Women Political Participation

Meeting on Women and Political Participation: 21st Century Challenges

by Azza M Karam
II. Review of Trends in Women Participation since the 1995 Beijing Conference
The !ig"res
According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) statistics, from 19! to 199!, the
"ercentage of #omen MPs #orld#ide has increased fo$r-fold% &heir latest statistics
indicate that, in 199', the #orld a(erage of #omen in "arliaments (both ho$ses
combined) is 1)%*+, #ith the highest "ercentage e,isting in the -ordic conte,t at .*%/+,
follo#ed by the Americas at 1!%!+, Asia at 1.%+, 0$ro"e 1230 member co$ntries
(e,cl$ding the -ordic co$ntries) at 1)%!+, 2$b-2aharan Africa at 11%/+, the Pacific at
'%.+, and the lo#est in the Arab states .%.+% Also according to the same statistics, since
199!, / co$ntries ac4$ired a #oman s"ea5er of "arliament for the first time6 0thio"ia
(199!), 7at(ia (199!), Per$ (199!), 8amaica (199/), Malta (199/) and Poland (199*)%
According to the United -ations 9i(ision for the Ad(ancement of :omen (U-9A:)
Fact Sheet on Women in Government of 199/, the "ercentage of #omen in both
ministerial and s$b-ministerial le(els ranges from ;+ (in abo$t 1! co$ntries<9= ), to .;+
in ) co$ntries<1;= % It is interesting to note that o$t of the 1! co$ntries #ith ;+ of #omen
in go(ernment "ositions in 199/, ' #ere Arab co$ntries%
2tatistical data on #omen in im"ortant >$dicial "ositions is not accessibly doc$mented
and #as therefore diffic$lt to obtain, sa(e for the United 2tates 2$"reme 3o$rt #here ) of
the 9 8$stices c$rrently ser(ing are #omen, b$t this has not changed after 199!% Again in
the U2, there are 1! #omen >$dges o$t of the 1,1'1 ?ederal >$dges% &he need for a
gender "ers"ecti(e in the >$diciary is critical since more often than not la#s traditionally
are gender blind% &he idea being that legislati(e form$lation, inter"retation, and
im"lementation often affect #omen and men differently, and as s$ch, legislati(e bodies
sho$ld "ro(ide an a(en$e for e4$al o""ort$nities to incor"orate the different "ers"ecti(es
and e,"eriences of both genders%
&his does indicate, ho#e(er, the necessity of being able to collate and share s$ch
information in the f$t$re% A similar feat$re characterises the information a(ailable on
#omen in local go(ernment% As the latest "$blication of the International Union of 7ocal
A$thorities (IU7A) indicates, here is a h$ge lac5 of information and reliable statistical
data concerning #omen re"resentation at the local le(el% 2tatistics related to #omen
re"resentation in the national "arliaments are fairly easy to access, b$t #hen it comes to
the local le(el there are many blan5s11= % @o#e(er, almost in the same breath, the
same re"ort indicates that #omen re"resentation at the local le(el generally s$r"asses
that at the national one%
&he International Union of 7ocal A$thorities, in its st$dy on #omen in local go(ernments
in different regions of the #orld, "ro(ides some statistical information<1)= % In Africa for
instance, #omen "artici"ation is estimated at "robably less than !+ <1.=% As for Asia,
no statistics are "ro(ided, b$t #e learn that India for instance, has an amendment to its
constit$tion in 199), #hich states that ..+ of the seats in local decision-ma5ing bodies
(both $rban and r$ral) are to be reser(ed for #omen% :hereas Phili""inas fare better in
local co$ncils in r$ral areas, the n$mber of #omen local re"resentati(es in A$stralia
dro""ed after their last co$ncil elections of 199*%
3entral America fared m$ch better statistically-s"ea5ing, #ith "ercentages of #omen
mayors in 3osta Aica at 1)+B C$atemala 1%.+B @ond$ras at 9+, and -icarag$a at *+%
&he 0ast Mediterranean and the Middle 0ast s$ffered from "oorer statistics, #ith &$r5ey
being the one co$ntry #ith an estimate o$t of the general m$nici"al election res$lts of
199, #here ;%/+ of mayors elected #ere #omen, and e(en then at the smaller scale
district le(els%
0$ro"e, 7atin America, -orth America and the 3aribbean had more statistical data,
#hich can be s$mmarised as follo#s6
#"rope In the 0$ro"ean Union in 199*, 1 o$t of ! local elected re"resentati(es #as
female, #ith the sit$ation (arying from one co$ntry to another% 2#eden for e,am"le, has
;+ of its seats in 7ocal Assemblies held by #omen, #hereas less than + of local
elected re"resentati(es in Creece are #omen<1= %
$atin %merica 9ata com"iled bet#een 199) and 199! indicates that the a(erage rate is
*%!+ #omen mayors and .%'+ #omen m$nici"al co$ncillors in to#n halls% Information
is diffic$lt to obtain for "ost-199! statistics%
&orth %merica According to the IU7A re"ort on :omen in 7ocal Co(ernment, the
United 2tates of America fig$res from 199; indicate that the a(erage n$mber of #omen
mayors #as 1*+ and the "ercentage of #omen in local co$ncils #as ).+% 1ther
statistics also indicate that in 8an$ary 199*, 1) of the nationDs 1;; largest cities had
#omen mayors or city managers<1!= , and in March 199*, );) of the 9*! U2 cities #ith
more than .;,;;; residents, had #omen mayors<1/= %
In 3anada, 1'+ of the co$ncil#omen are members% In E$ebec, des"ite $sing 4$otas to
e4$alise the n$mber of seats for #omen and men (#hich res$lted in an increase in the
"ercentage of #omen mayors and co$ncillors rose bet#een 19'! and 199/) there has
ne(ertheless been an a""arent decline in n$mbers since then<1*= % It is interesting to
reiterate the obser(ation made by the International Union of 7ocal A$thorities re"orts on
here, #hich is that "artic$larly in E$ebec and Montreal, after attem"ts to st$dy #hy
#omen re"resentation at the local le(el #ere stagnating, it #as realised that
connections to the local #omen mo(ement "layed a 5ey role in ins"iring #omen to r$n
for elections<1'= %
The Cari''ean &rinidad and &obago #omen re"resentation follo#s the "attern of
ha(ing a higher le(el at the local rather than the national% ?ig$res 4$oted in the re"ort
indicated that the "ercentage of #omen in local go(ernment co$ncils is )1+ #ith 1+ of
the Mayors being #omen<19= %
2ince 199!, the 4$antitati(e and 4$alitati(e le(els of #omen in decision ma5ing has
increased in the United -ations itself% ?or the first time a female 9e"$ty 2ecretary-
Ceneral #as a""ointed, and for the first time both the United -ations 3ommission on
@$man Aights, and the :orld @ealth 1rganisation ha(e been headed by #omen% &his
recent addition ma5es a total of fi(e organisations headed by #omen, U-I30?, U-?PA,
and :?P incl$ded%
:hat is still lac5ing and #o$ld admittedly be e,tremely diffic$lt to acc$m$late #itho$t
international co-ordination, is data on the n$mber of #omen #ho are heading another
im"ortant feat$re of "olitical "artici"ation, i%e% non-go(ernmental organisations (-C1s)%
1(er the "ast decades, -C1s ha(e been "laying an increasingly infl$ential and cr$cial
role as the heart of ci(il societies across the #orld, in many instances ste""ing into the
"olitical, social and economic (ac$$m left by different states% &hey are too n$mero$s to
co$nt, b$t it #o$ld ne(ertheless be interesting to ha(e some ideas as to ho# many #omen
head them - and "artic$larly the ones dealing #ith "olitical "romotion%
As for the category of #omen r$lers of co$ntries, either as Presidents or Prime Ministers,
and e,cl$ding the E$eens, c$rrent fig$res indicate that there a""ear to be si, #omen,
fo$r of #hom came to "o#er after 199!% &hese are in the follo#ing co$ntries6 2ri 7an5a
(#here both mother and da$ghter are Prime Minister and President res"ecti(ely),
Fangladesh (Prime Minister since 8$ne 199/), Ireland (President since -o(ember
199*<);=), -e# Gealand (Prime Minister since 199*), and C$yana (President since
9ecember 199*)% It is interesting to note that 3hile, des"ite it feat$ring in the ne#s today
"rimarily as the land of Ceneral Pinochet, is no# also host to the first female general in
the army as of -o(ember );, 199'%
The !acts
2o #hat do these fig$res tell $s of the latest trends since the recommendations of the
Fei>ing Platform for ActionH Iisiting the Platform for Action itself, #e can ded$ce the
follo#ing #ith res"ect to the different actors6
(overnments
9es"ite the fact that many go(ernments ha(e ado"ted and ada"ted affirmati(e
action meas$res and the rhetoric of gender balance, the fig$res still indicate that
globally, des"ite the fact that #omen are half of the "o"$lation, they are no#here
near half of the decision-ma5ing str$ct$res% &he threshold of .;+ ad(ocated by
the U-9P @$man 9e(elo"ment Ae"ort, as a "rel$de to the !;+ is still a dream
for most #omen%
In some co$ntries, e%g% in the Arab region, freedom of association remains a
"olitically sensiti(e iss$e in (ie# of a "redominance of a$thoritarian regimes, let
alone the "rotection of the e4$al rights of men and #omen to engage in "olitical
acti(ities% In fact, as far as the latter is concerned, again $sing the e,am"le of the
Arab region, it #o$ld seem that #omen organisations in "artic$lar are gi(en a
"artic$larly hard time to go abo$t their #or5, "artic$larly in (ie# of the rising
tension bet#een the state and "olitical Islam gro$"s (Islamists)<)1=%
&he differential im"act of electoral systems is a s$b>ect that is gaining more
attention from a (ariety of so$rces% @o#e(er, it remains the case that the data
collected th$s far remains 0$ro- and #estern-centric in its content<))= , as there is
a serio$s "a$city of information on #hat and ho# electoral systems affect
#omen "olitical re"resentation in the rest of the #orld% Until this information is
a(ailable and com"arati(ely analysed, it is diffic$lt to ad(ocate a "artic$lar
meas$re to "romote any s"ecific electoral system%
&he data indicated that as far as concerted efforts to gather information on #omen
in general and gendered statistics in "artic$lar, a great deal of #or5 needs to be
done% Moreo(er, it remains the case that #itho$t this data, mechanisms to monitor
#omen access to senior le(els of decision-ma5ing, also remain lac5ing%
Political Parties
&he n$mber of #omen in "arliaments and in local go(ernments aro$nd the #orld
indicates that "olitical "arties ha(e some #ay to go to im"lementing gender-
conscio$s "olicies among the ran5s of both their staff as #ell as #ithin their
agendas%
The )nited &ations
&he rise of #omen to "rominent leadershi" "ositions #ithin the U-, #o$ld
indicate that "rogress on that le(el is "ositi(e%
&he U- role in collecting, assessing and disseminating information is also a
sign of ho# serio$sly the 2ecretary-Ceneral target of ha(ing #omen hold !;+
managerial and decision-ma5ing "ositions by the end of the year is being ta5en%
Ad(ocating that the U- contin$e to gather and "ro(ide gender-desegregated
statistics remains (ery im"ortant since there are still areas #here there is a lac5 of
any information andJor com"arati(e statistics, e%g% #omen in the >$diciary%
Civil *ociet+
A#areness raising abo$t #omen rights and their ca"acities, as #ell as the #ay
the media "ortrays and assists, and larger as"ects of societal (al$es ha(e come a
long #ay, b$t they ha(e not led to any changes o(er the last ! years% @o#e(er, the
fact that in some co$ntries, #omen re"resentation on local co$ncils is larger
than that on national le(els, does ma5e for interesting consideration%
The Beijing Platform for %ction in practice
1ne of the conse4$ences of Fei>ing #as a mobilisation of debates on and aro$nd
#omen concerns before, d$ring, as #ell as after the h$ge gathering itself% &he act$al
signing of the Fei>ing Platform for Action by go(ernments, tho$gh not legally binding, is
morally and technically so% Moreo(er, the e,istence of this doc$ment has tended to act as
a manifesto andJor ideal agenda o$tline for many initiati(es% 0,am"les are cited as far
a"art as Colom'ia, ,apan, and T"r-e+<).= % &hese ranged from setting $" s"ecial
committees to "ress$rise and monitor ho# go(ernments im"lement the Fei>ing Platform
for Action recommendations s$ch as those in ,apan, to ta5ing $" cross-"arty
collaborati(e efforts to lobby go(ernments on s"ecific iss$es% 0,am"les incl$de drafting
for a liberalisation of the anti-abortion la#, amendments of the ci(il code, and setting $"
a commission to modify la#s "ertaining to #omen in 3ongress - s$ch as in Poland,
T"r-e+ and Per" res"ecti(ely%
&he *o"th %frican e,"erience, #ith f$ll regard to its $ni4$eness in terms of the anti-
a"artheid str$ggle, still remains a trib$te to ho# #omen can lobby and effecti(ely
organise themsel(es to "$sh for gender-s"ecialised and sensiti(e instit$tions, legislation,
"olicies, as #ell as shifts in attit$des and mentality% All this #hile closely follo#ing the
in>$nctions of the Fei>ing Platform for Action% In the #ords of a former 2o$th African
#oman MP6
&he "re"arations and disc$ssions for Fei>ing enriched the de(elo"ment of the <#omen=
mo(ement gender "oliciesollo#ing the ?o$rth :orld 3onference on :omen in
Fei>ing, the Co(ernment ado"ted the Platform for Action% Co(ernment de"artments
identified #hat actions they co$ld carry o$t in s"ecific "eriods of time to assist the
"rocess of achie(ing gender e4$ality% &hese not only incl$ded foc$s areas, li5e #omen
and (iolence and #omen and health, b$t mechanisms to "romote the ad(ancement of
#omen in 2o$th Africa in general<)= %
Mobilisation and moti(ation for disc$ssions and initiati(es aside, #omen "artici"ation,
at least in terms of n$mbers, remains ham"ered as long as there is a #ide ga" in the rates
of "olitical "artici"ation bet#een the t#o se,es% &his remains (ery m$ch case thro$gho$t
the #orld, "artic$larly #hen the definition of a olitical s"aceHis broadened to incl$de
domains s$ch as the b$siness sector, and the academic en(irons% In *weden for e,am"le
des"ite the fact that #omen form + of "arliament, they are less than 1;+ of senior
academic staff and the decision-ma5ing echelons of the b$siness comm$nity% :hereas in
#g+pt, altho$gh #omen are less than )+ of "arliament, they are o(er ;+ of senior
academic staff, b$t less than 1;+ in the b$siness sector%
&here are some regions of the #orld, #hich need a bigger boost - "rimarily in terms of
the a(ailability of reso$rces and management thereof - than others% 2ome of the African
co$ntries ha(e #itnessed little or no change, #hereas others, s$ch as )ganda, 2o$th
Africa and .en+a are seeing im"ortant gains for #omen in "osition of "o#er% $atin
%merica and the %ra' world remain areas of relati(ely little remar5able gains for
#omen "olitically% It is note#orthy that in these latter t#o areas, des"ite many
similarities in bac5gro$nd and socio-"olitical de(elo"ments ("artic$larly those connected
#ith religio$s and "olitical c$lt$res, and gender relations) rarely come together to share
e,"eriences%
It is diffic$lt not to obser(e a certain e$rocentric "attern here6 for each region
traditionally com"ares itself and shares e,"eriences #ith the 0$ro"eans, b$t rarely #ith
each other% Fringing together the Middle 0ast and the 7atin American conte,ts may be an
enriching initiati(e for both sides, b$t "artic$larly for the Middle 0ast since the 7atin
American conte,t is, on the #hole, relati(ely better off%
%ffirmative action meas"res
Affirmati(e action meas$res, s$ch as 4$otas and "artic$lar ty"es of electoral systems
(e%g% the "ro"ortional re"resentation system) #ere and are being $sed to rectify
imbalances in "olitical re"resentation% @o#e(er, the debacle o(er introd$cing the 4$otas
for #omen in the Indian "arliament (#here a""arently the "ro"osed bill #as torn to
shreds before it #as abo$t to be tabled for disc$ssion), tho$gh some#hat e,treme, is
ne(ertheless indicati(e of the contro(ersy that still s$rro$nds this "artic$lar meas$re% &he
main arg$ments against 4$otas is that they are allegedly $ndemocratic since #omen #ho
benefit from them are not elected and therefore $nre"resentati(e, that they disfa(o$r
#omen beca$se they are then (ie#ed as $ndeser(ing and inca"able of carrying o$t the
demands of the "osition, and that 4$ota-#omen in effect can be merely fig$reheads or
es-"eo"leH #ho are $nli5ely to $se their "ositions to effect any change%
Arg$ments for 4$otas $s$ally gain more "o"$larity since the basis for them is that
#omen need a hel"ing hand against the m$lti"licity of obstacles traditionally arrayed
against their "$blic "artici"ation6 from social to economic to c$lt$ral to "olitical% Another
"ro-4$ota contention is that re"resentati(ity and ca"acity to "erform are not g$aranteed
by any "olitical actor, man or #oman, and "re(enting that #hich may assist the less
"ri(ileged from obtaining an o""ort$nity to "erform, is in itself $n>$st% Fesides, arg$es
the "ro-4$ota cam", 4$otas are meant for both genders #hen attem"ting to correct an
imbalance% &he fact that in the "olitical arena they are $sed "redominantly for #omen is
b$t an indication that s$ch an imbalance e,ists%
As for electoral systems ho#e(er, the research that e,ists co(ering the effect of different
electoral systems on #omen "olitical re"resentation, remains far less detailed and less
com"rehensi(e than that merited by more general iss$es of im"act% As mentioned abo(e,
the data that e,ists is "redominantly based on research and insights gleaned from the
:estern @emis"here% It is from st$dies carried o$t in co$ntries li5e -or#ay, 3anada,
A$stralia, the United Kingdom, the United 2tates, -e# Gealand and Cermany for
e,am"le, that res$lts ha(e indicated the "ositi(e correlation bet#een PA systems and the
n$mber of #omen in the legislat$re%
Iery little, if any, detailed and long-term st$dies on ho# electoral systems affect
#omen re"resentation in the 2o$th are act$ally a(ailable% &his is sim$ltaneo$s to the
fact that sim"le information abo$t different 5inds of electoral systems and their im"act
more generally, is lac5ing in many "arts of the de(elo"ing #orld% &his is an imbalance in
information and a lac5 of 5no#ledge that is as serio$s as it is indicati(e% 0fforts to
stim$late research on this iss$e, and the dissemination of res$lts thereof, remain an area
of need that m$st be addressed%
In s"m/ we can concl"de the following
&he Fei>ing Platform for Action is an im"ortant tool for those #or5ing on
enhancing #omen "olitical "artici"ation, and many of its in>$nctions are being
follo#ed and $sed as a reference "oint for "lans of action by a n$mber of
international, regional and local organisations and indi(id$als%
&he fig$res indicate there are #omen in im"ortant "olitical "ositions aro$nd the
#orld, tho$gh the e,tent (aries from one co$ntry to another%
&he n$mber of #omen in go(ernment remains, generally, far belo# the .;+
target s"ecified by U-9P% @o#e(er, that does not mean that "rogress has not
been made%
Information and data, "artic$larly gender desegregated data, #hile im"ressi(e on
#omen in "arliaments and go(ernment (ministerial and s$b-ministerial) remains
lo# on as"ects s$ch as local go(ernment, >$diciary as #ell as non-go(ernmental
organisations and b$siness sectors%
Affirmati(e action strategies still need to be im"lemented in some areas #hereas
there is a lac5 of information, "artic$larly com"arati(e information, regarding
effects of 4$otas and electoral systems, "artic$larly in the de(elo"ing co$ntries of
the #orld%
Cenerally s"ea5ing, go(ernments, international organisations, ci(il society and
others ha(e "rogressed as far as obser(ing some of the in>$nctions of the Fei>ing
Platform for Action, b$t m$ch more needs to be done "artic$larly - b$t not only -
in the de(elo"ing #orld%
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK
9% &hese are6 Afghanistan, Fahrain, 9>ibo$ti, 7ebanon, Monaco, Myanmar, -a$r$, -e"al, 2a$di Arabia,
the 2olomon Islands, 2omalia, the United Arab 0mirates, and Lemen%
1;% &hese are as far afield as 2#eden and the Fahamas%
11% IU7A, 199'% :omen in 7ocal Co(ernment% 2toc5holm, "% 1*%
1)% All statistical information obtained from IU7A, 199'% :omen in 7ocal Co(ernment% 2toc5holm, ""%
1'-)'%
1.% IU7A, 199'% "%1'%
1% IU7A, 199'%"%)!%
1!% 2o$rce6 F$rea$ of the 3ens$s, U%2% 9e"artment of 3ommerce as on Internet%
1/% 2o$rce6 3enter for the American :oman and Politics (com"iled $sing the United 2tates 3onference of
Mayors 8an$ary 199* directory), as on Internet%
1*% IU7A, 199'% "% )*%
1'% IU7A, 199'% "% )'%
19% IU7A, 199'%)'%
);% &his information is obtained from :omen :orld 7eaders site on the Internet%
)1% 2ee Azza Karam 199'% :omen, Islamisms and the 2tate% 7ondon6 Macmillan%
))% ?or elaboration on the differential im"act of electoral systems on #omen re"resentation, and for
f$rther references, see Aichard Matland% 199'% nhancing :omen Political Partici"ation6 7egislati(e
Aecr$itment and 0lectoral 2ystemsH in Azza Karam% 0d% the International I90A @andboo5 on :omen in
Parliament6 Feyond -$mbers% 2toc5holm6 International I90A% ""% /!-9;%
).% Migiro$, Kallio"e% 199'% o#ards 0ffecti(e Im"lementation of International :omen @$man Aights
7egislationH in Azza Karam 0d% &he International I90A @andboo5 on :omen in Parliament6 Feyond
-$mbers (2toc5holm6 International I90A)% ""% );1-)1% The examples quoted ranged from setting
up special committees to pressurise and monitor how governments implement the Beiing
!latform for "ction recommendations such as those in #apan$ to ta%ing up cross&part'
colla(orative efforts to lo((' governments on specific issues such as in !oland and
Tur%e')
*+) ,'a%a'a%a&,an-ini$ ,avivi$ .//0) 1omen 0m"o#ered - :omen in Parliament in 2o$th
AfricaH in Azza Karam% 0d% :omen in Parliament6 Feyond -$mbers% ""%1*!-1')%