with my needs and with what is acceptable in society. I can make the decision not
to wear a thick overcoat, or not to go outside in a swimming costume. If I have wisdom I use
the knowledge effectively in a given situation. (Or not, as the case may be. Knowledge that has
been constructed from information, but then not used wisely, has been described as being inert
knowledge.)
To summarise, data are basic recognisable facts, information is data that has been organised so
that it has meaning, knowledge is information arranged into a metacontext so that it is useable,
and wisdom is knowledge being used effectively in a given situation.

From data to wisdom
Together these form a hierarchy. Wisdom comes from knowledge, which comes from
information, which comes from data. At the bottom level a great deal of data is required to
develop the needed information. As we move up there is only a limited amount of useable
Leading Technology 10
knowledge derived from this information. At the top there is usually very little wisdom
displayed in the use of this knowledge.
The point of all this is that knowledge and wisdom do not come from an information system.
The system if used effectively will combine data into information, but whether this information
is developed into knowledge that is applied with wisdom depends upon the person operating
the system.
Activity 1.1 From data to wisdom
1. a What is meant by the term Information Age?
b In what ways has the availability of huge volumes of information on the internet and
through other sources put us in the position of not being an age of knowledge?
2. a Explain in your own words what is meant by each of the terms data, information,
knowledge, and wisdom.
b Give a simple, single example of each.
c The philosopher Immanuel Kant once said Science is organised knowledge, wisdom
is organised life.
Explain what you think he meant by this.
3. The section above uses the analogy of todays temperature to illustrate the difference
between data, information, knowledge, and wisdom.
Create your own analogy. You may use your own situation or, if you wish, consider the
scenario of a runner in a 100m race.
4. 25C does not mean the same as 25F. Give an example of a piece of data that can have
two different meanings depending on the context it is in.
5. Give an example of a situation in which knowledge might be inert.
6. Whether information is developed into knowledge that is applied with wisdom depends
upon the user of the system.
Give an example where an information system may not be used with wisdom.
Compare your answers with those of others in your class.
7. The Australian social commentator Hugh McKay has described todays generation as
being answer rich and question poor.
a What do you think he meant by this? In your answer you might like to refer to the
ability to reason logically, and powers of discernment.
b In what ways has the advent of search engines such as Google led to the reduction in
the need to consider and contemplate before seeking answers.
8. The artist Pablo Picasso once said Computers are useless, they can only give you
answers.
In what ways is he still correct today?
Systems
When we think of using a computer we usually imagine one person sitting at a computer
working. This however is too simplistic a view of the situation.
The computer the user is sitting at consists of a system of hardware, software and interface. In
turn the software forms a system, as does the hardware and interface. If the computer is
connected to other computers or the internet then it is linked through a networking system. The
user also belongs to a system; this might be a business system or an education system or a
military system.
We will be investigating many forms of system, so what is a system?
Think of systems you know about. You have a digestive system, you may use a stereo system,
you belong to the education system, and the Earth is part of the Solar System.
What makes each of these a system? Let us take one example and see what it consists of.
In a music system we may have a CD, a CD player, an amplifier, an equaliser, connectors and
speakers. These are all related but none of these parts can produce music by itself. The CD is
bright and shiny, but alone it is useless. However link the CD with each of the other
components correctly and together the parts can fulfil a purpose in this case playing music.
It is the same with other systems. From this it appears that a system is a group of inter-related
parts that work together for a common purpose or goal. For example your digestive system
consists of your teeth and tongue, your oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and a
variety of glands and other organs. These work together with the purpose of converting food
into simple substances that can be transferred to the blood where they become part of the
circulatory system.
There are many types of system, but the ones we are interested in here are information systems.
An information system consists of interrelated parts that have the purpose of taking data as
input, and then processing it so as to produce information as output.

An information system processes data into information
Within our bodies we have an information system called the central nervous system. This
system takes data from our senses, uses the brain to process it, and develops information as an
output, perhaps Im hungry or Im cold.
In computer terms an information system works the same way. A computerised information
system will include facilities to input data, manipulate it as specified, and then display the
results. In addition there must be facilities to keep the data and information secure.
An example of a computerised information system is the one used by the QSA. This system
takes your QCS results and SAIs as data, processes these by combining and adjusting them, and
then uses the results to produce the output information of your OP.
System views
A computerised information system can be described, investigated or dealt with from a variety
of points of view. The system will appear different depending on who is looking at it. The
technician who installs the software and maintains the hardware will be interested in
performance and reliability, the designer wants efficiency and accuracy, while the end user will
be more interested in how easy and efficient the system is to use.
These different perspectives of an information system are called views. There are four broad
groupings the external, internal, conceptual, and logical views. We will look at each in turn
starting with the external view.
External view
Whether a system consists of one stand-alone personal computer or hundreds of networked
terminals, each user interacts with it on a one-to-one basis. In doing this they build up their own
mental image of how it appears to them, and of what is going on in the system they are using.
This is described as the external view of the information system how it is visualised by the
person using it.
The external view is shaped by the parts of the system that a user is allowed to see and interact
with. This will vary from user to user. Although the data in the system will not change, an
everyday user will not have the same view as a manager, and neither will have the access rights
of the system administrator.
id# name department id# name department salary rating
4789 Smith, J Accounts 4789 Smith, J Accounts $56 450 good
4127 Morris, M PR 4127 Morris, M PR $45 895 poor
2578 Downs, L Sales 2578 Downs, L Sales $49 230 good
Workers view Managers view
The external view is limited for three reasons. The first is confidentiality not every user needs
to see the details of other users. The second is security only authorised persons should be able
to alter data. If all users had write-access, data might be accidentally (or even deliberately)
deleted or changed. Finally there is the aspect of convenience. A user does not need to see and
handle all parts of a system. By limiting a view to only the sections that the user needs,
operation can be less confusing.
Physical view
In contrast to the external view there is a internal or physical view of an information system.
Data is stored using bits and bytes and is scattered across the storage medium. How this data is
actually written to disc, recalled, sorted, summarised, printed, updated, secured and so on is at
the physical level of the system.
A data table and ... ... the data as stored as bits on disc
This physical view is the reality, and consists of the hardware, software, operating systems and
the database management system (DBMS), that perform the information storage and
processing. This is at the heart of the information system and determines how it actually works.
Conceptual and logical views
In between the users external view and the physical hardware, software and data on disc, are
the logical and conceptual views. These are the abstractions used to define the components and
the relationships that make up the information system, and then relate these in a meaningful
way to designers, developers and users.
The conceptual view of an information system consists of:
a conceptual schema the design for the objects that make up the data, the
relationships between these, and the constraints or restrictions that apply to them
a conceptual information processor the part of the system that controls and enforces
the design so that changes to the data can only be made if consistent with the design
the conceptual database the set of facts that make up the information contained in
the database.

A section of a conceptual schema for an training course IS
We will look at conceptual schema in more detail in unit 8.
The logical view is how this conceptualisation is communicated or presented to users. The
Windows tree structure for folders is a logical view of the files on a computer (see page 15).
Representing information as tables of data in rows and columns with headings is also a logical
representation.
011000010110110001101100011110010110111
101110101011100100110001001100001011100
110110010101100001011100100110010101100
010011001010110110001101111011011100110
011101110100011011110111010101110011
id# name age
12874 Smith, J 15
12895 Sullivan, A 16
15902 Taylor, P 15
Views
In summary the four views of a computerised information system are:
physical (or internal) the actual way the data is stored and manipulated; this view is
how the system will appear to the technician who creates, installs or maintains the
system
conceptual the types of data and the relationships between these types; this is the
view of the systems analyst who takes a real world situation and transforms it into an
abstraction that can be represented as an information system
logical how the data or information is represented or communicated to the user; this
is the view of the system designer who brings order to the data by presenting it in an
understandable way
external the parts the user is permitted to interact with; this is the view of the
information system as it appears to the end user.
Each view of an information system is closely linked to the others, and in places they overlap.
For example the logical view determines the external view, and in turn the external view is very
much dependent on the internal (software used, speed of operation, etc.).
Despite this connection each view should be as independent of the others as possible. Each
should be able to be replaced without affecting the other parts of the system. For example the
conceptual view should be flexible enough so that it can fit any suitable hardware and software
configuration, and the users view should be able to be varied to allow for these changes.
Again, if the user is isolated from the physical method of storing and retrieving information
from the database, changes can be made to the underlying architecture (hardware, disk storage
methods, etc.) without affecting how the user accesses it.
In IPT we look at information systems from each of these views. We use programming
languages to gain a logical understanding of how computers do what they do. We use SQL to
get some idea of the internal, or physical, workings of databases. We investigate ORM to
develop conceptual schema, and then use these to produce a set of relational tables as a logical
view of the information. We will also investigate the HCI of information systems to better
understand the externals of how users see and interact with data.
Activity 1.2 Model systems
1. a What is a system?
b List three different systems you know about.
For each of these identify the main parts of the system.
What is the purpose or goal of each of these systems?
You might present your answer as a table such as:
System Parts Purpose

c Pick one of these systems and identify what is taken as input, how is it processed, and
what is output.
2. What is the purpose of a computer system?
3. a What is meant by the external or users view of a system?
b What are the three reasons behind establishing a view of a system for the user?
c Pick one of these reasons and explain in more detail why it can be an advantage that a
user not be aware of more of the system.
4. a What is involved in the physical view of an information system?
b What is meant by the distinction between a logical and a physical representation of
something? Give an example to support your answer.
5. a What is an analysts view of an information system described as?
b What three parts does this consist of?
6. Find out what the role of a DBMS is. Write your answer as a set of dot points outlining the
functions performed.
7. Why is it important that the views of an information system be independent?
Forms of information system
Having seen the different ways of viewing an information system we will now look at different
forms information systems can take.
Hierarchical
One of the earliest forms of designing an information system was to use the hierarchical model.
An example you may be familiar with is the folder view in Windows.

A logical view of a computer system presented as a hierarchy
A hierarchical information system like this is usually represented as a tree diagram with the
data forming the leaves at the end of the branches. It can be displayed horizontally (as above)
or vertically (see below).
In a tree diagram each leaf and each point of branching is called a node. All branches originate
from a single root node. A lower node is called a child, while the one above is called a parent
node. In a hierarchical tree each child node is restricted to having only one parent node.
In a hierarchical system information is stored as data that are the terminal nodes in a tree
structure. To find a particular piece of data it is necessary to start from the root and then travel
down the branches from parent to child node until the required data is found.
parent

child parent

child parent

child parent

child

A hierarchical information system
In the Windows example above, starting from the Local Disc (C:) there are folders for
Dreamweaver, Intel, etc. Each of these has subfolders contained within it. Eventually by
tracing down through folder structure you will reach the data in saved files.
Hierarchical information systems were widely used in the early days of computing, especially
by IBM. As a result tree spanning algorithms were developed to search down branches to find
specific data quickly and efficiently.

A hierarchical database
root
data
data data data data

There were advantages to using the hierarchical model for organising information (e.g. very
efficient searching) but they proved too inflexible. Sorting data or restructuring the information
were major operations, and so hierarchical systems generally fell into disuse. Some are still
used for specialist applications such as document retrieval or file storage.
Network
One of the problems with a hierarchical information system is that a child node can have only
one parent. This means that if data needs to appear in two places (e.g. a person works for two
departments, or a part is used in two different machines) then the data had to appear as a node
on two different branches of the tree. Duplicating data like this can lead to problems of
redundancy and update anomalies (data changed in one place, but not in another).
To overcome these problems network information systems were developed. These removed the
single parent restriction on data trees.

A network information system structure
Network information systems retained the speed of searching of the hierarchical model and
overcame the problems associated with duplicated data, but were very complex to program and
maintain. When it was found that relational information systems gave the same advantages
without the associated complexity, the network model also fell into disuse.
Relational
This brings us to the relational information system. This model is the most widely used
nowadays as it is simple, consistent and, if well designed, does not cause any of the problems
associated with redundant data.
The relational model consists of:
data structures called tables or relations
rules on allowable values or combinations of values in tables, and
data manipulation operators.
Relational databases are based on relational algebra introduced by IBMs E F Codd in the
1970s. The sound mathematical basis of relational algebra gives this model its consistency and
stability.
We will explore the relational model in more detail shortly.
SALESREP CUSTOMER
PRODUCT INVOICE PAYMENT
PRICE DATE

A relational table in Access
Other types of information system
Although relational information systems have been the most widely used over the last forty
years, other forms are now appearing.
One is the object oriented (OO) database model. Similarly to object oriented programming,
these information systems work from a top-down model of defining classes and objects, each of
which have inheritable properties. This simplifies design and programming. OO information
systems contain not only data but programs to act on the data. These programs define the
objects that can then be manipulated usefully. There is as yet no generally agreed model for OO
information systems and so different products organise data differently.
Other models for information systems include object-relational, multi-media, spatial, temporal
and textual. Information systems also include rule based (or expert) systems, prognosis systems
for forecasting, distributed on-line systems, and the simulation and optimising systems used in
modelling.
In this book we will look at general fact retrieval systems using a relational model through SQL
in unit 7, and object-role modelling in unit 8. We will also see a rule based system in unit 10.
Activity 1.3 Classification of information systems
1. Draw a hierarchical tree diagram and label it to show each of the following:
node leaf branch root child node parent node
2. Hierarchical information systems are
searched using tree-spanning algorithms.
A depth-first spanning algorithm would
search the tree at right in this order:
F C Q W P R S M etc.
a How many nodes would the depth-
first search visit before it reached the
data at each of the following nodes:
i G ii E iii A.

b An alternative spanning algorithm is breadth first. In this the algorithm visits all
nodes on the same level before moving to a lower level.
List the nodes that would be visited in order, using a breadth-first search.
3. a What is the principle advantage of hierarchical and network information systems?
b Suggest a disadvantage of each.
c Name three other ways of implementing an information system.
4. An update anomaly is when data is changed in one part of an information system, but not
in another. For example, a person moves house but their address had been stored in two
places. If one address is brought up to date and the other is not, the system has an update
anomaly.
a Give an example of how an update anomaly might happen in a library database.
b Explain how an update anomaly could arise in a hierarchical information system. In
your answer draw part of an imaginary information system and use this diagram to
show how the anomaly could occur.
c Before the development of network information systems the problems of anomalies in
hierarchical information systems was overcome by using virtual records. When a
repeat of information had to be held in the information system, instead of creating a
second record the information system would hold a pointer to the original record.
Redraw your answer to part b above showing the inclusion of a virtual record and
explain why the update anomaly would now not occur.
Relational basics
Relational information systems are the most widely used nowadays. When correctly designed
they offer a simple, readily programmable way of representing and accessing data.
A relational database is made up of a group of named tables. Each table is displayed as a grid
of values divided into rows (across) and columns (down). The table below is named Event
entered, and has five columns (id number, name, age group, house, event) and six rows:
Event entered
id number name age group house event
1456 Smith, J U/15 Red 100m
3241 Bloggs, F U/14 Red 100m
3215 J ones, L U/15 Blue 200m
5439 Adams, F U/15 Green ?
6231 Davis, H U/14 Red 200m
4376 Fange, J U/14 Green 200m
Each data entry in this table is stored in one block of the grid called a cell. A value in a cell is
called an instance. For example Smith,J above is an instance of name and is stored in a single
cell.
Each cell in a relational database must contain one and only one instance (value) or be empty.
An empty cell is described as null indicated above by a ?. (Note: a null cell is different to a
cell containing 0.)
The cells in a vertical column are referred to as a field, e.g. the name field or the id number
field.
Each set of information in a horizontal row forms a record or atuple (rhymes with couple):
e.g. the tuple: 6231 Davis, H U/14 Red 400m has five instances.
Duplicate tuples are not permitted, i.e. the same set of information must not occur twice in the
same table or database. If it did, one set might be updated and the
other not, and the data would then be inconsistent and the database
would lack integrity. We saw this above as an update anomaly.
In a relational database there is no inherent order in columns or rows.
They can be rearranged to suit our purposes. We can put names into
alphabetical order, or get ages with youngest first. If we wish we can
rearrange the columns. When such resorting takes place however the
data in each tuple stays together. The sequence of the records or the
order of the fields within a record may change, but the instances in the
record tuple still contain the same data.
While columns (fields) are named, rows (tuples) are not, and so we
need some way of distinguishing one row from another. One field (or
several fields) takes on the function of being a key to a tuple. The key
is used to identify the tuple. In the Event entered table the field id
number is the key field,
e.g. 3241 is used to identify the second record; 6231 to identify the fifth record, and so on.
A key field obviously cannot contain a null, and must be unique, i.e. not repeated in the table.
(Why not?)
A relational database can consist of one table or several tables. In these the different tables may
have fields in common. These tables are thereby related, just as two children who have the
same grandmother are related. The ability to combine related tables makes this type of database
a very powerful tool. The relationship enables information that is spread across a number of
tables to be accessed by a single search, achieved by linking the tables through their related
fields.
In designing a relational database we will be aiming to make it as problem free as possible. To
do this we must get it into what is called Optimal Normal Form (ONF). We will see how to do
this in unit 8.
Note: although the data in a relational database appears to the user to be in rows and columns, it
is not actually stored this way by the computer. The way the data appears to behave as rows
and columns of a table is a logical view of the data, rather than the way it is physically stored.
There is a distinction between the logical data and the physical data.
E. F. Codd, the
father of relational
databases
Activity 1.4 Related tables
1. The tables below are incomplete but show a part of a relational database. Use them to
identify:
a a column b a row c a field
d a cell e an instance f a tuple
g a named table h a record i a null
j a key field k a common field
Student Achievement
id name age id subject result
1456 Harris, J 15 1456 IPT 70%
3241 Simons, F 14 1456 Maths C 82%
5423 Howard, M 15 1456 English ?
4578 Franklin, A 15 3241 IPT 58%
2. How are these two tables related?
3. Could the tuple: 3241 Simons, F 14 be added to Student? Why, or why not?
4. What does the ? in the result column suggest?
5. In Achievement could id act as a key field by itself? Why, or why not?
6. Each of the tables below has an error. Identify what is wrong with each.
a Arrivals b Code c Stock
date name id name code part price
15-6-10 Mike
Alice
1234 J ones, P 145789 sprocket $14.50
1245 Anderson, A 148792 widget $23.90
16-6-10 Clair
Shirley
George
1259 Howard, J 145876 grunckle $16.75
1245 Carey, M 148792 widget $23.90
1256 Falls, N 145796 hamsmith $14.20
SEI 1 System security and integrity
Once data has been transformed into information it has value and must be kept safe. In this our
first look at the social and ethical considerations of using technology we will investigate how
information can be abused or misused.
It is the responsibility of the person in charge of the information system to ensure its security
and integrity. Security is ensuring the information is only used for its intended purpose,
integrity is ensuring the stored values stay correct as entered.
The value of information
During the second world war the British had a huge advantage over the Germans. They had
captured several of the German Enigma code machines. Using a very early computer, the
genius of Alan Turing, and hundreds of other mathematicians, the British were able to break
the Enigma code.
Throughout the war the Allies were able to intercept and
decode enough of the enemies war messages that they were
always one step ahead of the Germans. Whenever a
bombing raid was planned, when troops or supplies were to
be moved, as U-boats set sail, and so on, the British and
Americans had prior warning and were able to act against
them. The cracking of the Enigma code and the information
it supplied was a major factor in defeating Hitler.
In this case the information that the Allies had helped win a
war. To have access to information your competitor does not
gives an advantage, whether the situation is a conflict like a
war, or something less dramatic. Knowing market trends can aid a business, being aware of
weather patterns can help a farmer, knowing key cheats can give you a win in a computer
game.
Since having relevant information can give an advantage, information has value. It can be
bought, sold or traded, just like any other commodity. To illustrate this consider the following
examples:
1. A profile, in computer terms, is a set of characteristics or qualities that identifies a person, either
as an individual, or as belonging to a category or group. For example a person might be
identified as young, fitness oriented, and having a moderate disposable income. Such a profile
can be compiled by analysing the on-line and web browsing habits of the person. By tracking
sites visited, on-line purchases, preferences, contacts, and so on, the particular characteristics
of a certain individual can be categorised. From the profile targeted advertising in, for example,
pop-up ads or other forms can be directed at the person.
2. Credit information is also valuable. When an individual applies for a loan from say a finance
company, the company may phone a credit bureau. Credit bureaus hold and trade financial
information about individuals. The bureau will check its records and, for a fee, give a credit
rating on the person. On the basis of this rating the loan may be given or withheld.
3. A mailing list is a list of addresses of a specific group of people who can be targeted for a
particular purpose such as advertising or surveying. Say, for example, a company was about to
promote a new range of imported cars. One very expensive option would be a mail drop of a
colour pamphlet into every household in Australia. If however they had a mailing list of every
home with a member whose income was over $80 000 they could target those households,
greatly reducing their operating costs. Such mailing lists do exist and sell for thousands of
dollars.
In each of these cases the information held (profile, financial data, mailing list) is worth paying
for. There are hundreds of other examples where an organisation will pay for information.
The cost of the information involves three aspects, the cost of creating or developing the
information, the cost of maintaining it and keeping it up to date, and the cost of communicating
or passing it on to those who will use it. Although such research is expensive, in the long run it
will save money and increase profits. In turn this could lead to industrial espionage spying,
hacking or bribery to gain access to the information held by a competitor.
An Enigma machine
Whether information is used for commercial purposes or for any other reason it has a value to
the holder of that information and so it must be kept secure.
Information security
It is the responsibility of the information system manager to maintain the security of the data
she or he is entrusted with. In the case of a home computer the information system manager is
the owner, in an office or corporate system however the manager may be responsible for
hundreds of computers.
Threats to the security of data include:
hackers a hacker is someone who gains unauthorised access to a system; while most
hackers are joyriders attempting to enter systems for the challenge involved they can
still accidentally alter the data in a system; in extreme cases hackers can be malicious
and may seek to vandalise or steal from the system
fraud fraud is gaining money by deception; computer fraud is usually committed by
someone with authorised access to a system who alters the information it contains to
their own benefit
data diddling altering data in a system; this is usually deliberate and can be done to
hide unfavourable information or to damage another person or group; recent examples
include the alteration of web pages
data theft copying and removing information without authority, for example
illegally compiling mailing lists, or selling of restricted information obtained from a
system
data mining the collection of information on individuals so that the data can be used
for some purpose, collected without the individuals knowledge by automated
programs (bots) from web sites, completed forms or other on-line sources;
information so collected can be used for identity theft or to create a profile of the
person
industrial espionage the stealing of trade secrets and commercial information from
an economic competitor
viruses malignant computer code that can damage the data in a system
privacy invasion obtaining information about other people without the right to do
so; in some cases the information might be used for blackmail
copyright infraction copying and using intellectual property without payment to, or
permission from the rightful owner of the information.
The information manager must put safeguards in place for each of these threats.
Basic safeguards include:
limiting access restricting use of a system to set people, usually by password access;
each user has certain read/write privileges depending on their level of authorisation
software controls procedures in place so that changes to data are monitored and can
be reversed if necessary
threat monitoring records are kept of unsuccessful accesses to a system, overlong
sessions by users, or the overuse of certain data files; these can be taken as indicators
of unauthorised use of a system
physical security restricting admission to a system, portable discs and flash drives
accounted for, printouts only available to authorised people, etc.
backup maintaining an effective backup of data so that it can be reinstalled in case
of deletion, loss, or system crash
anti-virus using software or hardware to guard against the actions of computer
viruses or worms
firewall software protection to provide a layer between an intranet and the Internet;
this isolates a system so that it s not vulnerable to access from the outside
staff security clearances only permitting trustworthy users to access sensitive
sections of a system
copy restrictions preventing users from copying information from a system without
permission; this can be by vetting outgoing files or attachments, or by monitoring
unusual duplication of data
encryption sensitive data can be encoded so that only users with a key can view it
separation of data and identifier where possible keeping records in such a way that
an individual cannot be recognised.
The maintenance of data security is a major responsibility of the system manager and is a very
complex task. It is not made any simpler by the characteristics of on-line data. Computerised
information can be reproduced quickly and then easily uploaded to another system. When it is
copied the original owner is not deprived of it, and may not even be aware they have been
deprived of its exclusive use.
The integrity of data
The integrity of a computer system refers to all data values being correct (or at least as correct
as originally entered). It also concerns data being mutually consistent so that there are no
anomalies in the system. (One example of an anomaly might be two different ages recorded for
one person in different parts of the system.) A system with no such anomalies is said to have
referential integrity.
The integrity of a computerised information system depends on data being:
complete
accurate
relevant
up to date, and
secure.
Again it is the system managers responsibility to ensure the integrity of data. Effective data
capture systems, secure storage procedures and well designed output reports are all part of
maintaining the reliability of the data.
To maintain this integrity the system manager will be reliant on the DBMS in place. The
DBMS will handle:
the data dictionary a list of the values the system can hold along with their
properties
data transformation and presentation operations that can occur on the data and how
it can be displayed
data storage management how the data is physically retained on storage media
security measures to keep the data safe
backup and recovery procedures to follow to ensure data is not lost
multi-user access control how more than one user can access the system effectively
and securely
data integrity maintaining data as it was entered
access language and API the language used to manipulate the data (e.g. SQL)
communication interface the user interface.
Activity 1.5 Safe and secure
1. a Explain the difference between the security and the integrity of data.
b Whose responsibility is it to ensure that the security and the integrity of data is
maintained?
2. a What do we mean when we say information has value?
b Give at least two examples (of your own) that show that information has value.
3. a What are the three areas of costs involved with information?
b What is industrial espionage?
c What forms might it take?
d Why might commercial operations be prepared to undertake industrial espionage?
4. Make up examples to show how data could lack integrity in each of the following ways:
a incomplete
b inaccurate
c irrelevant
d out of date.
5. What is meant by identity theft?
Accessing the data
Governments and businesses have always collected data on individuals and there has always
been a potential threat to privacy in the use of this data. With the advent of the electronic
computer this threat has been greatly magnified.
Using computers the huge amount of data stored, the ease of searching this data, and the
comparisons that can be made between data stored in different places and forms has made the
data vulnerable to abuse and misuse.
Abuse is deliberate, misuse is accidental. We will look at examples of each in turn.
One form of data abuse mentioned above is to use computerised data to build up a profile on a
person. The profile will list their personal details, buying habits, preferences and habits. A
profile is assembled by tracking the electronic activities of a person. These activities can
include the use of a credit card, internet accesses, use of a smartcard, videos rented, places
visited and so on. Once compiled this profile could then be sold to marketing people who
would use it to target the individual.
An example of developing a profile might be where it is noted that a given individual visits the
EPSN (sports) web site often, uses a credit card at sports stores, and has books on sports on
loan from a library. This person is now identified as being a potential customer for a range of
associated goods such as fitness equipment or health foods. This is valuable information to
marketers either for direct mail or to target ads when on-line.
Another form of data abuse is blackmail. By finding out secret or confidential information
about an individual it is possible to then use this information to extort money from them. The
data could also be used to force them to do something they do not wish such as to promote the
holder of the data. The blackmailed person must do what they have been told to prevent the
release of the confidential information.
Data theft is also a form of data abuse. Compiling mailing lists from a legitimate databank, or
querying a data file to sell information illegally are two examples of this.
In each of the cases above the abuse of the data has been deliberate. Data misuse usually occurs
through ignorance or carelessness. Examples include:
data given to others when they have no need to know of it
deleting data accidentally
using irrelevant data
delays in updating data so that it is out of date
transmission errors where data is corrupted
poor security
using data for purposes other than for what it was supplied.
Controls should be in place so that data is not open to either abuse or misuse.
Abuse of data files
In 1924 in America, J . Edgar Hoover was appointed head of the
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Over the next 48 years, until he
died, he dominated the bureau bringing it to a high level of efficiency
and effectiveness.
During his years in control of the bureau Hoover used his office to
compile files on many wrongdoers in America including gangsters,
racketeers and foreign agents. Over time as he became entrenched in
his position Hoover extended his files to cover politicians and other
leading community figures.
Eventually Hoover had files on most of the important decision makers
in America, many of the files including highly private information,
some of it information the individuals did not want revealed. There is a
suggestion that the sensitive data was used to pressure the individuals
into acting in ways that Hoover wanted. One description of Hoover
A rare photo of
Hoover, taken in his
younger days
likened him to a giant spider sitting at the centre of a web of intrigue, twitching the strands to
make the leaders of America dance to his tune.
In the end Hoovers influence was such that even the president (Kennedy) was not able to
remove him from his position.
There is always the potential that when private information is in the control of one person that
it be used for that persons own purposes. It is important that checks and balances be
introduced into any institution in which this might occur.
A check is any device to prevent a situation occurring, e.g. using an independent person such as
a magistrate to authorise activities. A balance is any way of ensuring that activities are not
carried too far in any given direction.
Data merging and sharing
The data systems of government agencies, and those of the finance, insurance and health
industries are very large and complex, while the data in them is particularly detailed and
sensitive. The uncertainty, lack of precision and the complexity that arises when the data from
these different systems is merged is extremely difficult to deal with.
Data merging is when information held on different computer systems is brought together to
form a new file, e.g. a mailing list.
Data sharing is when information is given to users on another system to either check entries or
to discover connections. An example of data sharing is where the taxation department is
permitted access to bank accounts to detect if a persons stated interest income matches their
tax return.
Problems that might arise with merging or sharing data include:
irrelevance data may be accidentally or deliberately given to others when they have
no need to know of it
inaccuracy this may arise out of delays in updating data, data taken out of context,
transmission errors, or poor standards of checking
disclosure more people see the data and therefore there is less security, and the new
users of the information may not be aware of its sensitivity
no consent the information may be being used for a purpose other than that for
which the individual supplied it
tampering once files are on-line they are vulnerable to hackers or other
unauthorised access.
The ability to merge data files or to simply share information has been greatly increased with
the use of the Tax File Number (TFN) in Australia. This number is required by each working
Australian. Originally the Tax File Number was for use only by the taxation department but its
use is becoming more widespread, and the potential to abuse it as a key to query separate files
is growing.
Originally (by law) only to be used for tax recording purposes, the TFN is now used when
opening bank accounts, applying for social security, and in some cases is asked for when
applying for a job.
In itself the TFN is not a threat to privacy, however, being a unique identifier, it permits easy
reference to specific individuals. Information in many different places is difficult to collate
(how many J . Smiths are there in Australia?). While it is possible to query many different
systems and build up a profile of a target individual by matching name, address, age, and so on,
this is time consuming and difficult.
With a unique identifier however this whole process is simplified. Each TFN applies to only
one individual, and if in turn it was stored on many different systems the compilation of a
profile would be easy.
Security guidelines
If the information in a system can be used to invade personal privacy or to abuse power,
controls have to be instituted.
The U.S. Privacy Commission suggested the following guide-lines:
the existence of all personal records must be made public
the individual must have some way of finding out when information about him/her is
stored and how it is used
personal information should only be used for its intended purpose
individuals should be able to correct or amend their own records
personal information must be obtained in such a way that it is: complete, accurate,
relevant, up to date, and secure
all uses of information should be accounted for by a responsible manager.
The holding of data carries with it the responsibility of ensuring it is only used for its intended
purpose. It is part of the job of a computer system manager to make sure this happens.
Activity 1.6 Holding data
1. a In computer access terms what is a profile of a person?
b Give an example of the type of information that might be used to build up a profile on
a person.
c What is a cookie and how are they used to track user access to a web site?
d How might information obtained from cookies be used to help develop a profile on a
person?
2. Blackmail is where confidential information is used to coerce (force) a person to do
something they do not wish to do. Give examples of the types of information that might be
held on computer that should have restricted access so that they not be available for
blackmail.
3. a What is the difference between the abuse and the misuse of data files?
b Give examples of each.
4. a How did the FBIs Hoover use data files to protect his interests?
b What steps should be taken to avoid a similar situation arising in Australia?
5. Why should we be concerned about data merging and data sharing between different
information systems?
6. a What is a smart card?
b Discuss the advantages and disadvantages involved in using a smartcard.
7. One of the safeguards to ensure the security of data is to have one person ultimately
responsible for the data.
a Why is it more important to have one person responsible for data, than to have a
group of people or a committee in charge?
b What checks and balances should be put in place to make sure the information
manager does not in turn abuse or misuse the data?
8. a What is a TFN? Who must have one?
b What is meant by a unique identifier?
c How does a unique identifier make the merging or sharing of data files easier?
d What are the implications to the right to privacy that have arisen with the more
widespread use of the TFN.

It is now time to
see how we
interface with these
information systems


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