XXIII.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
IN POWER PLANT MAINTENANCE
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Contents
1. INTRODUCTION TO NDT TECHNIQUES
2. NDT TECHNIQUES
3. OBJECTIVE OF NOT IN POWER PLANT MAINTENANCE
4. COMMON POWER PLANT FAILURES
5. NDT TECHNIQUES COMMONLY USED
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XXIII. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING IN
POWER
PLANT MAINTENANCE
1. INTRODUCTION TO NDT TECHNIQUES
In the past three decades the art of testing without destroying has developed from a
laboratory curiosity to an indispensable tool of production and maintenance.
Nondestructive tests in great variety are in world-wide use to detect variations in
structure, minute changes in surface finish, the presence of cracks or other physical
discontinuities to measure the thickness of materials and coatings and to determine other
characteristics of industrial products.
(i) Reasons for use of NDT
a) To ensure product reliability.
b) To prevent accidents and save human life.
c) To make a profit for the user.
To ensure customer satisfaction and to maintain the manufacturers good name
To aid better product design
To lower manufacturing costs
To maintain a uniform quality level.
(ii) NDTServices
Various procedures have been developed for NDT of materials. Four main Test groups may
be distinguished.
a) Radiography.
b) Magnetic Particle Examination.
c) Ultrasonic Examination.
d) Liquid Penetrant Examination.
Widely varied techniques and methods are found within each of the four main groups. It is
possible to use high sensitivity testing techniques which give industry the fullest possible
information about the material which is being examined. It is also possible to
useless-sensitivetechniques which reveal only significant defects. Unsatisfactory techniques
which do not give reliable results should not be used even when requested by industry.
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(iii) Integrity of Reports
In general, NDT does not give quantitative results. The reported results depend to a great
extent upon the testing techniques and upon the integrity of the writer of the report. NDT
has become a highly specialised field. For outsiders it is very difficult to determine whether
the right techniques have been employed and whether the testing reports give the right type
of information. Any organisation providing satisfactory service must ensure that the testing
techniques are up-to-date and suitable for the particular examination.
2. NDT TECHNIQUES
The following are the various commonly used NOT techniques, their applications,
advantages and limitations.
2.1 Radiography (Gamma Rays)
Internal defects and variations; porosity, inclusions, cracks, lack of fusion, geometry
variations, corrosion.
(i) Application
Usually where X-ray machines are not suitable because source cannot be placed in parts
with small openings and/or power source not available.
(ii) Advantages
a) Low Initial Cost.
b) Permanent records, film.
c) Small sources can be placed in parts with small openings.
d) Portable.
(iii) Limitations
a) One energy level per source.
b) Source decay.
c) Radiation Hazard.
d) Trained Operators.
e) Lower Image resolution.
f) Cost related to energy range.

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2.2. Radiography (X-rays)
Internal detects and variations, porosity, inclusion, cracks, lack of fusion, geometry variations,
corrosion.
(i) Application
a) Castings.
b) Electrical Assemblies.
c) Welds.
d) Small, thin, complex wrought products.
e) Non-metallics.
(ii) Advantages
a) Permanent records, film.
b) Adjustable energy levels.
c) High sensitivity to density changes.
d) No couplant required.
e) Geometry variations do not affect direction of X-ray beam.
(iii) Limitations
a) High initial costs.
b) Orientation of linear defects in part may not be favourable.
c) Radiation Hazard.
d) Depth of defect not indicated.
e) Sensitivity decreases with increase in thickness of part.
2.3 Ultrasonic
Internal defects and variations; cracks, lack of fusion, porosity, inclusion, delaminations, lack
of bond.Thickness and Velocity.
(i) Application
a) Wrought metals.
b) Welds.
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c) Braced Joints.
d) Adhesive bonded joints.
e) Non-metallic.
f) In-service parts.
(ii) Advantages
a) Most sensitive to cracks.
b) Test results known immediately.
c) Automatic and permanent record capability.
d) Portable.
e) High penetration capacity.
(iii) Limitations
a) Couplant required.
b) Small, thin, complex parts may be difficult.
c) Reference standards required.
d) Trained operators for manual inspection.
2.4 Magnetic Particle
Surface and slightly sub-surface defects; cracks seams, porosity, inclusions.
(i) Application
Ferromagnetic materials, bars, forgings, weldments, extrusions.
(ii) Advantages
a) Compared to penetrant testing magnetic particle method indicates subsurface
defects, particularly inclusions.
b) Relatively fast and low cost.
c) May be portable.
(iii) Limitations
a) Alignment of magnetic field may be difficult in some complex shapes.
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b) Demagnetization of parts required after tests.
c) Parts must be cleaned after inspection.
d) Thickness surface coatings.
2.5 Penetrant
Defects open to surface of parts, cracks, porosity etc.
(i) Application
All parts with non-absorbing surfaces.
NOTE:-Bleed out from Porous surfaces can mask indications of defects.
(ii) Advantages
Low cost. Portable indications may be (iii) Weakening of the structure are further further
examined visually. Results easily interpreted.
(iii) Limitations
a) Surface films, such as coatings, scale and smeared metal may prevent detection of
defects.
b) Parts must be cleaned after inspection.
3. OBJECTIVE OF NOT IN POWER PLANT MAINTENANCE
The following are considered as the main objectives in employing NDT as a part of maintenance
programme:
i) To ensure safety during operation of the plant.
ii) To reduce downtime by detecting and removing potential causes of breakdown.
iii) Evaluating the significance of defects and the service life of the components.
iv) Quality control for repairs or extensions.
v) Feeding back information to designs and thus aiding research on materials and proc-
esses.
4. COMMON POWER PLANT FAILURES
i) The conventional power plant can be broadly categorised into three groups:
a) Boiler house consisting of boiler drum waterwalls, economisers, super-heaters,
fuel handling equipments etc.
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b) Turbines.
c) Supporting structures.
ii) According to ASME Section 7, C4 causes for boiler failures may be listed under three
general classifications:
a) Those which are the result of Overpressure .
b) Those caused by weakening of the structure .
c) Those that may result from errors in Operation of the combustion equipment.
iii) Weakening of the structure are further divided into three categories:
a) Weakening of the pressure parts.
b) Failure of supports.
c) Mechanical injuries.
The various conditions which may cause the weakening of the boiler pressure parts, such as
overheating during start-ups, loss of metal due to corrosion, and weakening of the setting
because of improper combustion of flame impingement are also described in the above code.
In a boiler house, major cause for failures which require priority in attending are the failure of
pressure parts because of their higher temperatures and pressures.
4.1 Internal Corrosion
Internal corrosion of the tubes may occur if proper chemical control of the boiler water is not
maintained. In the evaporating tubes. iron oxides are formed in the case of boilers with high
heat absorption and higher operating pressures. it has been proved by experience that there
exist a critical layer thickness of the iron-oxides beyond which the failure of the evaporating
tubes takes place almost suddenly.
4.2 External Corrosion
Similarly, external corrosion and erosion take place within certain ranges of gas and metal
temperatures. In the case of superheater and reheater tubes, external corrosion occurs as a
result of contact of the products of combustion, particularly, when using high sulphur, vanadium
fuels. Unless the metal thicknesses are checked periodically rupture may take place because
of excessive thinning of the tubes because of corrosion. The traditional practice for detecting
the thinning of the tubes is to remove sample tubes, section them at a number of points along
their length and to measure mechanically the remaining thickness. As this is a very expensive
method, which involves extra work and time, NDT techniques are replacing the traditional
practice.
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4.3 Turbines
The failures can also occur in high rotationai systems such as turbine blades which are subjected
to dynamic load.
4.4 Supporting Structures
The static loaded supporting structures are also to be inspected periodically for fire hazards,
corrosion etc.
5. NDT TECHNIQUES COMMONLY USED
Radiography, Ultrasonic Testing, Magnetic Particle Inspection and Isotope Gauging are the
most commonly used NDT methods in power plant maintenance. The use of a particular
technique depends upon various factors such as the availability of the equipment, skill of the
operator, the accessibility and surface conditions of the components to be tested. Quite often,
it may be necessary to use more than one technique to evaluate the condition of the material
test
5.1 Radiography
A common belief is that radiography is used mainly during the construction of power plants.
Radiography can as well be applied in the maintenance programme, because of the constant
need to watch for the deterioration of tubes, headers, valves, turbine and generator parts.
Thinning of boiler tubing due to corrosion and erosion can be checked by radiography.
Radiography is also used for the evaluation of repaired or fresh welds made during the
maintenance programme.
As regards the equipment for radiography, although a number of portable X-ray equipments
are available, radioactive isotopes of Iridium 192 are widely used. They are available in any
required strength with small source sizes. A number of handling systems such as pneumatic,
reel-type teleflex cables, etc. are available which make them highly portable and hence they
are used even at most difficult locations.
5.2 Magnetic Particle Testing
As a widely used method commonly employed in the power plant maintenance, this technique
is capable of detecting surface and under some conditions, subsurface defects in all
ferromagnetic materials. Different types of portable equipments with either AC or DC
Magnetisation are available in the market. In the power plant maintenance programme magnetic
particle testing is employed on all critical welds and components. A few typical examples
are:
(i) Nozzle welds of boiler drums and headers
These welds are subjected to high stresses. Because of the thermal cycling involved
and also any notch defect, cracks are likely to develop at these welds or at the heat
affected zone. Magnetic particle examination of these welds will clearly indicate the
presence or propagation of such cracks which can be rectified.
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(ii) Turbines
During overhauling of turbines, the condition of the rotor and the surrounding buck-
ets are primary concern. As these parts are likely to be highly stressed due to a com-
bination of bending, torsional and centrifugal forces coupled with high temperatures,
they are vulnerable for fatigue failure. Also rupture of a single blade will cause a
chain reaction making progressive failures throughout the following rows of blades.
Hence magnetic particle examination is carried out periodically for all these highly
stressed parts for the early detection of fatigue cracks and to take suitable remedial
action.
(iii) Supporting Structures
Usually the neglected parts but which require equal attention are the supporting struc-
tures such as tension columns, sus pension rods, tie rods etc. With the recent trend in
the use of higher parameter of steam in combination with low weight high strength
supporting structures all the criti cal welds of these supporting structures are to be
periodically examined by magnetic particle examination. Early detection and rectifi-
cation of defects will prevent failure of these load bearing members which when
collapsed may cause failures of other systems.
5.3 Dye-Penetrant InspectIon
This technique is also employed for detection of surface defects. However, it has its limitation
of detecting discontinuities open to the surface only. Also, it is mainly used for
non-ferromagnetic materials.
The main applications are:
i) Detection of fatigue cracks in non magnetic turbine blades and castings.
ii) detection of cracks in non-magnetic valve seatings and
iii) detection of stress corrosion cracks in condenser tubing.
For use at site, special kit of dye-penetrant materials with aerosal type cans are marketed by
leading manufacturers.
5.4 Ultrasonic Examination
Ultrasonic examination is employed in two ways in the power plant maintenance. It is used
for the detection of fatigue cracks in highly stressed components such as turbine rotors,
bolts, studs etc. In this case, usually pulse echo technique is used. Ultrasonic is also widely
used to determine the wall thickness of boiler tubing mainly in waterwalls and superheaters
to determine the extent of thinning that has occurred by corrosion and erosion. For the wall
thickness measurement either pulse echo or resonance methods are widely used. When the
tubing thickness has fallen below a critical value, the tubes are replaced and hence tube
bursts are avoided. Highly portable, light weight and battery operated equipments, are
available for the above purpose such as the ones manufactured by Krautkramer. The
instrument viz. D-Meter is capable of measuring thickness to an accuracy of 0.1 mm for
the thickness range upto 100 mm.
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5.5 Isotope Gauging
This technique is used for determination of wall thickness of boiler pipes and tubes. A clamping
device containing a radiation source in a small capsule encircles the tube or pipe. A Geiger
counter is used for the measurement of radiation after it passes through the walls of the tube.
By suitable calibration of the equipment, direct reading of wall thickness is made possible.
By this, it is possible to measure the extent of corrosion. erosion and scale build up from
outside of the pipe, irrespective of the exterior surface condition and diameter of the pipe.
This technique is mainly used where ultrasonic thickness gauging poses the problem due to
deteriorated surface of boiler tubes.
5.6 Optical Devices
There are various optical devices such as boroscope and fibrescopes which can find wide
applications in the examination of inside surface of tubes and thin slots which cannot be
examined by other methods because of their in-accessibility.
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