1.

KEEP RECORDS TO ALLOW FOR BETTER PLANNING

An often overlooked aspect of plant propagation is the art of record keeping. Whether you are producing a few
plants for your home flower and vegetable gardens or working at a larger-scale nursery, developing a
propagation journal will prove indispensable. Here at the Center for Historic Plants, we record when seeds are
sown, the germination date and success rate, and when seedlings are ready for transplanting each year. At the
end of the year we evaluate the timing of our production schedule, noting what went right and what went wrong.
These observations help us make adjustments for next year to ensure that we are growing our plants under
optimum conditions. We also keep track of where we purchase seeds, as their quality and reliability may vary
by source.
2. STORE SEED PROPERLY TO MAINTAIN VIABILITY

Seeds are a fragile commodity, and if not treated properly, their viability will sharply decline. While some seeds
may survive for thousands of years under the proper conditions, others will lose viability quickly, even when
properly stored. To maintain dormancy, keep seeds in a cool, dark location with low humidity, like a refri

3. USE WIDE, FLAT CONTAINERS TO AVOID OVERCROWDING

Plastic pots are best for starting seeds.

Good drainage is essential.
Plastic pots or containers are preferable to clay pots when starting seeds, as they retain moisture more
consistently. Wide, shallow containers prevent both overcrowding of seedlings and excessive moisture around
fragile, young roots. Plants that resent root disturbance when transplanted are best sown into small, individual
containers like cell packs or plug trays. Recycled plastic containers, like empty yogurt or margarine tubs, work
well, too, provided you've poked holes in the bottom for drainage. No matter what type of container you use, it
must be clean and free of pathogens. To sanitize a container, soak it in a 10 percent bleach solution for 15
minutes and let it air dry.
4. TAMP SEEDS DOWN TO MAKE DIRECT CONTACT WITH THE SOIL

After planting, cover seeds with sieved potting mix.

Lightly tamp to ensure firm contact between seeds and mix.
Use a kitchen sieve to spread soilless seed-starting mix evenly over the top of the seeds to the depth of two
times the seed diameter. Very small seeds and those that require light to germinate should lie directly on the
surface. Whether covered with planting medium or not, each seed must be in firm contact with the moist
surface to begin germinating. Use a pestle or even the bottom of a glass to gently tamp down the surface.
5. PREVENT DISEASE BY PROVIDING AIR FLOW AND DRAINAGE

A sprinkling of sphagnum moss and chicken grit helps keep the surface dry, preventing the growth of
pathogens.

A fan circulates air.
The fungal infection often referred to as damping-off is usually caused by excessive moisture and poor air
circulation. However, there are a few cultural techniques that will help to keep fungal agents at bay. After
covering the seeds with planting mix and tamping them down, spread a thin layer of 50 percent milled
sphagnum and 50 percent starter chicken grit (finely ground stone) over the surface to keep the soil around the
emerging shoots dry and provide an inhospitable environment for pathogens. To promote good air circulation,
place a small fan near your seedlings. Keep the fan on low and direct it to blow across the containers at the soil
level where air may become trapped and stagnant.

6. COVER TRAYS WITH PLASTIC WRAP TO KEEP THE MOISTURE LEVEL CONSTANT

Plastic wrap ensures a constant moisture level.

If more water is needed, let it wick up from the bottom.
Seeds are very sensitive to the extremes of overwatering and underwatering. In addition, heavy-handed
watering can disturb newly germinated seedlings. Securing plastic wrap over the surface of a freshly sown
seed pot can help to keep the moisture level constant. However, the pot must still be checked daily for moisture
and germination. If you find that you need to rehydrate your seed container, place the entire pot in a basin with
2 to 3 inches of warm water and allow the planting medium to wick moisture from the bottom. If just the surface
has dried, you can lift the plastic covering and spritz the surface with water from a spray bottle. As soon as the
seeds germinate, remove the plastic wrap.
7. KEEP SEEDS WARM TO ENCOURAGE GERMINATION

A heat mat speeds germination.
Most seeds require temperatures of 65to 75F to germinate. Placing seed containers near an existing heater
or using a space heater with the proper precautions can raise the ambient temperature as needed. In addition,
a heating pad designed for plant use placed directly under the seed containers will warm the planting mix and
encourage germination. When using any additional heat source, be sure to check for moisture often, since the
seed containers may dry out more quickly.
8. TURN SEEDLINGS DAILY TO KEEP STEMS STRONG

A sunny windowsill is a good place to put sprouted seedlings.

Lightly brushing the seedlings encourages the growth of strong stems.
Most seeds will not germinate without sunlight and will perform best with 12 to 16 hours each day. Indoors,
place seed containers in a sunny, south-facing window and give the container a quarter turn each day to
prevent the seedlings from overreaching toward the light and developing weak, elongated stems. Also, gently
brush the palm of your hand against the tops of the seedlings to encourage strong stem growth.

. FEED THEM WELL

After true leaves develop, it's time for a little fertilizer.
Proper nutrition at a consistent rate will keep your seedlings growing strong. When the embryo inside a seed is
developing, it relies on food stored in the endosperm to fuel its growth. As the shoot emerges from the soil and
the true leaves develop, the initial nutrients supplied by the endosperm will be depleted and supplemental
fertilization is then required. Most seed-starting mixes contain a small nutrient charge to help make this
transition while not burning the developing roots. However, once the true leaves emerge, it is time to begin a
half-strength liquid fertilizer regimen on a weekly basis.
10. ACCLIMATE SEEDLINGS TO DIRECT SUNLIGHT

Hardening off in a cold frame acclimates the seedlings to conditions outdoors.
Photo/Illustration:
Gary Junken
Before seedlings can be planted outdoors, they need to be hardened off, or acclimated to direct sunlight and
fluctuating temperatures. It is best to do this over a three-day period by placing them in direct sunlight during
the morning only of the first day, then increasing their time outside by a few hours each day until they are
vigorous enough to be transplanted.


Process of Seed Germination
Requirements for Germination
Water:
The role of water in germination is of paramount importance .The seed remains in a
dormant condition and the initiation of the process of germination takes place by the
influx of water molecules. The seed has a tiny pore in the covering (testa which is
called micropyle and water enters into the seed initially by imbibation adsorption of
water by substances present inside the seed. These include proteins, starch and cell
wall materials suach as hemicellulose and pectic substances.
The swelling of tese substances ca lesd tot he strong imbiational forces which are great
enough to cause rupturing of the seed.


Optimum temperature :
There is a characteristic temperature range needed for proper germination of seeds in
a given soil type. It is about 5 to 40
0
C.
Oxygen :
This is required for aerobic respiration which can be assisted with anaerobic
respiration if needed
Plant growth is well explained with an example of germination of Bambarra Bean seed below.

Germination of Voandzeia (Bambarra Bean)
Plant growth is well explained with an example of germination of Bambarra Bean seed below.

Physiology of Germination:
A typical seed stores carbohydrates, lipids and proteins for germination.
As a result of imbibation and osmosis the embryo bercomes hydrated which activates
the enzymes for respiration.
basically the storage centre (food) and the growth centre(embryo) are the main regioons
of activity.
Digestion of food on storage centre osccurs by hydrolysis and amino acids, sugars anf
fatty acids anf glygerol arte produced
Soluble products are translocaterd to thegrowing regions of the embryo
The majority of glucose is used for cellulose synthesis and other cell wall
materials.amino acids are used for enzymes and structural components.
The net loss of mass of the seed occurs due to change of sugars to Co
2
and water
where C0
2
is lost as gas than O
2
taken up by aerobic respiration.
Within the embryo growth occurs by cell division and amounts of proteins,
cellulose,nucleic acids steadily increase in the growing regions of the seed.
Thev first visible sign of growth is the radicle, that emerges fromthe micropyle andis
positively geotropic in nature.It forms the rooyt system of the plant
The next structure that emerges is the plumule, that is positively phototropic and forms
the shoot system of the plant.
Stages of Seed Germination
There are basically three steps of seed germination:
Step 1-Water imbibation results in rupture of seed coat, uniform imbibation is important
and approximately optimum temperatures are required
Step 2-The imbibition of the seed coat results in emergence of the radicle and the
plumule, the cotyledons get unfolded. It is important that the temperature and photo
period are required in optimum amounts
Step 3-This marks the final step in the germination of the seed where the cotyledons
are expanded which are the true leaves.

For the growth and development of seeds ,different kinds of food like carbohydrates, fat
and proteins are required in stored form.Besides the growth promoting substances like
auxins, heteroauxins are also formed at the time of germination which controls the
growth and development of seedlings during germination.
Germination of Voandzeia (Bambarra Bean)
Seed germination is an irreversible process. Germination includes the changes that take place from the time the dry seed is
provided with suitable conditions to when the seedling becomes established as an independent plant. Various changes take place
during germination.
They are as follows:
Sub Topics

1. Imbibition
2. Respiration

Imbibition
The first step in the process of seed germination is imbibition or absorption of water. The seed takes in water through the micropyle
which results in swelling of the seed. This is due to the cellular constituents being dehydrated. The swelling causes the seed coat to
rupture and enables the radicle to come out in the form of a primary root.
Respiration
When the seed imbibes water, it causes the metabolic activities to resume. In the beginning the respiration is anaerobic and later it
becomes aerobic.


Germination in a Dicot
The primary root emerges through the seed coats while the seed is still buried
in the soil.
The hypocotyl ("below the cotyledons") emerges from the seed coats and
pushes its way up through the soil. It is bent in a hairpin shape
the hypocotyl arch as it grows up. The two cotyledons protect
the plumule the epicotyl ("above the cotyledons") and first leaves from
mechanical damage.
Once the hypocotyl arch emerges from the soil, it straightens out. This
response is triggered by light. Both
o red light, absorbed by phytochrome and
o blue light, absorbed by cryptochrome can do the job.
The cotyledons spread apart exposing the epicotyl with the apical meristem at
its tip, and
two primary leaves
In many dicots, the cotyledons not only transfer their food stores to the
developing plant but also turn green and make more food
by photosynthesis until they drop off.
The image (courtesy of the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.) is a time-lapse photograph
showing three stages in the germination of a bean
seed.
Germination in Monocots
When grass seeds like corn (maize) or oats
(shown here) germinate,
the primary root pierces the seed (and fruit)
coverings and grows down;
the primary leaf of the plant grows up. It is
protected as it pushes up through t

importance of sowing seeds:

1. Seeds are God's creation to provide wealth and blessing in the earth. Seed is the propagative structure of
anything. IF you want to have something, identify its seed an sow it.
2. Sowing seeds gives you a legal right to a harvest.
3. Good things are seeds. Gal 6:6-8. The seed is part of the fruit. The good thing that we want is what we must sow.
That is what the seed is.
4. Spiritual virtues are seeds that can be sown. Matt 5:7 - Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. Matt
18:32-35 The man was given a fruit of mercy but did not sow any of it, so he had no more right to continue to enjoy
the harvest of mercy.
5. Good deeds are seeds that can be sown.
6. The word of God is seed that can be sown. Mark 4:14. The sower soweth the word.
7. Money is a seed that can be sown. 2 Cor 9:6-7
8. The tithe is a special seed that can be sown. Malachi 3:10
9. A seed to the poor is a special seed that gives a harvest of preservation, long life and health to the sower. Psalm
41:1-3
10. The seed of money mixed with prayer. Cornelias of Acts 10; his prayers and alms came up for a memorial before
God Acts 10:4

Irrigation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about irrigation in agriculture. For other uses, see Irrigation (disambiguation).


Irrigation canal nearChannagiri, Davangere District,India


Irrigation in a field in New Jersey, United States


An irrigation sprinkler watering a lawn


Irrigation canal in Osmaniye, Turkey
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing
of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas
and during periods of inadequate rainfall. Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop
production, which include protecting plants against frost,
[1]
suppressing weed growth in grain
fields
[2]
and preventing soil consolidation.
[3]
In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is
referred to as rain-fed or dryland farming.
Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining. Irrigation is
often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-
surface water from a given area.
Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5000 years, and was the basis of the
economy and society of numerous societies, ranging from Asia to Arizona.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
o 1.1 China
o 1.2 Korea
o 1.3 North America
2 Present extent
3 Types
o 3.1 Surface
o 3.2 Localized
3.2.1 Subsurface textile irrigation
3.2.2 Drip
o 3.3 Sprinkler System
3.3.1 Center pivot
3.3.2 Lateral move (side roll, wheel line)
o 3.4 Sub-irrigation
o 3.5 Automatic, non-electric using buckets and ropes
o 3.6 Using water condensed from humid air
o 3.7 In-ground irrigation
4 Water sources
5 Efficiency
6 Technical challenges
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
o 9.1 Journals
10 External links
History[edit]


Animal-powered irrigation, Upper Egypt, ca. 184960


An example of an irrigation system common on the Indian subcontinent. Artistic impression on the banks of Dal Lake, Kashmir, India


Inside a karez tunnel at Turpan, Uyghurstan
Archaeological investigation has identified evidence of irrigation where the natural rainfall was
insufficient to support crops.
Perennial irrigation was practiced in the Mesopotamian plain whereby crops were regularly watered
throughout the growing season by coaxing water through a matrix of small channels formed in the
field.
[4]

Ancient Egyptians practiced Basin irrigation using the flooding of the Nile to inundate land plots
which had been surrounded by dykes. The flood water was held until the fertile sediment had settled
before the surplus was returned to the watercourse.
[5]
There is evidence of the ancient
Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhet III in the twelfth dynasty (about 1800 BCE) using the natural lake of
the Faiyum Oasis as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons, the lake
swelled annually from flooding of the Nile.
[6]

The Ancient Nubians developed a form of irrigation by using a waterwheel-like device called a sakia.
Irrigation began in Nubia some time between the third and second millennium BCE.
[7]
It largely
depended upon the flood waters that would flow through the Nile River and other rivers in what is
now the Sudan.
[8]

In sub-Saharan Africa irrigation reached the Niger River region cultures and civilizations by the first
or second millennium BCE and was based on wet season flooding and water harvesting.
[9][10]

Terrace irrigation is evidenced in pre-Columbian America, early Syria, India, and China.
[5]
In the
Zana Valley of the Andes Mountains in Peru, archaeologists found remains of three
irrigation canals radiocarbon dated from the4th millennium BCE, the 3rd millennium BCE and the 9th
century CE. These canals are the earliest record of irrigation in the New World. Traces of a canal
possibly dating from the 5th millennium BCE were found under the 4th millennium
canal.
[11]
Sophisticated irrigation and storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley
Civilization in present-day Pakistan and North India, including the reservoirs at Girnar in 3000 BCE
and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE.
[12][13]
Large scale agriculture was practiced
and an extensive network of canals was used for the purpose of irrigation.
Ancient Persia (modern day Iran) as far back as the 6th millennium BCE, where barley was grown in
areas where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support such a crop.
[14]
The Qanats, developed in
ancient Persia in about 800 BCE, are among the oldest known irrigation methods still in use today.
They are now found in Asia, the Middle East and North Africa. The system comprises a network of
vertical wells and gently sloping tunnels driven into the sides of cliffs and steep hills to tap
groundwater.
[15]
The noria, a water wheel with clay pots around the rim powered by the flow of the
stream (or by animals where the water source was still), was first brought into use at about this time,
byRoman settlers in North Africa. By 150 BCE the pots were fitted with valves to allow smoother
filling as they were forced into the water.
[16]

The irrigation works of ancient Sri Lanka, the earliest dating from about 300 BCE, in the reign of
King Pandukabhaya and under continuous development for the next thousand years, were one of
the most complex irrigation systems of the ancient world. In addition to underground canals,
the Sinhalese were the first to build completely artificial reservoirs to store water. Due to their
engineering superiority in this sector, they were often called 'masters of irrigation'. Most of these
irrigation systems still exist undamaged up to now, in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, because of
the advanced and precise engineering. The system was extensively restored and further extended
during the reign of KingParakrama Bahu (11531186 CE).
[17]

China[edit]
The oldest known hydraulic engineers of China were Sunshu Ao (6th century BCE) of the Spring and
Autumn Period and Ximen Bao (5th century BCE) of the Warring States period, both of whom
worked on large irrigation projects. In the Szechwan region belonging to the State of Qin of ancient
China, the Dujiangyan Irrigation System was built in 256 BCE to irrigate an enormous area of
farmland that today still supplies water.
[18]
By the 2nd century AD, during theHan Dynasty, the
Chinese also used chain pumps that lifted water from lower elevation to higher elevation.
[19]
These
were powered by manual foot pedal, hydraulic waterwheels, or rotating mechanical wheels pulled
by oxen.
[20]
The water was used for public works of providing water for urban residential quarters and
palace gardens, but mostly for irrigation of farmland canals and channels in the fields.
[21]

Korea[edit]
In 15th century Korea, the world's first rain gauge, uryanggye (Korean:), was invented in
1441. The inventor was Jang Yeong-sil, a Korean engineer of the Joseon Dynasty, under the active
direction of the king, Sejong the Great. It was installed in irrigation tanks as part of a nationwide
system to measure and collect rainfall for agricultural applications. With this instrument, planners
and farmers could make better use of the information gathered in the survey.
[22]

North America[edit]
Main article: Hohokam
In North America, the Hohokam were the only culture to rely on irrigation canals to water their crops,
and their irrigation systems supported the largest population in the Southwest by AD 1300. The
Hohokam constructed an assortment of simple canals combined with weirs in their various
agricultural pursuits. Between the 7th and 14th centuries, they also built and maintained extensive
irrigation networks along the lower Salt and middle Gila rivers that rivaled the complexity of those
used in the ancient Near East, Egypt, and China. These were constructed using relatively simple
excavation tools, without the benefit of advanced engineering technologies, and achieved drops of a
few feet per mile, balancing erosion and siltation. The Hohokam cultivated varieties of cotton,
tobacco, maize, beans and squash, as well as harvested an assortment of wild plants. Late in the
Hohokam Chronological Sequence, they also used extensive dry-farming systems, primarily to
grow agave for food and fiber. Their reliance on agricultural strategies based on canal irrigation, vital
in their less than hospitable desert environment and arid climate, provided the basis for the
aggregation of rural populations into stable urban centers.
[23]

Present extent[edit]
In the mid 20th century, the advent of diesel and electric motors led to systems that could
pump groundwater out of major aquifers faster than drainage basins could refill them. This can lead
to permanent loss of aquifer capacity, decreased water quality, ground subsidence, and other
problems. The future of food production in such areas as the North China Plain, the Punjab, and
the Great Plains of the US is threatened by this phenomenon.
[24][25]

At the global scale, 2,788,000 km (689 million acres) of fertile land was equipped with irrigation
infrastructure around the year 2000. About 68% of the area equipped for irrigation is located in Asia,
17% in the Americas, 9% in Europe, 5% in Africa and 1% in Oceania. The largest contiguous areas
of high irrigation density are found:
In Northern India and Pakistan along the Ganges and Indus rivers
In the Hai He, Huang He and Yangtze basins in China
Along the Nile river in Egypt and Sudan
In the Mississippi-Missouri river basin and in parts of California
Smaller irrigation areas are spread across almost all populated parts of the world.
[26]

Only 8 years later in 2008, the scale of irrigated land increased to an estimated total of
3,245,566 km, what is nearly the size of India.
[27]

Types[edit]


Basin flood irrigation of wheat


Irrigation of land in Punjab, Pakistan
Various types of irrigation techniques differ in how the water obtained from the source is distributed
within the field. In general, the goal is to supply the entire field uniformly with water, so that each
plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little.
Surface[edit]
Main article: Surface irrigation
In surface (furrow, flood, or level basin) irrigation systems, water moves across the surface of
agricultural lands, in order to wet it and infiltrate into the soil. Surface irrigation can be subdivided
into furrow, borderstrip or basin irrigation. It is often called flood irrigation when the irrigation results
in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land. Historically, this has been the most common
method of irrigating agricultural land and still is in most parts of the world.
Where water levels from the irrigation source permit, the levels are controlled by dikes, usually
plugged by soil. This is often seen in terraced rice fields (rice paddies), where the method is used to
flood or control the level of water in each distinct field. In some cases, the water is pumped, or lifted
by human or animal power to the level of the land. The field water efficiency of surface irrigation is
typically lower than other forms of irrigation but has the potential for efficiencies in the range of 70% -
90% under appropriate management.
Localized[edit]


Brass Impact type sprinkler head
Localized irrigation is a system where water is distributed under low pressure through a piped
network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to
it. Drip irrigation, spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation and bubbler irrigation belong to this category of
irrigation methods.
[28]

Subsurface textile irrigation[edit]


Diagram showing the structure of an example SSTI installation
Main article: Subsurface textile irrigation
Subsurface Textile Irrigation (SSTI) is a technology designed specifically for subsurface irrigation in
all soil textures from desert sands to heavy clays. A typical subsurface textile irrigation system has
an impermeable base layer (usually polyethylene or polypropylene), a drip line running along that
base, a layer of geotextile on top of the drip line and, finally, a narrow impermeable layer on top of
the geotextile (see diagram). Unlike standard drip irrigation, the spacing of emitters in the drip pipe is
not critical as the geotextile moves the water along the fabric up to 2m from the dripper.
Drip[edit]


Drip irrigation layout and its parts


Drip irrigation - a dripper in action


Grapes in Petrolina, only made possible in this semi arid area by drip irrigation
Main article: Drip irrigation
Drip (or micro) irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests. In this
system water falls drop by drop just at the position of roots. Water is delivered at or near
the root zone of plants, drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient method of
irrigation,
[29]
if managed properly, since evaporation and runoff are minimized. The field water
efficiency of drip irrigation is typically in the range of 80 to 90 percent when managed correctly.
In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing
evaporation, and is also the means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation.
Deep percolation, where water moves below the root zone, can occur if a drip system is operated for
too long or if the delivery rate is too high. Drip irrigation methods range from very high-tech and
computerized to low-tech and labor-intensive. Lower water pressures are usually needed than for
most other types of systems, with the exception of low energy center pivot systems and surface
irrigation systems, and the system can be designed for uniformity throughout a field or for precise
water delivery to individual plants in a landscape containing a mix of plant species. Although it is
difficult to regulate pressure on steep slopes, pressure compensating emitters are available, so the
field does not have to be level. High-tech solutions involve precisely calibrated emitters located
along lines of tubing that extend from a computerized set of valves.
Sprinkler System[edit]


Sprinkler irrigation of blueberries inPlainville, New York, United States


A traveling sprinkler at Millets Farm Centre, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
Further information: Irrigation sprinkler
In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and
distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system utilizing sprinklers, sprays, or
guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-set irrigation
system. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and are driven by a ball drive, gear
drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle. Guns are
similar to rotors, except that they generally operate at very high pressures of 40 to 130 lbf/in (275 to
900 kPa) and flows of 50 to 1200 US gal/min (3 to 76 L/s), usually with nozzle diameters in the range
of 0.5 to 1.9 inches (10 to 50 mm). Guns are used not only for irrigation, but also for industrial
applications such as dust suppression and logging.
Sprinklers can also be mounted on moving platforms connected to the water source by a hose.
Automatically moving wheeled systems known as traveling sprinklers may irrigate areas such as
small farms, sports fields, parks, pastures, and cemeteries unattended. Most of these utilize a length
of polyethylene tubing wound on a steel drum. As the tubing is wound on the drum powered by the
irrigation water or a small gas engine, the sprinkler is pulled across the field. When the sprinkler
arrives back at the reel the system shuts off. This type of system is known to most people as a
"waterreel" traveling irrigation sprinkler and they are used extensively for dust suppression, irrigation,
and land application of waste water.
Other travelers use a flat rubber hose that is dragged along behind while the sprinkler platform is
pulled by a cable. These cable-type travelers are definitely old technology and their use is limited in
today's modern irrigation projects.
Center pivot[edit]


A small center pivot system from beginning to end


The hub of a center-pivot irrigation system


Rotator style pivot applicator sprinkler


Center pivot with drop sprinklers


Wheel line irrigation system inIdaho, 2001
Main article: Center pivot irrigation
Center pivot irrigation is a form of sprinkler irrigation consisting of several segments of pipe (usually
galvanized steel or aluminum) joined together and supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled
towers with sprinklers positioned along its length.
[30]
The system moves in a circular pattern and is
fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the arc. These systems are found and used in all
parts of the world and allow irrigation of all types of terrain. Newer systems have drop sprinkler
heads as shown in the image that follows.
Most center pivot systems now have drops hanging from a u-shaped pipe attached at the top of the
pipe with sprinkler head that are positioned a few feet (at most) above the crop, thus limiting
evaporative losses. Drops can also be used with drag hoses or bubblers that deposit the water
directly on the ground between crops. Crops are often planted in a circle to conform to the center
pivot. This type of system is known as LEPA (Low Energy Precision Application). Originally, most
center pivots were water powered. These were replaced by hydraulic systems (T-L Irrigation) and
electric motor driven systems (Reinke, Valley, Zimmatic). Many modern pivots
feature GPSdevices.
[citation needed]

Lateral move (side roll, wheel line)[edit]
A series of pipes, each with a wheel of about 1.5 m diameter permanently affixed to its midpoint and
sprinklers along its length, are coupled together at one edge of a field. Water is supplied at one end
using a large hose. After sufficient water has been applied, the hose is removed and the remaining
assembly rotated either by hand or with a purpose-built mechanism, so that the sprinklers move 10
m across the field. The hose is reconnected. The process is repeated until the opposite edge of the
field is reached.
This system is less expensive to install than a center pivot, but much more labor-intensive to
operate, and it is limited in the amount of water it can carry. Most systems utilize 4 or 5-inch
(130 mm) diameter aluminum pipe. One feature of a lateral move system is that it consists of
sections that can be easily disconnected. They are most often used for small or oddly shaped fields,
such as those found in hilly or mountainous regions, or in regions where labor is inexpensive.
Sub-irrigation[edit]
Subirrigation has been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables. It is a
method of artificially raising the water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the
plants' root zone. Often those systems are located on permanent grasslands in lowlands or river
valleys and combined with drainage infrastructure. A system of pumping stations, canals, weirs and
gates allows it to increase or decrease the water level in a network of ditches and thereby control the
water table.
Sub-irrigation is also used in commercial greenhouse production, usually for potted plants. Water is
delivered from below, absorbed upwards, and the excess collected for recycling. Typically, a solution
of water and nutrientsfloods a container or flows through a trough for a short period of time, 1020
minutes, and is then pumped back into a holding tank for reuse. Sub-irrigation in greenhouses
requires fairly sophisticated, expensive equipment and management. Advantages are water and
nutrient conservation, and labor-saving through lowered system maintenance and automation. It is
similar in principle and action to subsurface basin irrigation.
Automatic, non-electric using buckets and ropes[edit]
Besides the common manual watering by bucket, an automated, natural version of this also exists.
Using plain polyester ropes combined with a prepared ground mixture can be used to water plants
from a vessel filled with water.
[31][32][33]

The ground mixture would need to be made depending on the plant itself, yet would mostly consist
of black potting soil, vermiculite and perlite. This system would (with certain crops) allow to save
expenses as it does not consume any electricity and only little water (unlike sprinklers, water timers,
etc.). However, it may only be used with certain crops (probably mostly larger crops that do not need
a humid environment; perhaps e.g. paprikas).
[citation needed]

Using water condensed from humid air[edit]
In countries where at night, humid air sweeps the countryside, water can be obtained from the humid
air by condensation onto cold surfaces. This is for example practiced in the vineyards
at Lanzarote using stones to condense water or with various fog collectors based on canvas or foil
sheets.
In-ground irrigation[edit]
Most commercial and residential irrigation systems are "in ground" systems, which means that
everything is buried in the ground. With the pipes, sprinklers, emitters (drippers), and
irrigation valves being hidden, it makes for a cleaner, more presentable landscape without
garden hoses or other items having to be moved around manually. This does, however, create some
drawbacks in the maintenance of a completely buried system.
Most irrigation systems are divided into zones. A zone is a single irrigation valve and one or a group
of drippers or sprinklers that are connected by pipes or tubes. Irrigation systems are divided into
zones because there is usually not enough pressure and available flow to run sprinklers for an entire
yard or sports field at once. Each zone has a solenoid valve on it that is controlled via wire by
an irrigation controller. The irrigation controller is either a mechanical (now the "dinosaur" type) or
electrical device that signals a zone to turn on at a specific time and keeps it on for a specified
amount of time. "Smart Controller" is a recent term for a controller that is capable of adjusting the
watering time by itself in response to current environmental conditions. The smart controller
determines current conditions by means of historic weather data for the local area, a soil moisture
sensor (water potential or water content), rain sensor, or in more sophisticated systems satellite feed
weather station, or a combination of these.
When a zone comes on, the water flows through the lateral lines and ultimately ends up at the
irrigation emitter (drip) or sprinkler heads. Many sprinklers have pipe thread inlets on the bottom of
them which allows a fitting and the pipe to be attached to them. The sprinklers are usually installed
with the top of the head flush with the ground surface. When the water is pressurized, the head will
pop up out of the ground and water the desired area until the valve closes and shuts off that zone.
Once there is no more water pressure in the lateral line, the sprinkler head will retract back into the
ground. Emitters are generally laid on the soil surface or buried a few inches to reduce evaporation
losses.
Water sources[edit]


Irrigation is underway by pump-enabledextraction directly from the Gumti, seen in the background, in Comilla, Bangladesh.
Sources of irrigation water can be groundwater extracted from springs or by using wells, surface
water withdrawn from rivers, lakes or reservoirs or non-conventional sources like treated
wastewater, desalinated water or drainage water. A special form of irrigation using surface water
is spate irrigation, also called floodwater harvesting. In case of a flood (spate) water is diverted to
normally dry river beds (wadis) using a network of dams, gates and channels and spread over large
areas. The moisture stored in the soil will be used thereafter to grow crops. Spate irrigation areas
are in particular located in semi-arid or arid, mountainous regions. While floodwater harvesting
belongs to the accepted irrigation methods, rainwater harvesting is usually not considered as a form
of irrigation. Rainwater harvesting is the collection of runoff water from roofs or unused land and the
concentration
Around 90% of wastewater produced globally remains untreated, causing widespread
water pollution, especially in low-income countries. Increasingly, agriculture is using untreated
wastewater as a source of irrigation water. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are
attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water
resources with industry and municipal users (see Water scarcity below), there is often no alternative
for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste, including sewage, directly to water their
crops. There can be significant health hazards related to using water loaded with pathogens in this
way, especially if people eat raw vegetables that have been irrigated with the polluted water.
The International Water Management Institute has worked in India, Pakistan, Vietnam, Ghana,
Ethiopia, Mexico and other countries on various projects aimed at assessing and reducing risks of
wastewater irrigation. They advocate a 'multiple-barrier' approach to wastewater use, where farmers
are encouraged to adopt various risk-reducing behaviours. These include ceasing irrigation a few
days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight, applying water carefully so it
does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw, cleaning vegetables with disinfectant or allowing
fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure.
[34]
The World Health
Organization has developed guidelines for safe water use.
Efficiency[edit]


Young engineers restoring and developing the old Mughal irrigation system during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II
Modern irrigation methods are efficient enough to supply the entire field uniformly with water, so that
each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little.
[35]
Water use efficiency
in the field can be determined as follows:
Field Water Efficiency (%) = (Water Transpired by Crop Water Applied to Field) x 100
Fifty years ago (as of 2010), the common perception was that water was an infinite resource. At that
time, there were fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. People were not as
wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to produce
their food. They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from rivers. Today, the
competition for water resources is much more intense. This is because there are now more than
seven billion people on the planet, their consumption of water-thirsty meat and vegetables is rising,
and there is increasing competition for water from industry, urbanisation and biofuel crops. To avoid
a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for
food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.
[36]

Successful agriculture is dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water. However, water
scarcity is already a critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world. With regards to
agriculture, the World Banktargets food production and water management as an increasingly global
issue that is fostering a growing debate.
[37]
Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough
water to meet all demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function effectively. Arid regions
frequently suffer from physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where
resources are over-committed. This can happen where there is overdevelopment of hydraulic
infrastructure, usually for irrigation. Symptoms of physical water scarcity include environmental
degradation and declining groundwater. Economic scarcity, meanwhile, is caused by a lack of
investment in water or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand for water. Symptoms of
economic water scarcity include a lack of infrastructure, with people often having to fetch water from
rivers for domestic and agricultural uses. Some 2.8 billion people currently live in water-scarce
areas.
[38]

Technical challenges[edit]
Main article: Environmental impact of irrigation
Irrigation schemes involve solving numerous engineering and economic problems while minimizing
negative environmental impact.
[39]

Competition for surface water rights.
[40]

Overdrafting (depletion) of underground aquifers.
Ground subsidence (e.g. New Orleans, Louisiana)
Underirrigation or irrigation giving only just enough water for the plant (e.g. in drip line irrigation)
gives poor soil salinity control which leads to increased soil salinity with consequent buildup of
toxic salts on soil surface in areas with high evaporation. This requires either leaching to remove
these salts and a method of drainage to carry the salts away. When using drip lines, the
leaching is best done regularly at certain intervals (with only a slight excess of water), so that the
salt is flushed back under the plant's roots.
[41][42]

Overirrigation because of poor distribution uniformity or management wastes water, chemicals,
and may lead to water pollution.
[43]

Deep drainage (from over-irrigation) may result in rising water tables which in some instances
will lead to problems of irrigation salinity requiring watertable control by some form of subsurface
land drainage.
[44][45]

Irrigation with saline or high-sodium water may damage soil structure owing to the formation
of alkaline soil
Clogging of filters: It is mostly algae that clog filters, drip installations and nozzles. UV
[46]
and
ultrasonic
[47]
method can be used for algae control in irrigation systems.
See also[edit]

Agriculture and Agronomy portal
Deficit irrigation
Environmental impact of irrigation
Farm water
Gezira Scheme
Irrigation district
Irrigation management
Irrigation statistics
Leaf Sensor
Lift irrigation schemes
List of countries by irrigated land area
Nano Ganesh
Paddy field
Qanat
Surface irrigation
Tidal irrigation




CHAPTER 5 - IRRIGATION SYSTEM

5.1 Main intake structure and pumping station
5.2 Conveyance and distribution system
5.3 Field application systems
5.4 Drainage system

The irrigation system consists of a (main) intake structure or (main) pumping station, a conveyance system, a
distribution system, a field application system, and a drainage system (see Fig. 69).
Fig. 69. An irrigation system

The (main) intake structure, or (main) pumping station, directs water from the source of supply, such as a
reservoir or a river, into the irrigation system.
The conveyance system assures the transport of water from the main intake structure or main pumping station
up to the field ditches.
The distribution system assures the transport of water through field ditches to the irrigated fields.
The field application system assures the transport of water within the fields.
The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation) from the fields.
5.1 Main intake structure and pumping station

5.1.1 Main intake structure
5.1.2 Pumping station

5.1.1 Main intake structure
The intake structure is built at the entry to the irrigation system (see Fig. 70). Its purpose is to direct water from
the original source of supply (lake, river, reservoir etc.) into the irrigation system.
Fig. 70. An intake structure

5.1.2 Pumping station
In some cases, the irrigation water source lies below the level of the irrigated fields. Then a pump must be used
to supply water to the irrigation system (see Fig. 71).
Fig. 71. A pumping station

There are several types of pumps, but the most commonly used in irrigation is the centrifugal pump.
The centrifugal pump (see Fig. 72a) consists of a case in which an element, called an impeller, rotates driven
by a motor (see Fig. 72b). Water enters the case at the center, through the suction pipe. The water is
immediately caught by the rapidly rotating impeller and expelled through the discharge pipe.
Fig. 72a. Diagram of a centrifugal pump

Fig. 72b. Centrifugal pump and motor

The centrifugal pump will only operate when the case is completely filled with water.
5.2 Conveyance and distribution system

5.2.1 Open canals
5.2.2 Canal structures

The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals transporting the water through the whole irrigation
system. Canal structures are required for the control and measurement of the water flow.
5.2.1 Open canals
An open canal, channel, or ditch, is an open waterway whose purpose is to carry water from one place to
another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways supplying water to one or more farms. Field ditches
have smaller dimensions and convey water from the farm entrance to the irrigated fields.
i. Canal characteristics
According to the shape of their cross-section, canals are called rectangular (a), triangular (b), trapezoidal (c),
circular (d), parabolic (e), and irregular or natural (f) (see Fig. 73).
Fig. 73. Some examples of canal cross-sections
The most commonly used canal cross-section in irrigation and drainage, is the trapezoidal cross-section. For
the purposes of this publication, only this type of canal will be considered.
The typical cross-section of a trapezoidal canal is shown in Figure 74.
Fig. 74. A trapezoidal canal cross-section

The freeboard of the canal is the height of the bank above the highest water level anticipated. It is required to
guard against overtopping by waves or unexpected rises in the water level.
The side slope of the canal is expressed as ratio, namely the vertical distance or height to the horizontal
distance or width. For example, if the side slope of the canal has a ratio of 1:2 (one to two), this means that the
horizontal distance (w) is two times the vertical distance (h) (see Fig. 75).
Fig. 75. A side slope of 1:2 (one to two)

The bottom slope of the canal does not appear on the drawing of the cross-section but on the longitudinal
section (see Fig. 76). It is commonly expressed in percent or per mil.
Fig. 76. A bottom slope of a canal

An example of the calculation of the bottom slope of a canal is given below (see also Fig. 76):

or

ii. Earthen Canals
Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank is made up from the removed earth, as illustrated in
Figure 77a.
Fig. 77a. Construction of an earthen canal
The disadvantages of earthen canals are the risk of the side slopes collapsing and the water loss due to
seepage. They also require continuous maintenance (Fig. 77b) in order to control weed growth and to repair
damage done by livestock and rodents.
Fig. 77b. Maintenance of an earthen canal
iii. Lined Canals
Earthen canals can be lined with impermeable materials to prevent excessive seepage and growth of weeds
(Fig. 78).
Fig. 78. Construction of a canal lined with bricks
Lining canals is also an effective way to control canal bottom and bank erosion. The materials mostly used for
canal lining are concrete (in precast slabs or cast in place), brick or rock masonry and asphaltic concrete (a
mixture of sand, gravel and asphalt).
The construction cost is much higher than for earthen canals. Maintenance is reduced for lined canals, but
skilled labour is required.
5.2.2 Canal structures
The flow of irrigation water in the canals must always be under control. For this purpose, canal structures are
required. They help regulate the flow and deliver the correct amount of water to the different branches of the
system and onward to the irrigated fields.
There are four main types of structures: erosion control structures, distribution control structures, crossing
structures and water measurement structures.
i. Erosion control structures
a. Canal erosion
Canal bottom slope and water velocity are closely related, as the following example will show.
A cardboard sheet is lifted on one side 2 cm from the ground (see Fig. 79a). A small ball is placed at the edge
of the lifted side of the sheet. It starts rolling downward, following the slope direction. The sheet edge is now
lifted 5 cm from the ground (see Fig. 79b), creating a steeper slope. The same ball placed on the top edge of
the sheet rolls downward, but this time much faster. The steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of the ball.
Fig. 79. The relationship between slope and velocity

Water poured on the top edge of the sheet reacts exactly the same as the ball. It flows downward and the
steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of the flow.
Water flowing in steep canals can reach very high velocities. Soil particles along the bottom and banks of an
earthen canal are then lifted, carried away by the water flow, and deposited downstream where they may block
the canal and silt up structures. The canal is said to be under erosion; the banks might eventually collapse.
b. Drop structures and chutes
Drop structures or chutes are required to reduce the bottom slope of canals lying on steeply sloping land in
order to avoid high velocity of the flow and risk of erosion. These structures permit the canal to be constructed
as a series of relatively flat sections, each at a different elevation (see Fig. 80).
Fig. 80. Longitudinal section of a series of drop structures

Drop structures take the water abruptly from a higher section of the canal to a lower one. In a chute, the water
does not drop freely but is carried through a steep, lined canal section. Chutes are used where there are big
differences in the elevation of the canal.
ii. Distribution control structures
Distribution control structures are required for easy and accurate water distribution within the irrigation system
and on the farm.
a. Division boxes
Division boxes are used to divide or direct the flow of water between two or more canals or ditches. Water
enters the box through an opening on one side and flows out through openings on the other sides. These
openings are equipped with gates (see Fig. 81).
Fig. 81. A division box with three gates

b. Turnouts
Turnouts are constructed in the bank of a canal. They divert part of the water from the canal to a smaller one.
Turnouts can be concrete structures (Fig. 82a), or pipe structures (Fig. 82b).
Fig. 82a. A concrete turnout
Fig. 82b. A pipe turnout

c. Checks
To divert water from the field ditch to the field, it is often necessary to raise the water level in the ditch. Checks
are structures placed across the ditch to block it temporarily and to raise the upstream water level. Checks can
be permanent structures (Fig. 83a) or portable (Fig. 83b).
Fig. 83a. A permanent concrete check

Fig. 83b. A portable metal check

iii. Crossing structures
It is often necessary to carry irrigation water across roads, hillsides and natural depressions. Crossing
structures, such as flumes, culverts and inverted siphons, are then required.
a. Flumes
Flumes are used to carry irrigation water across gullies, ravines or other natural depressions. They are open
canals made of wood (bamboo), metal or concrete which often need to be supported by pillars (Fig. 84).
Fig. 84. A concrete flume
b. Culverts
Culverts are used to carry the water across roads. The structure consists of masonry or concrete headwalls at
the inlet and outlet connected by a buried pipeline (Fig. 85).
Fig. 85. A culvert

c. Inverted siphons
When water has to be carried across a road which is at the same level as or below the canal bottom, an
inverted siphon is used instead of a culvert. The structure consists of an inlet and outlet connected by a
pipeline (Fig. 86). Inverted siphons are also used to carry water across wide depressions.
Fig. 86. An inverted siphon

iv. Water measurement structures
The principal objective of measuring irrigation water is to permit efficient distribution and application. By
measuring the flow of water, a farmer knows how much water is applied during each irrigation.
In irrigation schemes where water costs are charged to the farmer, water measurement provides a basis for
estimating water charges.
The most commonly used water measuring structures are weirs and flumes. In these structures, the water
depth is read on a scale which is part of the structure. Using this reading, the flow-rate is then computed from
standard formulas or obtained from standard tables prepared specially for the structure.
a. Weirs
In its simplest form, a weir consists of a wall of timber, metal or concrete with an opening with fixed dimensions
cut in its edge (see Fig. 87). The opening, called a notch, may be rectangular, trapezoidal or triangular.
Fig. 87. Some examples of weirs
A RECTANGULAR WEIR

A TRIANGULAR WEIR

A TRAPEZOIDAL WEIR

b. Parshall flumes
The Parshall flume consists of a metal or concrete channel structure with three main sections: (1) a converging
section at the upstream end, leading to (2) a constricted or throat section and (3) a diverging section at the
downstream end (Fig. 88).
Fig. 88. A Parshall flume

Depending on the flow condition (free flow or submerged flow), the water depth readings are taken on one
scale only (the upstream one) or on both scales simultaneously.
c. Cut-throat flume
The cut-throat flume is similar to the Parshall flume, but has no throat section, only converging and diverging
sections (see Fig. 89). Unlike the Parshall flume, the cut-throat flume has a flat bottom. Because it is easier to
construct and install, the cut-throat flume is often preferred to the Parshall flume.
Fig. 89. A cut-throat flume

5.3 Field application systems

5.3.1 Surface irrigation
5.3.2 Sprinkler irrigation
5.3.3 Drip irrigation

There are many methods of applying water to the field. The simplest one consists of bringing water from the
source of supply, such as a well, to each plant with a bucket or a water-can (see Fig. 90).
Fig. 90. Watering plants with a bucket

This is a very time-consuming method and it involves quite heavy work. However, it can be used successfully
to irrigate small plots of land, such as vegetable gardens, that are in the neighbourhood of a water source.
More sophisticated methods of water application are used in larger irrigation systems. There are three basic
methods: surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation.
5.3.1 Surface irrigation
Surface irrigation is the application of water to the fields at ground level. Either the entire field is flooded or the
water is directed into furrows or borders.
i. Furrow irrigation
Furrows are narrow ditches dug on the field between the rows of crops. The water runs along them as it moves
down the slope of the field.
The water flows from the field ditch into the furrows by opening up the bank or dyke of the ditch (see Fig. 91a)
or by means of syphons or spiles. Siphons are small curved pipes that deliver water over the ditch bank (see
Fig. 91b). Spiles are small pipes buried in the ditch bank (see Fig. 91c).
Fig. 91a. Water flows into the furrows through openings in the bank

Fig. 91b. The use of siphons

Fig. 91c. The use of spiles

ii. Border irrigation
In border irrigation, the field to be irrigated is divided into strips (also called borders or borderstrips) by parallel
dykes or border ridges (see Fig. 92).
The water is released from the field ditch onto the border through gate structures called outlets (see Fig. 92).
The water can also be released by means of siphons or spiles. The sheet of flowing water moves down the
slope of the border, guided by the border ridges.
Fig. 92. Border irrigation

iii. Basin irrigation
Basins are horizontal, flat plots of land, surrounded by small dykes or bunds. The banks prevent the water from
flowing to the surrounding fields. Basin irrigation is commonly used for rice grown on flat lands or in terraces on
hillsides (see Fig. 93a). Trees can also be grown in basins, where one tree usually is located in the centre of a
small basin (see Fig. 93b).
Fig. 93a. Basin irrigation on the hillside
Fig. 93b. Basin irrigation for trees
5.3.2 Sprinkler irrigation
With sprinkler irrigation, artificial rainfall is created. The water is led to the field through a pipe system in which
the water is under pressure. The spraying is accomplished by using several rotating sprinkler heads or spray
nozzles (see Fig. 94a) or a single gun type sprinkler (see Fig. 94b).
Fig. 94a. Sprinkler irrigation using several rotating sprinkler heads or spray nozzles
Fig. 94b. Sprinkler irrigation using a single gun type sprinkler
5.3.3 Drip irrigation
In drip irrigation, also called trickle irrigation, the water is led to the field through a pipe system. On the field,
next to the row of plants or trees, a tube is installed. At regular intervals, near the plants or trees, a hole is
made in the tube and equipped with an emitter. The water is supplied slowly, drop by drop, to the plants
through these emitters (Fig. 95).
Fig. 95. Drip Irrigation
5.4 Drainage system
A drainage system is necessary to remove excess water from the irrigated land. This excess water may be e.g.
waste water from irrigation or surface runoff from rainfall. It may also include leakage or seepage water from
the distribution system.
Excess surface water is removed through shallow open drains (see Surface drainage, Chapter 6.2.1). Excess
groundwater is removed through deep open drains or underground pipes (see Subsurface drainage, Chapter
6.2.2).