BAB 1

PLATE TECTONIC: A REVOLUTION IN GEOLOGY

1. Understanding The Earth
Geolog is the s!ienti"i! st#d o" the earth. Geolog is a o#ng s!ien!e$ it has e%isted as a
&odern s!ienti"i! dis!i'line "or (#st o)er *++ ears. The st#d o" the earth is traditionall di)ided
into t,o -road s#-(e!t areas: 'hsi!al geolog and histori!al geolog. Phsi!al geolog !on!erns
the 'ro!eses that o'erate at or -eneath the s#r"a!e o" the earth and the &aterials on ,hi!h thoses
'ro!esses o'erate. .o&e e%a&'les o" geologi! 'ro!esses are &o#ntain -#ilding/ )ol!ani!
er#'tions/ ri)er "looding/ earth0#a1es/ and the "or&ation o" ore de'osits. .o&e e%a&'les o"
geologi! &aterials and &inerals/ ro!1s/ soils/ la)a/ and ,ater.
2istori!al geolog !on!erns geologi! e)ents that o!!#rred in the 'ast. These e)ents !an
-e read "ro& the ro!1 re!ord. 2istori!al geologists tr to ans,er 0#estions s#!h as ,hen the
o!eans "or&ed/ ,h the dinosa#rs died o#t/ ,hen the Ro!1 3o#ntain rose/ and ,hen the "irst
tree a''eared. 2istori!al geolog hel's #s esta-lish a !hronolog o" e)ents in earth histor and
gi)es #s a !onte%t "or #nderstanding o#r 'resent4da en)iron&ent.
There are &an &ore s'e!iali5ed areas o" st#d ,ithin the traditional do&ains o"
'hsi!al and histori!al geolog. 6or e%a&'le/ )ol!anologists st#d )ol!anoes and er#'tions$
seis&ologist and st#d earth0#a1es$&ineralogist st#d &inerals and !rstals$ 'aleontologist
st#d "ossils and the the histor o" li"e on the Earth$ str#!t#ral geologist st#d ho, ro!1s -rea1
and -end$ e!ono&i!s geologists st#d the "or&ation and o!!#rren!e o" )al#a-le ore de'osits.
This s'e!iali5ation is needed -e!a#se geolog en!o&'asses s#!h a -road range o" to'i!s.
Geologist are s!ientists ,ho &a1e a !areer o#t o" the s!ienti"i! st#d o" the Earth. Yet to a
!ertain e%tent ,e are all geologist. E)erone li)ing on this 'lanet relies on reso#r!es "ro& the
Earth: ,ater/ soil/ -#ilding stones/ &etals/ "ossil "#el/ ge&s/ 'lasti!s 7&ade "ro& 'etrole#&8/
!era&i!s 7&ade "ro& !la &inerals8/ salt 7the &ineral halite8/ and &an others. 9e are a""e!ted
- geologi! 'ro!esses e)er single da ,e s'end on the s#r"a!e o" this dna&i! 'lanet. B
learning as &#!h as ,e !an a-o#t these 'ro!esses/ ,e !an -e!o&e -etter4in"or&ed/ &ore
res'onsi-le !areta1ers o" o#r ho&e 'lanet.
Na&e there e%a&'les o" geologist 'ro!esses. Tr to thin1 o" at least one e%a&'le that ,as not
&entioned in the te%t.
Ans,er: e%a&'les in the te%t are &o#ntain -#ilding/ )ol!ani! er#'tions/ ri)er "looding/
earth0#a1es/ and the "or&ation o" ore de'osits. .o&e other e%a&'les are gro#nd,ater
&o)e&ent/ oil and !oal "or&ation/ e)a'oration/ and erosion. Can o# thin1 o" an &ore :
Na&e there e%a&'les o" geologi! &aterials. Tr to thin1 o" at least one e%a&'le that ,as not
&entioned in the te%t.
Ans,er: e%a&'les in the te%t are &inerals/ ro!1s/ la)a/ and ,ater. .o&e other e%a&'les are soil/
&ag&a/ gla!ial i!e/ and nat#ral gas. Can o# thin1 o" an &ore :
*. Geolog Then And No,: A .!ienti"i! Re)ol#tion
E)en a s!ien!e as o#ng as geolog !an ha)e a re)ol#tion/ and that is ,hat ha''ened in the
1;<+s. At the ti&e/ a -rand4ne, theor e&erged and !o&'letel !hanged o#r #nderstanding o"
geologi! 'ro!esses. The tools/ the &ethods/ and e)en the lang#age o" geolog !hanged as a res#lt
o" the s!ienti"i! re)ol#tion. I" o# st#died geolog 'rior to the 1;<+s/ o# &a re&e&-er so&e
ter&s that are no longer in #se toda. Ter&s s#!h as =e#geosn!line> and =&iogeosn!line> ,ere
#sed to des!ri-e to'ogra'hi! "eat#res o" the Earth?s s#r"a!e that geologists o-ser)ed -#t !o#ld
not e%'lain. 9ith the ad)ent o" the theor o" 'late te!toni!s/ these "eat#res too1 on ne, &eaning.
Conse0#entl/ geologist -egan #sing ne, ter&s to des!ri-e o#r !#rrent #nderstanding o" the
Earth.
This "irst !ha'ter444and/ indeed/ &#!h o" the rest o" this -oo1444!on!erns the 'late
te!toni! re)ol#tion and ho, it has in"or&ed and trans"or&ed o#r #nderstanding o" the Earth. B#t
geolog is !#rrentl #ndergoing another/ &ore s#-tle re)ol#tion. This re)ol#tion is dri)en - the
a-ilit o" s!ientists to o-ser)e and !olle!t in"or&ation a-o#t the Earth as a ,hole 'lanet/ #sing
instr#&ents &o#nted on satellites. This a-ilit is 0#ite ne,$ re&e&-er that no one had e)er seen
a 'i!t#re o" the ,hole Earth #ntil the 1;<+s/ ,hen the "irst 'hotogra'h ,as ta1en o" Earth "ro&
s'a!e.
.atellite i&ages and data !olle!ted "ro& o#ter s'a!e 'ro)ide a s!ienti"i! "o#ndation"or
o#r st#d o" the Erath as a integrated sste&. Earth sste& s!ien!e/ as this a''roa!h is !alled/ is
not ne, in 'hiloso'h/ -#t its tools and te!hni0#es are )er ne,. These tools are #sed in a ,ide
range o" a''li!ations/ "ro& ,eather "ore!asting to the &onitoring o" !hanges in sedi&entation
rates/ &eas#ring the "lo, o" 'olar i!e/ lo!ating &ineral reso#r!es/ do!#&enting the e%tent o" oil
s'ills/ tra!1ing de'letion o" stratos'heri! o5one/ and &an others. Thro#gh Earth sste& s!ien!e/
geologist are !ontri-#ting to o#r #nderstanding o" the Earth as a ,hole/ ho, the Earth !hanges
o)er ti&e/ and the i&'a!ts o" h#&an a!tions on the Earth sste&.
Na&e at least three a''li!ations o" Earth sste& s!ien!e.

Ans,er: E%a&'les in the te%t are ,eather "ore!asting/ &onitoring !hanges in sedi&entation
rates/ &eas#ring the "lo, o" 'olar i!e/ lo!ating &ineral reso#r!es/ do!#&enting the e%tent o" oil
s'ills/ and tra!1ing the de'letion o" stratos'heri! o5one. Can o# thin1 o" an &ore :
@. Geolog Be"ore Plate Te!toni!
A#ring the 1B++s/ 'eo'le "a)ored the idea that the Earth/ originall a &olten &ass/ had -een
!ooling and !ontra!ting "or !ent#ries. .!ientists arg#ed that &o#ntain ranges "#ll o" "olded ro!1s
,ere e%'ressions o" the !ontra!tion and shrin1age o" the Earth?s interior 7i" the !r#st didn?t
!ontra!t as &#!h as the interior/ it ,o#ld "old and !r#&'le li1e the ,rin1led s1in o" a dried
'r#ne8.Contra!tion did a''ear to e%'lain so&e "eat#res o" the Earth?s s#r"a!e/ -#t it !o#ld not
e%'lain the sha'es and 'ositions o" the !ontinents. Nor did it e%'lain "eat#res li1e great ri"t
)alles/ !learl !a#sed - stret!hing rather than - !ontra!tion.
At the -eginning o" the t,entieth !ent#r/ s!ientists dis!o)ered that the Earth?s interior is
heated - the de!a o" nat#ral o!!#rring radioa!ti)e ele&ents. This s#ggested that the Earth
&ight not -e !ooling -#t rather heating #'/ and there"ore e%'anding. A s&aller Earth &ight on!e
ha)e -een !o)ered &ostl - !ontinents. As the Earth e%'anded/ the !ontinents ,o#ld !ra!1 into
"rag&ens/ and e)ent#all the !ra!1s ,o#ld gro, into o!eans. The e%'anding Earth h'othesis
did e%'lain the a''arent "it -et,een the !oastlines o" A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a/ ,hi!h loo1 as i"
the ha)e -een ri''ed a'art "ro& ea!h other. B#t there are other "eat#res that this h'othesis that
not easil a!!o#nt "or/ s#!h as "olded &o#ntains ranges "or&ed - !o&'ression.
To get aro#nd the "la,s in the e%'ansion and !ontra!tion h'hoteses/ geologists -egan to
sear!h "or other ,as o" e%'laining the sha'es and 'ositions o" the !ontinents/ o!eans/ and
&o#ntain !hains. B the &iddle o" this !ent#r/ all reasona-le s#ggestions see&ed to ha)e -een
e%ha#sted$ the ti&e ,as ri'e "or a totall ne, a''roa!h. This a''roa!h t#rned o#t to -e 'late
te!toni!s444the theor that the !ontinents are !arried along on h#ge sla-s/ or 'lates/ o" the Earth?s
o#ter&ost laer. In so&e 'la!e the 'lates are slo,l !olliding/ "or&ing !o&'ressional "eat#res
li1e h#ge &o#ntain ranges. In other 'la!es the 'lates a &o)ing a'art/ "or&ing e%'lansional
"eat#res li1e great ri"t )alles. The theor o" 'late te!toni!s 'ro)ided/ "or the "irst ti&e/ a
!oherent/ #ni"ied e%'lanation "or all o" these "eat#res o" the Earth?s s#r"a!e.
9hat ,as ,rong ,ith the =!ontra!ting Earth> h'othesis:
Ans,er: it did not ade0#atel e%'lain the sha'es and 'ositions o" the !ontinents/ nor did it
e%'lain "eat#res li1e great ri"t )alles/ ,hi!h a''ear to ha)e -een !a#sed - stret!hing.
9hat ,as ,rong ,ith the =e%'anding Earth> h'othesis:
Ans,er: it did not ade0#atel e%'lain "eat#res s#!h as "olded &o#ntain ranges "or&ed -
!o&'ression.
C. Continental Ari"t And The .tor O" 9egener
This !ha'ter tells the stor o" ho, the theor o" 'late te!toni!s ,as !on!ei)ed and de)elo'ed and
e)ent#all !o&e to -e a!!e'ted. The &odern 'art o" the stor -egan in the earl 1;++s ,ith a
Ger&an &eteorologist na&ed Al"red 9egener/ ,ho had so&e !ontro)ersial ideas a-o#t he
sha'es and 'ositions o" the !ontinents.
In 1;1+/ 9gener -egan le!t#ring and ,riting s!ienti"i! 'a'ers a-ao#t !ontinental dri"t.
2is !ontinental dri"t h'othesis s#ggested that the !ontinents ha)e not al,as -een in their
'resent lo!ations -#t instead ha)e =dri"ted> and !hanged 'ositions. 9egener?s idea ,as that the
!ontinents had on!e -een (oined together in a single =s#'er!ontinent>/ ,hi!h he !alled Pangaea
7'rono#n!ed ='an4DEE4ah>8/ "ro& Gree1 ,ords &eaning =all lands>. 2e s#ggested that
Pangaeahad s'lit into "rag&ents li1e 'ie!es o" i!e "loating on a 'ond and that the !ontinental
"rag&ents had slo,l dri"ted to their 'resent lo!ation.
9egener 'resented a great deal o" e)iden!e in s#''ort o" the !ontinental dri"t h'othesis.
Ne)ertheless/ his 'ro'osal !reated a stor& o" 'rotest in the international s!ienti"i! !o&&#nit.
Part o" the 'ro-le& ,as that geologist si&'l !o#ld not en)ision ho, the !ontinents !o#ld &o)e
aro#nd. Another 'art o" the 'ro-le& ,as that geologists had to -e !on)in!ed that the e)iden!e
that the !ontinents had on!e -een (oined ,as tr#l !on!l#si)e. Let?s loo1 at so&e o" the e)iden!e
"or !ontinental dri"t/ so o# !an (#dge "or o#rsel". Noti!e that no single 'ie!e o" e)iden!e is
!on!l#si)e on its o,n. It too1 se)eral de!ades and the ,eight o" all this e)iden!e 7and &ore8 to
"inall !on)in!e geologists that !ontinental dri"t reall ha''ens.
9hat ,as the na&e o" the =s#'er!ontinent> 'ro'osed - Al"red 9egener:
Ans,er: Pangaea
E. E)iden!e 6ro& Coastline
Loo1 at a &a' o" the ,orld. The Atlanti! !oastlines o" A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a see& to
&at!h/ al&ost li1e '#55le 'ie!es. The so#thern !oast o" A#stralia si&ilarl see& to &at!h
'art o" the !oast o" Antar!ti!a/ and the sa&e is tr#e o" so&e other !ontinental !oastlines. Is
this a''arent "it an a!!ident/ or does it s#''ort the h'othesis that the !ontinents ,ere on!e
(oined together:
To ans,er the 0#estion o" ,hether !ontinents ,ere on!e (oined/ ,e &#st "irst re!ogni5e that the
edge o" the land 444 that is/ the shoreline 444 #s#all isn?t the tr#e edge o" the !ontinent. To "ind
the tr#e edge o" a !ontinent/ ,e need to lo!ate the 'la!e ,here the ro!1s o" the !ontinent 444
&ostl &ade o" granite 444 &eet the ro!1s o" the o!ean "loor 444 &ostl &ade o" -asalt. 7o# ,ill
learn &ore a-o#t these t,o i&'ortant ro!1 th'es in !ha'ter E8.
Along a non!li""ed shoreline/ s#!h as tha Atlanti! !oastso" North A&eri!a/ .o#th
A&eri!a/ and A"ri!a/ the land #s#all slo'es )er gentl to,ard the sea 7"ig#re 1.18. This gentl
slo'ing land is !alled the !ontinental shel". At the edge o" the !ontinental shel" there is a shar'
dro' 444 o"" to the stee'er !ontinental slo'e. At the -ooto& o" the stee' !ontinental slo'e/ the land
-egins to le)el o"" again$ this is the !ontinental rise/ ,hi!h &ar1s the transition to the "lat o!ean
"loor/ the a-ssal 'lain. The a!t#al 'la!e ,here the graniti! ro!1s o" the !ontinent &eet the
-asalti! ro!1s o" the o!ean "loor is #s#all !o)ered - sand/ &#d/ and other loose ro!1 'arti!les.
The a!t#al sha'e o" the shoreline de'ends on sea le)el/ the 'resen!e or a-sen!e o" !li""s/ and the
details o" the to'ogra'h o" the !ontinental shel" in an 'arti!#lar lo!alit. Th#s/ the a!t#al
transition "ro& !ontinent to o!ean &a 7or &a not8 -e #nder,ater.
.o/ ho, do ,e identi" the tr#e edge o" a !ontinent: Us#all the edge o" a !ontinent is
de"ined as -eing hal",a do,n the stee' !ontinental slo'e. 9hen ,e tr to "it the !ontinents
together/ ,e "it the& along this line rather than along the 'resent 444 da !oastline. 9hen ,e "it
A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a together in this ,a/ the res#lt is re&ar1a-le 7"ig#re 1.*8. in the =-est4
"it> 'osition/ the a)erage ga' or o)erla' -et,een the t,o !ontinents is onl ;+ 1ilo&eters 71&8
7a-o#t E< &iles F&ilG8. 7Note that 1 1ilo&eter H +.<* &iles$ see A''endi% 1 "or &ore a-o#t #nits/
!on)ersions/ and a--re)iations8.
6ig#re 1.1
6ig#re 1.*
6#rther&ore/ the &ost signi"i!ant o)erla''ing areas !onsist o" ro!1s that ,ere "or&ed a"ter the
ti&e ,hen the !ontinents are tho#ght to ha)e s'lit a'art. This strongl s#ggests that A"ri!a and
.o#th A&eri!a ,ere on!e (oined.
.1et!h and neatl la-el a diagra& sho,ing the transition "ro& !ontinent to o!ean. .ho, ho, the
slo'e o" the land !hanges/ and la-el all o" the to'ogra'hi! "eat#res. On o#r diagra&/ indi!ate the
=tr#e> edge o" the !ontinent.
Ans,er: Re"er to "ig#re 1.1.
<. E)iden!e 6ro& Ro!1s
I" A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a ,ere on!e (oined/ one ,o#ld e%'e!t to "ind si&ilar geologi! "eat#res
on -oth sides o" the (oin. .#!h !orrelations 'ro)ided so&e o" the &ost !o&'elling e)iden!e
'resented - 9egener in s#''ort o" the !ontinental dri"t h'othesis. 2o,e)er/ &at!hing the
geolog o" ro!1s on o''osite sides o" an o!ean is &ore di""i!#lt than o# &ight i&agine. Ro!1
444 "or&ing 'ro!esses ne)er !ease. .o&e ro!1s "or&ed -e"ore the !ontinents ,ere (oined/ so&e
,hile the ,ere (oined/ others d#ring the s'litting o" the !ontinents/ and still others a"ter the
se'arated. 2o, !an ,e tell ,hi!h ro!1s are signi"i!ant in tring to "ind a &at!h -et,een the
!ontinents:
A logi!al starting 'oint is to see i" the ages and orientations o" si&ilar ro!1 t'es &at!h
#' a!ross the o!ean. In 9egener?s ti&e/ geologists did not ha)e so'histi!ated tools "or
deter&ining the e%a!t age o" a ro!1. B#t no, ,e do ha)e s#!h tools/ and ,e 1no, that there are
strong si&ilarities in the ages o" ro!1s a!ross the o!eans. The &a!th is 'arti!#larl good -et,een
ro!1s a-o#t EE+ &ilion ears old and older in northeast Bra5il and 9est A"ri!a/ -#t there is not a
good &a!th "or o#nger ro!1s. This s#ggests that the t,o !ontinents ,ere (oined together "or
so&e 'eriod o" ti&e 'rior to EE+ &illion ears ago/ and the s#-se0#entl s'lit a'art.
9e !an also loo1 "or !ontin#it o" geologi! "eat#res s#!h as &o#ntain !hains. I" ,e re(oin
the !ontinents as the ,o#ld ha)e -een in the s#'er!ontinent Pangaea/ &o#ntain -elts o" si&ilar
ages see& to line #'. 6or e%a&'le/ the oldest 'ortions o" the A''ala!hian 3o#ntains/ e%tending
"ro& the northeastern 'art o" the United .tates tro#ght eastern Canada/ &at!h #' ,ith the
Celedonides o" Ireland/ Britain/ Greenland/ and .!andina)ia. A o#nger 'art o" the A''ala!hians
lines #' ,ith a &o#ntain -elt a si&ilar age in A"ri!a and E#ro'e. These and other -edro!1
"eat#res that &at!h #' a!ross the o!eans are strong e)iden!e that the !ontinents ,ere on!e (oined
together.
Another geologi! "eat#re that &at!hes a!ross !ontinental (oins is the de'osits le"t -
an!ient i!e sheets. These are si&ilar to de'osits le"t - re!ent gla!iers in Canada/ .!andina)ia/
and the northern United .tates.
6ig#re 1.@
In .o#th A&eri!a and A"ri!a there are )er thi!1 gla!ial de'osits. The de'osits are the sa&e age/
and the &at!h al&ost e%a!tl ,hen the !ontinents are =&o)ed -a!1 together>. As gla!ial i!e
&o)es/ it !#ts groo)es and s!rat!hes in #nderling ro!1s and 'rod#!es "olds and ,rin1les in so"t
sedi&ents. .#!h "eat#res/ 'ro)ide e)iden!e o" the dire!tion the i!e ,as &o)ing d#ring the
gla!iations. 9hen A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a are &o)ed -a!1 together/ the groo)es and s!rat!hes
sho, that the i!e ,as radiating o#t,ard "ro& the !enter o" a "or&er i!e sheet 7"ig#re 1.@8. It?s
hard to i&agine ho, s#!h si&ilar gla!ial "eat#res !o#ld ha)e -een !reated i" the !ontinents had
not on!e -een (oined together. A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a &#st also ha)e had si&ilar !li&ates
d#ring this 'eriod/ !older than their 'resent444da !li&ates. This s#ggests that the ,ere not in
their 'resent e0#atorial lo!ations. In "a!t/ the so#thern 'ortions o" Pangaea ,as &ost li1el !lose
to ,hat ,as then the so#th 'ole.
2o, !an the ages o" ro!1s 'ro)ide e)iden!e that t,o !ontinents 444 no, se'arated "ro& ea!h
other - an o!ean 444 ,ere on!e (oined:
Ans,er: i" the !ontinents ,ere on!e (oined/ ,e ,o#ld e%'e!t to "ind ro!1s o" si&ilar t'e and
age on either side o" the o!ean. There are strong si&ilarities in ro!1s a-o#t EE+ &illion ears old
and older in northeast Bra5il and 9est A"ri!a. This s#ggests that the t,o !ontinents ,ere (oined
together "or so&e 'eriod o" ti&e 'rior to EE+ &illion ears ago.
I. E)iden!e 6ro& 6ossils
I" A"ri!a and .o#th A&eri!a ,ere (oined at one ti&e/ ,ith the sa&e !li&ate and &at!hing
geologi! "eat#res/ then the also sho#ld ha)e hosted si&ilar 'alnts and ani&als. To !he!1 this/
9egener t#rned to the "ossil re!ord. This re)ealed that there ,ere !o&&#nities o" 'lants and
ani&als that a''ear to ha)e e)ol)ed together #ntil the ti&e o" the s'litting a'art o" Pangaea/ a"ter
,hi!h the e)ol)ed se'aratel.
9egener 'ointed to s'e!i"i! "ossils "o#nd in &at!hing areas a!ross the o!eans. One
e%a&'le he #sed ,as an an!ient "ern/ Glosso'teris/ ,hose "ossili5ed re&ains ha)e -een "o#nd in
so#thern A"ri!a/ .o#th A&eri!a/ A#stralia/ India/ and Antar!ti!a. Co#ld the seeds o" this 'lant
he)e -een !arried "ro& one lo!ation to another a!ross the o!eans: Pro-a-l not. The seeds o"
Glosso'teris ,ere large and hea)/ and !o#ld not ha)e -een !arried )er "ar - ,ind or ,ater
!#rrents. This "ern "lo#rished in a !old !li&ate$ it ,o#ld not ha)e thri)ed in the ,ar& 'resent 444
da !li&ates o" the !ontinents ,here is "ossil re&ains are "o#nd. This/ too/ s#ggests that the
!ontinents on!e had si&ilar/ !older !li&ates.
There are other e%a&'les as ,eel. The "ossili5ed re&ains o" 3esoso#r#s/ a s&all re'tile/
are "o#nd -oth in so#thern Bra5il and in .o#th A"ri!a. The t'es o" ro!1s in ,hi!h the "ossils are
"o#nd are )er si&ilar. 3esosa#r#s did s,i&/ -#t ,as 'ro-a-l too s&all to s,i& all the ,a
a!ross the o!ean. 6ossili5ed re&ains o" s'e!i"i! t'es o" earth,or&s also o!!#r in areas that are
no, ,idel se'arated. 2o, !o#ld the 'ossi-l ha)e &igrated a!ross the o!eans: The
land&asses in ,hi!h the li)ed &#st one ha)e -een !onne!ted.
2o, did 9egener #se Glosso'teris to s#''ort the h'othesis o" !ontinental dri"t:
Ans,er: 6ossils o"Glosso'teris/ an an!ient "ern/ ha)e -een "o#nd an si&ilar ro!1s in so#thern
A"ri!a/ .o#th A&eri!a/ A#stralia/ India/ and Antar!ti!a 444 lo!ations that are no, ,idel
se'arated - o!eans. Its seeds ,ere large and hea) and !o#ld not ha)e -een trans'orted )er "ar
- ,ind or ,ater. This s#ggests that the areas ,here Glosso'teris "ossils are no, "o#nd &#st
on!e ha)e -een (oined together.
B. The 3issing Cl#e: Paleo&agnetis&
9egener and his s#''orters gathered &ore and &ore e)iden!e in s#''ort o" !ontinental dri"t/ -#t
&an s!ientists re&ained #n!on)in!ed. 9egener died in 1;@+ ,itho#t seeing the end o" the
de-ate/ ,hi!h !ontin#ed a"ter his death. A t#rning 'oint o!!#rred in the 1;E+s tro#gh the st#d o"
'aleo&agnetis&/ an!ient &agnetis& 'reser)ed in ro!1s. 9hen la)a !ools and solidi"ies into ro!1/
it -e!o&es &agneti5ed and ta1es and the 'olarit 444 the north 444 so#th dire!tional 444it 444o" the
Earth?s &agneti! "ield at that ti&e. D#st as a "ree J s,inging &agnet toda ,ill 'oint to,ard
toda?s &agneti! north 'ole/ so too/ does a ro!1?s 'aleo&agnetis& a!t as a 'ointer to,ard the
lo!ation o" the Earth?s &agneti! north 'ole at the ti&e o" ro!1 "or&ation.
In the 1;E+s/ geologists st#ding the 'aleo&agnetis& o" ro!1 "ro& di""erent lo!alities
"o#nd e)iden!e s#ggesting that the Earth?s &agneti! 'ole had ,andered all o)er the glo-e "or at
least the 'ast se)eral h#ndred &illion ears. The 'lotted the 'ath,a o" the 'oles on &a's/ and
re"erred to the 'heno&enon as a''arent 'olar ,andering 7"ig#re 1.C8. Geologists ,ere '#55led
- this e)iden!e. The 1ne, that it ,as e%tre&el #nli1el that the &agneti! 'oles the&sel)es
had &o)ed. Instead the !on!l#ded/ so&e,hat rel#!tantl/ that it &#st ha)e -een the !ontinents
the&sel)es that had &o)ed/ !arring their &agneti! ro!1s ,ith the&.
9hat is 'olarit:
Ans,er: The north J so#th dire!tionalit o" the Earth?s &agneti! "ield.
6ig#re 1.C
;. .ea"loor .'reading
The ne, e)iden!e "ro& 'aleo&agnetis& hel'ed re)i)e the h'othesis o" !ontinental dri"t. B#t
&an s!ientists ,ere still holding o#t "or a "inal 'ie!e o" e)iden!e that ,o#ld de&onstrate
!on!l#si)el that a s#'er!ontinent had a!t#all s'lit a'art and seas had "lo,ed into the ,idening
ri"t. The ,ere tring to en)ision a &e!hanis& ,here- the sea"loor !o#ld a!t#all s'lit o'en.
This e)iden!e "inall a''eared/ -#t not #ntil the earl 1;<+s 444 three de!ade a"ter 9egener?s
death.
O!eanogra'hers &eas#ring the 'aleo&agneti! 'ro'erties o" ro!1s o" the Atlanti! O!ean
6loor ,ere astonished to "ind a re'eating series o" ro!1s ,ith alternating &agneti! 'olarities: one
stri'e o" ro!1 ,ith the sa&e 'olarit 7sa&e &agneti! north 'ole8 as the Earth?s 'resent da
&agneti! "ield/ and the ne%t stri'e ,ith the o''osite 'olarit 7north and so#th &agneti! 'oles
re)ersed8. .!ientists !all these nor&al and re)ersed &agneti! 'olarities. The stri'e are h#ndreds
o" 1ilo&eters long/ and the are e%a!tl s&&etri!al on either side o" the &idKo!ean ridge that
r#ns do,n the &iddle o" the Atlanti! O!ean. In other ,ords/ i" o# !o#ld "old the sea"loor in hal"
along the &ido!ean ridge/ the 'attern o" alternating 'aleo&agneti! stri'es on either side ,o#ld
&at!h e%a!tl.
9hat !o#ld this 'ossi-l &ean: At "irst/ s!ientists ,ere &sti"ied - these s&&etri!al
'atterns o" &agneti! stri'es in sea"loor ro!1s. Then t,o gro#'s o" geologists/ ,or1ing
inde'endentl/ !a&e #' ,ith sa&e e%'lanation. The 'ro'osed that the sea"loor had s'lit a'art
along the &ido!ean rigde and that the ro!1s on either side ,ere &o)ing a,a "ro& the rigde
7"ig#re 1.E8. as the ro!1s s'read a'art/ la)a "ro& -ello, ,elled #' into the !ra!1/ solidi"ing into
ne, )ol!ani! ro!1 on the sea"loor. 9hen the &olten la)a solidi"ied/ it too1 on the &agneti!
'olarit o" the Earth at the ti&e. O)er ti&e/ the s'reading sea"loor a!ted li1e a !on)eor -elt/
!arring the ne,l &agneti5ed ro!1 a,a "ro& the !enterline o" the ridge in either dere!tion.
This 'ro!ess !a&e to -e 1no,n as sea"loor s'reading. The dis!o)er o" sea"loor s'reading ,as
'ro-a-l the single &ost 'o,er"#l 'ie!e o" e)iden!e in s#''ort o" the h'othesis o" !ontinental
dri"t.
Geologists ha)e sho,n that the ages o" sea"loor ro!1s in!rease ,ith distan!e "ro& the
&ido!ean ridge. The o#ngest ro!1s are lo!ated along the !enterline o" the ridge/ ,here ne, la)a
rises thro#gh the !ra!1 to the sea"loor. The "arther the ro!1s ha)e &o)ed "ro& the ridge/ the older
the are. E)er hal" &illion ears or so/ "or resons that are not entirel #nderstood/ the Earth?s
&agneti! "ield re)erses itsel" north -e!o&e so#th/ and so#th -e!o&es north. 7This is dis!#ssed in
"#rther detail in !ha'ter @8. As &agneti! re)ersals o!!#rred in the 'ast/ the !hanging 'olarities
,ere re!orded in ne,l "or&ing ro!1s along the &ido!ean ridge. The res#lt ,as s&&etri!al
stri'es o" ro!1 ,ith alternating 'olarities nor&al/ re)ersed/ nor&al/ re)ersed. This "inal 'ie!e o"
e)iden!e !on)in!ed the great &a(orit o" geologists that sea"loor s'reading had indeed o!!#rred
and that the !ontinents had dri"ted "ro& their original lo!ations.
6ig#re 1.E
9hat is the di""eren!e -et,een a ro!1 ,ith nor&al 'aleo&agneti! 'olarit and one ,ith re)ersed
'aleo&agneti! 'olarit:
Ans,er: A ro!1 ,ith nor&al 'olarit has a &agneti! north 'ole in essentiall the sa&e
orientation as the 'resent da north 'ole. A ro!1 ,ith re)ersed 'olarit has &agneti! north and
so#th 'oles re)ersed "ro& their 'resent da orientations.
1+. Plate Te!toni!s In A N#tshell
B the 1;<+s &ost s!ientists had -e!o&e !on)in!ed that !ontinental dri"t had reall o!!#rred.
2o,e)er/ it re&ained to '#t all o" this together into a !oherent &odel. This &odel -e!a&e the
theor o" 'late te!toni!s. 7it?s !alled a theor no,/ instead o" a h'othesis. A h'othesis is an
ed#!ated g#ess$ a theor is s#''orted - e%tensi)e s!ienti"i! e)iden!e and testing8. 2ere a -rie"
s#&&ar o" the theor o" 'late te!toni!s.
The o#ter&ost/ ro!1 'art o" the earth is the !r#st. As &entioned a-o)e/ there are t,o
t'es o" !r#st/ ,hi!h is relati)el thi!1 7 a)erage thi!1ness CE 1&/ or @+ &ill8 and &ostl &ade
o" granite/ and o!eani! !r#st/ ,hi!h is relati)el thin 7a)erage thi!1ness B 1&/ or a-o#t E &ill8
and &ostl &ade o" -asalt. Beneath the !r#st is the &antle/ also &ade o" ro!1s/ -#t di""erent "ro&
the ro!1s o" the !r#st. At the !enter o" the earth is the !ore/ &ade o" iron ni!1el &etal/ not ro!1.
7o# ,ill learn &ore a-o#t the internal str#!t#re o" the earth in !ha'ter C8. Togheter/ the !r#st and
the o#ter&ost 'art o" the &antle &a1e #' the lithos'here/ a thin/ !old/ -rittle/ ro!1 laer 7a-o#t
1++ 1&/ or <+ &ill/ thi!1/ on a)erage8. The &antle -elo, the lithos'here is )er hot/ so it is
relati)el &allea-le/ li1e '#tt/ e)en tho#gh it is &ade o" solid ro!1. The 'art o" the &antle
i&&ediatel -eneath the lithos'here is !alled the asthenos'here$ it is es'e!iall ,ea1 -e!a#se it
is !lose to the te&'erat#re at ,hi!h ro!1s -egin to &elt.
I" o# ,ere to do an e%'eri&ent in ,hi!h o# 'la!ed a )er thin/ !ool/ -rittle shell 7li1e
the lithos'here8 on to' o" hot/ ,ea1 &aterial that is rather s0#ish 7li1e the asthenos'here8/ ,hat
,o#ld ha''en : o# &ight 'redi!t that the thin shell ,o#ld -rea1 into 'ie!es. That is 're!isel
the state o" the earth?s lithos'here$ it is -ro1en into &an large "rag&ents/ or 'lates. Toda there
are si% large lithos'heri! 'lates/ ea!h e%tending "or se)eral tho#sand o" 1ilo&eters/ and a large
n#&-er o" s&aller 'lates. The 'lates are in a !ondition !alled isostas/ ,hi!h &eans that the are
essentiall ="loating> on the ,ea1 asthenos'here/ li1e -lo!1s o" ,ood "loating on ,ater.
Yo# !an e%'eri&ent ,ith 'late &otion - !are"#ll heating ,a% in a 'an and the letting it
!ool #ntil it "or&s a thin s1in or !r#st. Be !are"#l &olten ,a% is )er hot.
Thin1 again a-o#t thin/ -rittle "rag&ents "loating on to' o" hot/ s0#ish &aterial. Yo# &ight
e%'e!t that &o)e&ent in the #nderling &aterial ,o#ld !a#se the -rittle "rag&ents to shi"t a-o#t.
Again/ that is e%a!tl ,hat ha''ens to the earth?s lithos'heri! 'lates. As &o)e&ent o!!#rs in the
hot &antle/ the 'lates shi"t and intera!t ,ith one other. .#!h &o)e&ents in)ol)e !o&'li!ated
e)ents that are !olle!ti)el des!ri-ed - the ter& =te!toni!s> 7"ro& the Gree1 ,ord te1ton/
&eaning =!ar'enter> or =-#ilder>8. =Plate te!toni!s> th#s re"ers to the st#d o" the &o)e&ent and
intera!tions o" lithos'heri! 'lates.
9hat is the lithos'here:
Ans,er:
The o#ter 1++ 1& 7<+ &i8 o" the earth$ the !r#st and the #''er 'art o" the &antle/ a-o)e the
asthenos'here.
11. Plate 3argins And Intera!tions
Lithos'heri! 'lates intera!t ,ith one another &ainl along their edges/ or &argins. Plates !an
intera!t in three -asi! ,as$ the !an &o)e a,a "ro& ea!h other 7di)erge8$ the !an &o)e
to,ard ea!h other 7!on)erge8$ or the !an slide 'ast ea!h other. Conse0#entl/ there are three
1inds o" 'late &argins: di)ergent/ !on)ergent/ and trans"or& "a#lt &argins.
Ai)ergent &argins are h#ge "ra!t#res in the lithos'here ,here 'lates &o)e a'art "ro& one
another 7"ig#re 1.<A8. 9hen o!eani! !r#st s'lits a'art/ sea"loor s'reading o!!#rs and a &ido!ean
ridge is "or&ed/ li1e the one in the &iddle o" the atlanti! o!ean. 9hen !ontinental !r#st s'lits
a'art/ a great ri"t )alle "or&s/ as in East A"ri!a ,here the A"ri!an Plate is -eing stret!hed and
torn a'art. E)ent#all/ a ne, o!ean &a "or& in the ,idening !ontinental ri"t )alle$ a &odern
e%a&'le o" this is the Red .ea. In -oth !ontinents and o!eans/ di)ergent &argins are
!hara!teri5ed - earth0#a1es 7!a#sed - the s'litting and !ra!1ing o" the ro!1s8 and )ol!anis&
7!a#sed - &elted ro!1 "ro& the &antle ,elling #' into the "ra!t#res8.
Con)ergent &argins o!!#r ,here t,o 'lates &o)e to,ard ea!h other. There are three
-asi! t'es o" !on)ergent &argins: o!ean4o!ean/ o!ean4!ontinent/ and !ontinent4!ontinent.
O!eni! !r#st is &ade o" -asalt/ ,hi!h is denser 7hea)4ier8 than the graniti! ro!1s that &a1e #' the
!ontinent !r#st. 9hene)er o!eani! !r#st is in)ol)ed in !on)ergent &argin/ the dense o!eani!
!r#st sin1s -eneath the other 'late 7"ig#re 1.<B8. This 'ro!ess is !alled s#-d#!tion/ and 'la!es
,here it o!!#rs are !alled s#-d#!tion 5ones. .#-d#!tion 5ones are &er1ed - dee' o!eani!
tren!hes and lines o" )ol!anoes/ as in Indonesia 7an o!ean4o!ean s#-d#!tion 5one8 or the Andes
7an o!ean4!ontinent s#-d#!tion 5one8.
9hen one !ontinent &eets another !ontinent at a !on)ergent &argin/ no o!eani! !r#st is
a)aila-le to "or& a s#-d#!tion 5one. Instead/ the !ontinents !ollide and !r#&'le #'/ "or&ing
h#ge/ #'li"ted &o#ntain ranges li1e the 2i&alaa$ this is !ollision 5one 7"ig#re 1.<!8. !ollision
5ones and s#-d#!tion 5ones ha)e lots o" earth0#a1es a!ti)it/ !a#sed - ro!1s !olliding and
grinding 'ast one another.
Trans"or& "a#lt &argins are h#ge "ra!t#res in the lithos'here ,here t,o 'lates slide 'ast
ea!h other/ grinding along their edges and !a#sing earth0#a1es as the go 7"ig#re 1.<A8. A
"a&o#s &odern e%a&'le is the .an Andreas 6a#lt in Cali"ornia/ ,here the 'a!i"i! 'late is &o)ing
north4north,est relati)e to the North A&eri!an Plate.
All these t'es o" 'late intera!tion are o!!#rring toda/ as the ha)e o!!#rred tro#ghto#t
&ost o" Earth?s histor. 9e don?t o"ten noti!e 'late &otion -e!a#se lithos'heri! 'lates &o)e )er
slo,l #s#all -et,een 1 and 1+ !enti&eters 'er ear. B#t ,e o"ten "eel the earth0#a1es and
o-ser)e the )ol!ani! a!ti)it that ha''ens along a!ti)e 'late &argins. The s!ars and re&nants o"
an!ient 'late intera!tions are also 'reser)ed in the ro!1 re!ord "or #s to st#d.
9hat is the di""eren!e -et,een a !ollision 5one and a s#-d#!tion 5one:
Ans,er:
A !ollision 5one o!!#rs ,here t,o !ontinents !on)erge. A s#-d#!tion 5one o!!#rs along o!ean4
!ontinent or o!ean4o!ean !on)ergent &argins.
1*. Con)e!tion: The Ari)ing 6or!e
The theor o" 'late te!toni!s has -een a!!e'ted - al&ost all geologist/ -#t so&e 0#estions
re&ain. 9hat !a#ses 'late &otion: 2o, does the &antle intera!t ,ith the !r#st: 9hat &a1es
s#-d#!tion o!!#r: .!ientists ha)e a -asi! #nderstanding o" these 'ro!esses/ -#t the details ha)e
not -een !o&'letel ,or1ed o#t. 9e 1no, that ther&al &o)e&ent in the &antle is at least 'artl
res'onsi-le "or the &o)e&ent o" lithos'heri! 'lates. 9e also 1no, that &o)e&ent in the &antle
is !a#sed - the release o" heat "ro& inside the earth. Let?s e%a&ine the Earth?s heatreleasing
'ro!esses and !onsider ho, the !a#se 'late &otion.
The te&'erat#re inside the Earth is high a-o#t E+++
o
Celsi#s 7C8 7&ore than ;+++
o

6ahrenheit F6G in the !ore. .o&e o" this heat is le"t o)er "ro& the Earth?s -eginnings/ -#t so&e o"
it is !onstantl -eing generated - the de!a o" radioa!ti)e ele&ents inside the Earth. This heat
&#st -e released$ i" it ,as not/ the Earth ,o#ld e)ent#all -e!o&e so hot that its entire interior
,o#ld &elt.
.o&e o" the Earth?s internal heat &a1es its ,a slo,l to the s#r"a!e thro#gh !ond#!tion/
in ,hi!h heat energ 'asses "ro& one ato& to the ne%t. 2o,e)er/ !ond#!tion is a slo, ,a to
trans"er heat. It is "aster and &ore e""i!ient "or a 'a!1et o" hot &aterial to -e 'hsi!all
trans'orted to the s#r"a!e. This is si&ilar to ,hat ha''ens ,hen a "l#id -oils on a sto)eto'/ as in
the ,a% e%'eri&ent des!ri-ed a-o)e. I" o# ,at!h a "l#id s#!h as ,a% or s'aghetti sa#!e as it
-oils/ o# ,ill see that it t#rns o)er and o)er. Pa!1ets o" hot &aterial rise "ro& the -otto& o" the
'ot to the to'. As it rea!hes the s#r"a!e/ the hot "l#id !ools and then sin1s -a!1 do,n to the
-otto& o" the 'ot/ ,here it is reheated. The !ontin#o#s &otion o" &aterial "ro& -otto& to to'
and do,n again is !alled a !on)e!tion =!ell>/ and this t'e o" heat trans"er is !alled !on)e!tion.
E)en tho#gh the Earth?s &antle is &ostl solid ro!1/ it is so hot that it releases heat -
!on)e!tion 7"ig#re 1.I8. Ro!1 dee' in the &antle heats #' and e%'ands/ &a1ing it -#oant. As a
res#lt/ the ro!1 &o)e to,ard the s#r"a!e )er/ )er slo,l in h#ge !on)e!tion !ells o" solid ro!1.
Near the s#r"a!e/ the hot ro!1 &o)e along the s#r"a!e ,hile losing heat/ li1e the s'aghetti sa#!e.
The &o)e&ent o" hot ro!1 in the asthenos'here is tho#ght to -e the &ain !a#se o" 'late &otion.
As the ro!1 !ools/ it -e!o&es denser 7!ool ro!1 is denser/ or hea)ier/ than hot ro!18 and sin1s
-a!1 into the dee'er 'arts o" the &antle. This !on)e!tion !!le 'ro)ides an e""i!ient ,a "or the
Earth to rid itsel" o" so&e o" its internal heat. Con)e!tion and the &o)e&ent o" 'lates near the
s#r"a!e !reate so&e o" the &ost distin!ti)e geologi! and to'ogra'hi! "eat#res o" the Earth?s
s#r"a!e: the dee' tren!hes ,here o!eani! 'lates are s#-d#!ted into the &antle$ the &ido!ean
ridges and !ontinental ri"t )alles ,here 'lates s'lit a'art$ and the high/ "olded and !r#&'led
&o#ntain !hains ,here !ontinents !ollide.
Con)e!tion in the &antle is not nearl as si&'le as !on)e!tion in a 'ot on a sto)eto'.
.o&e o" the &ost !hallenging #nans,ered 0#estions a-o#t 'late te!toni!s ha)e to do ,ith the
e%a!t nat#re o" this 'ro!ess. Aoes the ,hole &antle !on)e!t as a #nit/ or is the to' 'art o" the
&antle !on)e!ting se'aratel "ro& the -otto&: In s#-d#!tion 5ones/ are the 'lates dragged do,n
into the &antle/ or do the sin1 #nder their o,n ,eight: 9hat is the e%a!t sha'e o" !on)e!tion
!ells in the &antle: .!ientists are still see1ing the ans,ers to these and other 0#estions a-o#t
'late te!toni!s.
9hat is the te&'erat#re in the Earth?s !ore:
Ans,er:
A-o#t E+++
o
C 7;+++
o
68.
Yo# ha)e !on)ered and enor&o#s a&o#nt o" &aterial in this !ha'ter an entire s!ienti"i!
re)ol#tion in a "e, 'agesL 3an o" the !on!e'ts 'resented in this !ha'ter &a see& di""i!#lt and
#n"a&iliar to o# no,/ -#t don?t ,orr. Plate te!toni!s is the "o#ndation "or o#r #nderstanding o"
the Earth and its 'ro!esses and &aterials/ so &an o" these ideas ,ill -e re)isited in the !ha'ters
to "ollo,. No, test o#r 1no,ledge o" his &aterial - tring o#t the sel" test.
Self Test
1. The ages o" sea"loor ro!1s generall MMMMM ,ith distan!e "ro& a &ido!ean ridge/ on
either side o" the ridge.
a. in!rease
-. de!rease
!. sta the sa&e
d. )ar irreg#larl
*. The .an Andreas 6a#lt in Cali"ornia is a &odern4da e%a&'le o" a MMMMM 'late &argin.
a. !ollisional
-. s#-d#!tion 5one
!. di)ergent
d. trans"or& "a#lt
@. The ='lates> in 'late te!toni!s are &ade o" "rag&ents o" MMMM
a. !ontinents
-. o!eani! !r#st
!. the lithos'here
d. the &antle
C. The ,ea1 laer o" the &antle/ i&&ediatel #nderling the lithos'here/ is !alled the MMMM.
E. The Earth has t,o "#nda&entall di""erent t'es o" !r#st: MMMM. !r#st is &ade &ainl o"
-asalti! ro!1s/ and MMMMM.. !r#st is &ade &ainl o" graniti! ro!1s.
<. Along a non!li""ed shoreline/ the land #s#all slo'es )er gentl to,ard the sea$ this gentl
slo'ing land is !alled the a-ssial 'lain. 7T or 68
I. 9here)er there is a !o)ergent 'late &argin/ a s#-d#!tion 5one ,ill de)elo'. 7T or 68
B. Con)e!tion is "aster and &ore e""i!ient than !ond#!tion as a &e!hanis& o" heat trans"er. 7T or
68
;. Is the !oastline/ ,here the land &eets the ,ater/ the tr#e edge o" a !ontinent: 9h/ or ,h
not:
1+. 9hat is the di""eren!e -et,een a h'othesis and a theor:
11. 9h is it tri!1 to &at!h ro!1 t'es and other geologi! "eat#res a!ross a !ontinental s'lit/
s#!h as ,here so#th A&eri!a and A"ri!a ,ere on!e (oined:
1*. 2o, does the disti-ition o" gla!ial de'osits s#''ort the idea that the !ontinents ,ere on!e
(oined together in the s#'er!ontinent Pangaea:
1@. .#&&ari5e the &ain t'es o" 'late &argins.
Ans,ers:
1. a
*. d
@. !
C. Asthenos'here
E. O!eani!$ Continental
<. 6
I. 6
B. T
;. No. The tr#e edge o" a !ontinent is ,here !ontinental !r#st &eets o!eani! !r#st/ -#t this is
#s#all !o)ered - &#d 7and so&eti&es - ,ater8. 9e de"ine the edge o" a !ontinent to -e
hal",a do,n the !ontinental slo'e.
1+. A theor is s#''orted - e%tensi)e s!ienti"i! e)iden!e and testing$ a h'othesis is an
ed#!ated g#ess.
11. Ro!1 "or&ing 'ro!esses ne)er !ease. .o&e ro!1s ,ere "or&ed -e"ore the !ontinents ,ere
(oined/ so&e ,hile the ,ere (oined/ others d#ring the s'litting o" the !ontinents/ and still others
a"ter the -e!a&e se'arated.
1*. 9hen the !ontinents are rotated -a!1 into the =(oined> 'osition 7Pangaea8/ the geolog and
ages o" gla!ial de'osits &at!h re&ar1a-l ,ell a!ross the (oins. Gla!ial groo)es and s!rat!hes
sho, that the i!e ,as &o)ing o#t,ard in all dire!tions "ro& ,hat ,as then the so#th 'ole.
1@. The &ain t'es o" 'late &argins are di)ergent 7o!eani! or !ontinental8$ !on)ergent
s#-d#!tion 5one 7o!ean4o!ean or o!ean4!ontinent8$ !on)ergent !ollision 5one 7!ontinent4
!ontinent8$ trans"or& "a#lt.
BAB 1
PLATE TEKTONIK : REVOLUSI DALAM GEOLOGI
1 . Memahami Bumi
Geologi adalah !udi ilmiah "umi . Geologi adalah ilmu muda # !e!a$i !elah ada
e"agai ua!u dii$li% ilmiah mode&% elama le"ih da&i '(( !ahu% . S!udi !e%!a%g
"umi e)a&a !&adiio%al di"agi me%*adi dua "ida%g !udi +a%g lua : geologi ,i- da%
geologi e*a&ah . Geologi ,i- me%+a%g-u! $&o)ee +a%g "e&o$e&ai $ada a!au di
"a.ah $e&mu-aa% "umi da% "aha%/"aha% +a%g $&oe !hoe "e&o$e&ai. Be"e&a$a
)o%!oh $&oe geologi adalah gu%u%g "a%gu%a% # le!ua% gu%u%g "e&a$i # "a%*i&
u%gai # gem$a "umi # da% $em"e%!u-a% de$oi! "i*ih . Be"e&a$a )o%!oh "aha%
geologi da% mi%e&al # "a!u# !a%ah # la0a # da% ai& .
Geologi e*a&ah me%+a%g-u! $e&i!i.a geologi +a%g !e&*adi di maa lalu . Pe&i!i.a
i%i da$a! di"a)a da&i )a!a!a% &o)- . Ahli geologi e*a&ah me%)o"a u%!u- me%*a.a"
$e&!a%+aa%/$e&!a%+aa% e$e&!i -e!i-a lau!a% !e&"e%!u- # me%ga$a di%oau&u
$u%ah # -e!i-a Ro)- Mou%!ai% %ai- # da% -e!i-a $oho% $e&!ama -ali mu%)ul . Geologi
e*a&ah mem"a%!u -i!a mem"a%gu% -&o%ologi -e*adia% dalam e*a&ah "umi da%
mem"e&i -i!a -o%!e- u%!u- memahami li%g-u%ga% -i!a aa! .
Ada "a%+a- dae&ah +a%g le"ih -huu !udi dalam domai% !&adiio%al geologi ,i-
da% e*a&ah . Se"agai )o%!oh# 0ol)a%ologi! mem$ela*a&i gu%u%g "e&a$i da%
le!ua% # ahli gem$a da% mem$ela*a&i gem$a "umi # mi%e&al !udi !e%!a%g mi%e&al
da% -&i!al # 1oil !udi $aleo%!olog da% e*a&ah -ehidu$a% di Bumi # !udi geologi
!&u-!u&al "agaima%a "a!u $e)ah da% !i-u%ga% # ahli geologi e-o%omi mem$ela*a&i
$em"e%!u-a% da% !e&*adi%+a de$oi! "i*ih "e&ha&ga . S$eialiai i%i di$e&lu-a%
-a&e%a geologi meli$u!i e$e&!i "e&"agai !o$i- .
Geologi! adalah ilmu.a% +a%g mem"ua! -a&ie& da&i !udi ilmiah Bumi . Namu%
am$ai "a!a !e&!e%!u -i!a emua ahli geologi . Semua o&a%g +a%g hidu$ di $la%e!
i%i "e&ga%!u%g $ada um"e& da+a da&i "umi : ai&# !a%ah # "a%gu%a% "a!u # logam #
"aha% "a-a& 1oil # $e&ma!a # $la!i- 2 !e&"ua! da&i mi%+a- "umi 3 # -e&ami- 2 !e&"ua!
da&i mi%e&al !a%ah lia! 3 # ga&am 2 ga&am -a&a%g mi%e&al 3 # da% maih "a%+a- lai% .
Ki!a di$e%ga&uhi oleh $&oe geologi e!ia$ ha&i -i!a me%gha"i-a% di $e&mu-aa%
$la%e! i%i di%ami. De%ga% "ela*a& e"a%+a- +a%g -i!a da$a! !e%!a%g $&oe i%i #
-i!a "ia me%*adi le"ih "ai-/i%1o&mai # $e%gauh le"ih "e&!a%ggu%g *a.a" da&i
$la%e! &umah -i!a .
Nama ada )o%!oh $&oe geologi . 4o"alah u%!u- memi-i&-a% e!ida-%+a a!u
)o%!oh +a%g !ida- die"u!-a% dalam !e- .
5a.a"a% : )o%!oh dalam !e- adalah gu%u%g "a%gu%a% # le!ua% gu%u%g "e&a$i #
"a%*i& u%gai # gem$a "umi # da% $em"e%!u-a% de$oi! "i*ih . Be"e&a$a )o%!oh lai%
adalah ge&a-a% ai& !a%ah # mi%+a- da% $em"e%!u-a% "a!u "a&a # $e%gua$a% # da%
e&oi . Da$a!-ah A%da memi-i&-a% lagi 6
Nama ada )o%!oh "aha% geologi . 4o"alah u%!u- memi-i&-a% e!ida-%+a a!u
)o%!oh +a%g !ida- die"u!-a% dalam !e- .
5a.a"a% : )o%!oh dalam !e- adalah mi%e&al # "a!ua% # la0a # da% ai& . Be"e&a$a
)o%!oh lai%%+a adalah !a%ah # magma # e glaial # da% ga alam . Da$a!-ah A%da
memi-i&-a% lagi 6
' . Geologi Lalu Da% Se-a&a%g : Re0olui Ilmiah
Bah-a% ilmu emuda geologi da$a! memili-i &e0olui # da% i!ulah +a%g !e&*adi $ada
!ahu% 178( . Pada aa! i!u # e"uah !eo&i "a&u mu%)ul da% "e%a&/"e%a& me%gu"ah
$emahama% -i!a !e%!a%g $&oe geologi . Ala!# me!ode # da% "ah-a% "ahaa geologi
"e&u"ah e"agai hail da&i &e0olui ilmiah . 5i-a A%da mem$ela*a&i geologi e"elum
!ahu% 178(/a% # A%da mu%g-i% i%ga! "e"e&a$a i!ilah +a%g !ida- lagi digu%a-a%
aa! i%i. I!ilah/i!ilah e$e&!i 9 eugeo+%)li%e 9 da% 9 miogeo+%)li%e 9 digu%a-a%
u%!u- me%ggam"a&-a% ,!u& !o$og&a, $e&mu-aa% "umi +a%g ahli geologi +a%g
diama!i !e!a$i !ida- "ia me%*ela-a% . De%ga% mu%)ul%+a !eo&i lem$e%g !e-!o%i- #
,!u& i%i me%gam"il ma-%a "a&u . A-i"a!%+a # ahli geologi mulai me%ggu%a-a% i!ilah
"a&u u%!u- me%ggam"a&-a% $emahama% -i!a !e%!a%g "umi .
Ba" i%i $e&!ama /// da%# mema%g # "a%+a- da&i ia "u-u i%i /// me%+a%g-u! &e0olui
lem$e%g !e-!o%i- da% "agaima%a ia !elah dii%1o&mai-a% da% me%gu"ah
$emahama% -i!a !e%!a%g "umi . Ta$i geologi aa! i%i eda%g me%galami &e0olui
lai% # le"ih halu . Re0olui i%i dido&o%g oleh -emam$ua% $a&a ilmu.a% u%!u-
me%gama!i da% me%gum$ul-a% i%1o&mai !e%!a%g "umi e)a&a -eelu&uha% $la%e! #
me%ggu%a-a% i%!&ume% +a%g di$aa%g $ada a!eli! . Kemam$ua% i%i )u-u$ "a&u#
i%ga! "ah.a !ida- ada +a%g $e&%ah meliha! gam"a& elu&uh "umi am$ai !ahu%
178( # -e!i-a 1o!o $e&!ama diam"il da&i Bumi da&i &ua%g a%g-aa .
4i!&a a!eli! da% da!a +a%g di-um$ul-a% da&i lua& a%g-aa mem"e&i-a% ilmiah
1ou%da!io%1o& !udi -i!a !e%!a%g E&a!h e"agai i!em +a%g !e&i%!eg&ai . Ilmu i!em
Bumi # -a&e%a $e%de-a!a% i%i die"u! # "u-a%lah hal +a%g "a&u dalam ,la1a! # !a$i
ala!/ala! da% !e-%i- +a%g a%ga! "a&u . Ala!/ala! i%i digu%a-a% dalam "e&"agai
a$li-ai# da&i $&a-i&aa% )ua)a u%!u- $ema%!aua% $e&u"aha% !i%g-a! edime%!ai #
me%gu-u& ali&a% e di -u!u" # me%)a&i um"e& da+a mi%e&al # me%do-ume%!ai-a%
e*auh ma%a !um$aha% mi%+a- # $ela)a-a% $e%i$ia% o:o% !&a!o,& # da% "a%+a-
lai%%+a . Melalui ilmu i!em Bumi # ahli geologi "e&-o%!&i"ui $ada $emahama% -i!a
!e%!a%g "umi e)a&a -eelu&uha% # "agaima%a Bumi "e&u"ah da&i .a-!u -e .a-!u #
da% dam$a- da&i !i%da-a% ma%uia $ada i!em Bumi .
Nama e!ida-%+a !iga a$li-ai ilmu i!em Bumi .

5a.a"a% : 4o%!oh dalam !e- adalah $&a-i&aa% )ua)a # $ema%!aua% $e&u"aha%
!i%g-a! edime%!ai # me%gu-u& ali&a% e di -u!u" # me%)a&i um"e& da+a mi%e&al #
me%do-ume%!ai-a% e*auh ma%a !um$aha% mi%+a- # da% $ela)a-a% $e%i$ia%
o:o% !&a!o1e& . Da$a!-ah A%da memi-i&-a% lagi 6
; . Geologi Se"elum Lem$e%g Te-!o%i-
Selama !ahu% 1<((/a% # o&a%g/o&a%g me%+u-ai gagaa% "ah.a "umi # a.al%+a
maa )ai& # !elah $e%di%gi%a% da% -o%!&a-!o& elama "e&a"ad/a"ad . Pa&a ilmu.a%
"e&$e%da$a! "ah.a gu%u%g "e&-ia& $e%uh de%ga% "a!u dili$a! adalah e-$&ei
da&i -o%!&a-i da% $e%+uu!a% da&i i%!e&io& "umi 2*i-a -e&a- !ida- -o%!&a- e"a%+a-
i%!e&io& # i!u a-a% meli$a! da% me&ema%+a e$e&!i -uli! -e&i$u! da&i $&u%e -e&i%g 3
Ko%!&a-i . !ida- mu%)ul u%!u- me%*ela-a% "e"e&a$a ,!u& da&i $e&mu-aa% "umi #
!e!a$i !ida- "ia me%*ela-a% "e%!u- da% $oii "e%ua . I!u *uga !ida- me%*ela-a%
,!u& e$e&!i lem"ah )elah "ea& # *ela die"a"-a% oleh $e&ega%ga% "u-a% oleh
-o%!&a-i .
Pada a.al a"ad -edua $uluh # $a&a ilmu.a% me%emu-a% "ah.a i%!e&io& "umi
di$a%a-a% oleh $elu&uha% u%u&/u%u& &adioa-!i1 +a%g !e&*adi e)a&a alamiah . =al
i%i me%u%*u--a% "ah.a Bumi !ida- mu%g-i% $e%di%gi%a% melai%-a% mema%a # da%
-a&e%a i!u "e&-em"a%g. Se"uah "umi +a%g le"ih -e)il mu%g-i% e-ali !elah di!u!u$i
e"agia% oleh "e%ua . Se$e&!i di$e&lua "umi # "e%ua/"e%ua a-a% &e!a- me%*adi
1&agme% # da% a-hi&%+a &e!a- a-a% !um"uh me%*adi lau!a% . The mem$e&lua
hi$o!ei Bumi !ida- me%*ela-a% ,! *ela a%!a&a ga&i $a%!ai A1&i-a da% Ame&i-a
Sela!a% # +a%g !e&liha! eolah/olah me&e-a !elah &o"e- !e&$iah da&i a!u ama lai% .
Ta$i ada ,!u& lai% "ah.a hi$o!ei i%i +a%g !ida- mudah me%*ela-a% # e$e&!i dili$a!
gu%u%g &e%!a%g di"e%!u- oleh -om$&ei .
U%!u- me%+iaa!i -e-u&a%ga% dalam e-$a%i da% -o%!&a-i =i$o!ei # ahli geologi
mulai me%)a&i )a&a lai% u%!u- me%*ela-a% "e%!u- da% $oii "e%ua # lau!a% # da%
&a%!ai $egu%u%ga% . Pada $e&!e%gaha% a"ad i%i # emua uula% +a%g mau- a-al
!am$a-%+a !elah ha"i # .a-!u%+a udah !i"a u%!u- $e%de-a!a% +a%g ama e-ali
"a&u . Pe%de-a!a% i%i !e&%+a!a me%*adi lem$e%g !e-!o%i- /// !eo&i "ah.a "e%ua/
"e%ua +a%g !e&"a.a $ada lem$e%ga% "ea& # a!au $i&i%g # la$ia% !e&lua& "umi . Di
"e"e&a$a !em$a! lem$e%g e)a&a $e&laha% "e&!a"&a-a% # mem"e%!u- ,!u& -om$&ei
e$e&!i $egu%u%ga% "ea& . Di !em$a! lai% $i&i%g +a%g "e&ge&a- !e&$iah #
mem"e%!u- ,!u& e>$la%io%al e$e&!i lem"ah )elah "ea& . Teo&i lem$e%g !e-!o%i-
+a%g diedia-a% # u%!u- $e&!ama -ali%+a # -ohe&e% # $e%*elaa% !e&$adu u%!u-
emua ,!u& da&i $e&mu-aa% "umi .
A$a +a%g alah de%ga% 9 !e&!ula& Ea&!h 9 hi$o!ei 6
5a.a"a% : i!u !ida- )u-u$ me%*ela-a% "e%!u- da% $oii "e%ua # *uga !ida-
me%*ela-a% ,!u& e$e&!i lem"ah )elah "ea&# +a%g !am$a-%+a !elah die"a"-a%
oleh $e&ega%ga% .
A$a +a%g alah de%ga% 9 mem$e&lua Ea&!h 9 hi$o!ei 6
5a.a"a% : i!u !ida- )u-u$ me%*ela-a% ,!u& e$e&!i $egu%u%ga% dili$a! di"e%!u-
oleh -om$&ei .
? . 4o%!i%e%!al D&i1! Da% The S!o&+ O1 @ege%e&
Ba" i%i "e&)e&i!a !e%!a%g "agaima%a !eo&i lem$e%g !e-!o%i- digaga da%
di-em"a%g-a% da% a-hi&%+a da!a%g u%!u- da$a! di!e&ima . Bagia% mode&% da&i
)e&i!a dimulai $ada a.al 17((/a% de%ga% eo&a%g ahli me!eo&ologi 5e&ma% "e&%ama
Al1&ed @ege%e& # +a%g memili-i "e"e&a$a ide -o%!&o0e&ial !e%!a%g "e%!u- da%
$oii da&i "e%ua +he .
Pada !ahu% 171( # @ge%e& mulai me%ga*a& da% me%uli -a&+a ilmiah a"aou!
$e&gee&a% "e%ua . Pe&gee&a% "e%ua hi$o!ei i!u me%+a&a%-a% "ah.a "e%ua
!ida- elalu "e&ada di lo-ai me&e-a aa! i%i melai%-a% !elah 9 mela+a%g 9 da%
"e&u"ah $oii . Ide @ege%e& adalah "ah.a "e%ua dulu $e&%ah "e&ga"u%g "e&ama
dalam a!u 9 u$e&"e%ua 9 # +a%g ia e"u! Pa%gaea 2 diu)a$-a% 9 $a% / 5EE / ah 9 3 #
da&i -a!a Au%a%i +a%g "e&a&!i 9 emua !a%ah 9 . Dia me%+a&a%-a% "ah.a
Pa%gaeahad !e&$e)ah me%*adi 1&agme% e$e&!i $o!o%ga%/$o!o%ga% e
me%gam"a%g di -olam da% "ah.a 1&agme% "e%ua !elah $e&laha%/laha% mela+a%g
-e lo-ai me&e-a aa! i%i .
@ege%e& dia*i-a% "a%+a- "u-!i +a%g me%du-u%g hi$o!ei )o%!i%e%!al d&i1! .
Namu% demi-ia% # $&o$oal me%)i$!a-a% "adai $&o!e dalam -omu%i!a ilmiah
i%!e&%aio%al . Se"agia% da&i maalah adalah "ah.a ahli geologi ha%+a !ida- "ia
mem"a+a%g-a% "agaima%a "e%ua "ia "e&ge&a- di e-i!a& . Bagia% lai% da&i
maalah adalah "ah.a ahli geologi ha&u di+a-i%-a% "ah.a "u-!i "ah.a "e%ua
dulu $e&%ah "e&ga"u%g "e%a&/"e%a& me+a-i%-a% . Ma&i -i!a liha! "e"e&a$a "u-!i
u%!u- $e&gee&a% "e%ua # ehi%gga A%da "ia me%ilai e%di&i . Pe&ha!i-a% "ah.a
!ida- ada e)uil "u-!i -o%-lui1 e%di&i . Bu!uh .a-!u "e"e&a$a de-ade da% "e&a!
da&i emua "u-!i i%i 2 da% le"ih 3 u%!u- a-hi&%+a me+a-i%-a% ahli geologi "ah.a
$e&gee&a% "e%ua +a%g "e%a&/"e%a& !e&*adi .
A$a %ama 9 u$e&"e%ua 9 +a%g diuul-a% oleh Al1&ed @ege%e& 6
5a.a"a% : Pa%gaea
B . Bu-!i Da&i Ga&i Pa%!ai
Liha!lah $e!a du%ia . Ga&i $a%!ai A!la%!i- A1&i-a da% Ame&i-a Sela!a% !am$a-%+a
)o)o- # ham$i& e$e&!i $o!o%ga% $u::le . Pa%!ai ela!a% Au!&alia mi&i$ $ada "agia%
da&i $a%!ai A%!a&!i-a # da% *uga "e"e&a$a ga&i $a%!ai "e%ua lai%%+a . A$a-ah
-e)o)o- i%i e"uah -e)ela-aa% # a!au a-a% me%du-u%g hi$o!ei "ah.a "e%ua/
"e%ua $e&%ah "e&ga"u%g "e&ama/ama 6
U%!u- me%*a.a" $e&!a%+aa% a$a-ah "e%ua dulu%+a "e&ga"u%g # $e&!ama/!ama -i!a
ha&u me%+ada&i "ah.a !e$i da&a!a% +ai!u# ga&i $a%!ai umum%+a "u-a% !e$i "e%ua
e"e%a&%+a . U%!u- me%emu-a% !e$i "e%ua e"e%a&%+a # -i!a $e&lu me%)a&i !em$a!
di ma%a "a!u/"a!u da&i "e%ua /// e"agia% "ea& !e&di&i da&i g&a%i! /// meme%uhi
"a!ua% daa& lau! /// e"agia% "ea& !e&"ua! da&i "aal! . 2 A%da a-a% mem$ela*a&i
le"ih la%*u! !e%!a%g dua !i$e i%i dalam "a" B 3 .
Se$a%*a%g ga&i $a%!ai +a%g !ida- !e&*al # e$e&!i di A!la%!i- $eii& Ame&i-a U!a&a#
Ame&i-a Sela!a% # da% A1&i-a # umum%+a da&a!a% a%ga! la%dai -e a&ah lau!
2 gam"a& 1.1 3 . Ta%ah la%dai i%i die"u! la%da -o%!i%e% . Di !e$i la%da -o%!i%e%
ada $e%u&u%a% +a%g !a*am me%ga&ah -e le&e%g -o%!i%e%!al . Pada "agia% "a.ah
da&i le&e%g "e%ua )u&am # !a%ah mulai me%da!a& lagi # i%i adalah Continental rise #
+a%g me%a%dai !&a%ii -e daa& lau! # abyssal plain . Tem$a! e"e%a&%+a di ma%a
"a!u/"a!u g&a%i! da&i "e%ua meme%uhi "a!ua% "aal!i- da&i daa& lau! "iaa%+a
!e&!u!u$ oleh $ai& # lum$u& # da% $a&!i-el "a!ua% le$a lai%%+a . Be%!u- e"e%a&%+a
da&i ga&i $a%!ai !e&ga%!u%g $ada $e&mu-aa% lau! # ada a!au !ida- ada%+a !e"i%g #
da% &i%)ia% !o$og&a, la%da -o%!i%e% dalam lo-ali!a !e&!e%!u . De%ga% demi-ia% #
!&a%ii e"e%a&%+a da&i "e%ua -e lau! mu%g-i% 2 a!au !ida- mu%g-i%3 me%*adi di
"a.ah ai& .
5adi # "agaima%a -i!a me%gide%!i,-ai !e$i "e%ua e"e%a&%+a 6 Biaa%+a !e$i "e%ua
dide,%ii-a% e"agai e!e%gah me%u&u%i le&e%g "e%ua )u&am . Ke!i-a -i!a me%)o"a
u%!u- euai de%ga% "e%ua "e&ama/ama # -i!a me%+euai-a%%+a e$a%*a%g ga&i
i%i !e&hada$ ga&i $a%!ai e-a&a%g. Ke!i-a -i!a me%+euai-a% A1&i-a da% Ame&i-a
Sela!a% "e&ama/ama de%ga% )a&a i%i # hail%+a lua& "iaa 2gam"a& 1.' 3 . dalam
9"e! / ,! 9 $oii # -ee%*a%ga% &a!a/&a!a a!au !um$a%g !i%dih a%!a&a dua "e%ua
ha%+a 7( -ilome!e& 2 -m 3 2e-i!a& B8 -ilome!e& C mil D 3 . 2 Pe&ha!i-a% "ah.a 1
-ilome!e& E (#8' milF liha! Lam$i&a% 1 u%!u- le"ih la%*u! !e%!a%g u%i! # -o%0e&i #
da% i%g-a!a% 3 .
Gam"a& 1.1
Gam"a& 1.'
Selai% i!u # dae&ah !um$a%g !i%dih $ali%g ig%i,-a% !e&di&i da&i "a!ua% +a%g
!e&"e%!u- e!elah .a-!u -e!i-a "e%ua di$e&-i&a-a% !elah !e&$e)ah . =al i%i a%ga!
me%u%*u--a% "ah.a A1&i-a da% Ame&i-a Sela!a% +a%g $e&%ah "e&ga"u%g .
La"el -e!a da% de%ga% &a$i e"uah diag&am +a%g me%u%*u--a% !&a%ii da&i
"e%ua -e lau! . Tu%*u--a% "agaima%a -emi&i%ga% $e&u"aha% laha% # da% la"el
emua ,!u& !o$og&a, . Pada diag&am A%da # me%u%*u--a% 9 "e%a&9 !e$i "e%ua .
5a.a"a% : Liha! gam"a& 1.1 .
8 . Bu-!i Da&i Ro)-
5i-a A1&i-a da% Ame&i-a Sela!a% +a%g $e&%ah "e&ga"u%g # o&a%g a-a% "e&ha&a$
u%!u- me%emu-a% ,!u& geologi +a%g ama di -edua ii "e&ga"u%g . Ko&elai
!e&e"u! mem"e&i-a% "e"e&a$a "u-!i +a%g $ali%g me%a&i- dia*i-a% oleh @ege%e&
dalam me%du-u%g $e&gee&a% "e%ua hi$o!ei . Namu%# $e%)o)o-a% geologi
"a!ua% di ii "e&la.a%a% da&i lau!a% le"ih uli! da&i$ada +a%g A%da "a+a%g-a% .
P&oe "a!u /// mem"e%!u- $e&%ah "e&he%!i . Be"e&a$a "a!ua% +a%g !e&"e%!u-
e"elum "e%ua "e&ga"u%g # "e"e&a$a aa! me&e-a "e&ga"u%g # +a%g lai% elama
$emiaha% "e%ua # da% maih o&a%g lai% e!elah me&e-a "e&$iah . Bagaima%a -i!a
"ia mem"eda-a% ma%a "a!ua% +a%g ig%i,-a% dalam me%)o"a u%!u- me%emu-a%
-e)o)o-a% a%!a&a "e%ua 6
Se"uah !i!i- a.al +a%g logi adalah u%!u- meliha! a$a-ah uia da% o&ie%!ai da&i
*e%i "a!ua% +a%g ama )o)o- di e"e&a%g lau!a% . Dalam .a-!u @ege%e& # ahli
geologi !ida- memili-i ala! )a%ggih u%!u- me%e%!u-a% uia +a%g !e$a! da&i "a!u .
Ta$i e-a&a%g -i!a memili-i ala! !e&e"u! # da% -i!a !ahu "ah.a ada -eamaa% +a%g
-ua! dalam uia "a!ua% di elu&uh lau!a% . Ma)!h i%i a%ga! "ai- a%!a&a "a!ua%
"e&umu& e-i!a& BB( *u!a !ahu% da% le"ih !ua di !imu& lau! B&a:il da% A1&i-a Ba&a! #
!e!a$i !ida- ada ma)!h "ai- u%!u- "a!ua% +a%g le"ih muda . =al i%i me%u%*u--a%
"ah.a dua "e%ua "e&ga"u%g "e&ama/ama u%!u- "e"e&a$a $e&iode .a-!u
e"elum BB( *u!a !ahu% +a%g lalu # da% me&e-a -emudia% !e&$e)ah .
Ki!a *uga da$a! meliha! -o%!i%ui!a ,!u& geologi e$e&!i &a%!ai $egu%u%ga% . 5i-a -i!a
"e&ga"u%g "e%ua -a&e%a me&e-a a-a% "e&ada di u$e&"e%ua Pa%gaea # a"u-
gu%u%g uia +a%g ama !am$a-%+a "e&"a&i . Mial%+a# "agia% !e&!ua da&i
Pegu%u%ga% A$$ala)hia% # mem"e%!a%g da&i "agia% !imu& lau! Ame&i-a Se&i-a!
!&ough! Ka%ada !imu& # )o)o- de%ga% 4eledo%ide I&la%dia # I%gg&i # G&ee%la%d #
da% S-a%di%a0ia . Se"agia% muda da&i ga&i A$$ala)hia% de%ga% a"u- gu%u%g uia
+a%g ama di A1&i-a da% E&o$a . I%i da% ,!u& "a!ua% daa& lai% +a%g )o)o- di lau!a%
adalah "u-!i -ua! "ah.a "e%ua/"e%ua $e&%ah "e&ga"u%g "e&ama/ama .
Gi!u& lai% geologi +a%g )o)o- di "e%ua "e&ga"u%g adalah de$oi!o +a%g di!i%ggal-a%
oleh la$ia% e -u%o . I%i mi&i$ de%ga% de$oi!o +a%g di!i%ggal-a% oleh gle!e&
!e&"a&u di Ka%ada # S-a%di%a0ia # da% Ame&i-a Se&i-a! "agia% u!a&a .
Gam"a& 1.;
Di Ame&i-a Sela!a% da% A1&i-a ada de$oi!o glaial +a%g a%ga! !e"al . De$oi!o
adalah uia +a%g ama # da% me&e-a )o)o- ham$i& $e&i -e!i-a "e%ua 9 $i%dah
-em"ali "e&ama/ama 9 . Se"agai glaial e "e&ge&a- # memo!o%g alu& da% go&ea%
dalam "a!ua% +a%g me%daa&i da% me%ghail-a% li$a!a% da% -e&u!a% di edime%
lu%a- . Gi!u& !e&e"u! # mem"e&i-a% "u-!i a&ah e i!u "e&ge&a- elama glaiai .
Ke!i-a A1&i-a da% Ame&i-a Sela!a% di$i%dah-a% -em"ali "e&ama/ama # alu& da%
go&ea% me%u%*u--a% "ah.a e i!u mema%)a& -elua& da&i $ua! ma%!a% la$ia% e
2gam"a& 1.; 3 . Suli! u%!u- mem"a+a%g-a% "agaima%a ,!u& glaial +a%g ama
e$e&!i i!u "ia di)i$!a-a% *i-a "e%ua i!u !ida- e-ali !elah "e&ga"u%g "e&ama/ama
. A1&i-a da% Ame&i-a Sela!a% *uga ha&u memili-i i-lim +a%g ama elama $e&iode i%i
# le"ih di%gi% da&i$ada e-a&a%g /// ha&i i-lim me&e-a . =al i%i me%u%*u--a% "ah.a
me&e-a !ida- "e&ada di lo-ai me&e-a aa! i%i -ha!uli!i.a . Bah-a% # "agia% ela!a%
Pa%gaea -emu%g-i%a% +a%g $ali%g de-a! de%ga% a$a +a%g -emudia% -u!u"
ela!a% .
Bagaima%a uia "a!ua% da$a! mem"e&i-a% "u-!i "ah.a dua "e%ua /// e-a&a%g
!e&$iah a!u ama lai% oleh lau!a% /// dulu%+a "e&ga"u%g 6
5a.a"a% : *i-a "e%ua $e&%ah "e&ga"u%g # -i!a a-a% "e&ha&a$ u%!u- me%emu-a%
"a!u da&i *e%i da% uia +a%g ama di -edua ii lau! . Ada -eamaa% +a%g -ua!
dalam "a!ua% "e&uia e-i!a& BB( *u!a !ahu% da% le"ih !ua di !imu& lau! B&a:il da%
A1&i-a Ba&a! . =al i%i me%u%*u--a% "ah.a dua "e%ua "e&ga"u%g "e&ama/ama
u%!u- "e"e&a$a $e&iode .a-!u e"elum BB( *u!a !ahu% +a%g lalu .
H . Bu-!i Da&i Goil
5i-a A1&i-a da% Ame&i-a Sela!a% "e&ga"u%g $ada a!u .a-!u # de%ga% i-lim +a%g
ama da% ,!u& geologi +a%g )o)o- # ma-a me&e-a *uga ha&u memili-i ho! $al%!
ama da% he.a% . U%!u- meme&i-a i%i # @ege%e& "e&alih -e )a!a!a% 1oil . =al i%i
me%u%*u--a% "ah.a ada -omu%i!a !um"uha% da% he.a% +a%g !am$a-%+a !elah
"e&e0olui "e&ama/ama am$ai aa! mem"elah !e&$iah da&i Pa%gaea # e!elah i!u
me&e-a "e&e0olui e)a&a !e&$iah .
@ege%e& me%u%*u- 1oil $ei,- di!emu-a% di dae&ah +a%g )o)o- di lau!a% . Salah
a!u )o%!oh +a%g digu%a-a% adalah $a-i -u%o # Gloo$!e&i # +a%g ia/ia 1oil
!elah di!emu-a% di "agia% ela!a% A1&i-a # Ame&i-a Sela!a% # Au!&alia # I%dia # da%
A%!a&!i-a . Mu%g-i%-ah "i"i! !a%ama% i%i me%dalami me!e&i di"a.a da&i a!u lo-ai
-e lo-ai lai% di elu&uh lau!a% 6 Mu%g-i% !ida- . Be%ih/"e%ih Gloo$!e&i +a%g
"ea& da% "e&a! # da% !ida- "ia dila-u-a% a%ga! *auh oleh a%gi% a!au ai& a&u .
Pa-i i%i "e&-em"a%g di i-lim di%gi% # i!u !ida- a-a% "e&-em"a%g di maa e-a&a%g
ha%ga! /// ha&i i-lim "e%ua di ma%a ia/ia 1oil +a%g di!emu-a% . I%i *uga
me%u%*u--a% "ah.a "e%ua/"e%ua $e&%ah memili-i e&u$a# i-lim di%gi% .
Ada "a%+a- )o%!oh lai% e"agai .eel . Sia/ia 1oil Meoou&u # &e$!il -e)il #
di!emu-a% "ai- di B&ail ela!a% da% di A1&i-a Sela!a% . 5e%i/*e%i "a!u di ma%a 1oil
di!emu-a% a%ga! mi&i$ . Meoau&u mela-u-a% "e&e%a%g # !a$i mu%g-i% !e&lalu
-e)il u%!u- "e&e%a%g e$a%*a%g *ala% di e"e&a%g lau!a% . Sia/ia 1oil *e%i
!e&!e%!u )a)i%g !a%ah *uga !e&*adi di dae&ah/dae&ah +a%g aa! i%i udah "a%+a-
di$iah-a% . Bagaima%a mu%g-i% me&e-a !elah "e&mig&ai meli%!ai lau!a% 6 The
da&a!a% di ma%a me&e-a hidu$ ha&u a!u !elah !e&hu"u%g .
Bagaima%a @ege%e& me%ggu%a-a% Gloo$!e&i u%!u- me%du-u%g hi$o!ei
$e&gee&a% "e%ua 6
5a.a"a% : Goil o1Gloo$!e&i # e"uah $a-i -u%o # !elah di!emu-a% e"uah "a!u
+a%g ama di ela!a% A1&i-a# Ame&i-a Sela!a% # Au!&alia # I%dia # da% A%!a&!i-a ///
lo-ai +a%g aa! i%i udah "a%+a- di$iah-a% oleh lau!a% . Bi*i%+a +a%g "ea& da%
"e&a! da% !ida- "ia !elah dia%g-u! a%ga! *auh oleh a%gi% a!au ai& . =al i%i
me%u%*u--a% "ah.a dae&ah/dae&ah di ma%a 1oil Gloo$!e&i e-a&a%g di!emu-a%
ha&u e-ali !elah "e&ga"u%g "e&ama/ama .
< . The Mii%g 4lue : Paleomag%e!im
@ege%e& da% $e%du-u%g%+a me%gum$ul-a% le"ih "a%+a- "u-!i u%!u- me%du-u%g
$e&gee&a% "e%ua # !e!a$i "a%+a- ilmu.a% !e!a$ !ida- +a-i% . @ege%e& me%i%ggal
$ada !ahu% 17;( !a%$a meliha! a-hi& da&i $e&de"a!a% # +a%g dila%*u!-a% e!elah
-ema!ia%%+a . Ti!i- "ali- !e&*adi $ada 17B(/a% $alu%g !udi $aleomag%e!im #
mag%e! -u%o dia.e!-a% dalam "a!ua% . Ke!i-a la0a me%di%gi% da% mem"e-u
me%*adi "a!u # me%*adi mag%e! da% me%gam"il da% $ola&i!a /// u!a&a /// ela!a%
di&e)!io%al /// i!+ /// da&i meda% mag%e! "umi $ada .a-!u i!u . Sama e$e&!i "e"a /
"e&a+u% mag%e! ha&i i%i a-a% me%ga&ah -e -u!u" u!a&a mag%e! aa! i%i # demi-ia%
*uga # mela-u-a% &o)- $aleomag%e!im "e&!i%da- e"agai $oi%!e& -e lo-ai
mag%e!i- -u!u" u!a&a "umi $ada aa! 1o&mai "a!ua% .
Pada !ahu% 17B( # ahli geologi mem$ela*a&i $aleomag%e!im "a!ua% da&i lo-ai
+a%g "e&"eda me%emu-a% "u-!i +a%g me%u%*u--a% "ah.a -u!u" mag%e! "umi
!elah "e&*ala% di elu&uh du%ia u%!u- e!ida-%+a "e"e&a$a &a!u *u!a !ahu%
!e&a-hi& . Di$lo! *alu& -u!u" $ada $e!a# da% die"u! 1e%ome%a e$e&!i %am$a-
"e&-elia&a% -u!u" 2gam"a& 1.? 3 . Ahli geologi !elah "i%gu%g oleh "u-!i i%i . Me&e-a
!ahu "ah.a i!u a%ga! !ida- mu%g-i% "ah.a -u!u" mag%e! e%di&i !elah $i%dah .
Se"ali-%+a me&e-a me%+im$ul-a% # aga- e%gga% # i!u $a!i "e%ua e%di&i +a%g
!elah $i%dah # mem"a.a "a!u mag%e! me&e-a de%ga% me&e-a .
A$a $ola&i!a 6
5a.a"a%: u!a&a / ela!a% dia&ah-a% $ada meda% mag%e! "umi .
Gam"a& 1.?
7 . Pe%+e"a&a% daa& lau!
Bu-!i "a&u da&i $aleomag%e!im mem"a%!u me%ghidu$-a% -em"ali hi$o!ei
$e&gee&a% "e%ua . Namu% "a%+a- ilmu.a% +a%g maih "e&!aha% u%!u- "agia%
a-hi& da&i "u-!i +a%g a-a% me%u%*u--a% e)a&a me+a-i%-a% "ah.a u$e&-o%!i%e%
+a%g !elah "e%a&/"e%a& !e&$e)ah da% lau!a% me%gali& -e dalam )elah $ele"a&a% .
Me&e-a me%)o"a u%!u- mem"a+a%g-a% ua!u me-a%ime dima%a daa& lau! "e%a&/
"e%a& "ia !e&"elah . Bu-!i i%i a-hi&%+a mu%)ul # !e!a$i !ida- am$ai me&e-a a.al
!ahu% 178(/a% /// !iga de-ade e!elah -ema!ia% @ege%e& .
Ahli -elau!a% me%gu-u& i1a! $aleomag%e!i) "a!ua% da&i Samude&a A!la%!i- La%!ai
!ida- !e&-e*u! me%emu-a% e&a%g-aia% me%gula%gi "a!u de%ga% "ola- $ola&i!a
mag%e!i- : a!u ga&i "a!ua% de%ga% $ola&i!a +a%g ama 2 -u!u" u!a&a mag%e!
+a%g ama 3 e"agai meda% mag%e! aa! i%i "umi # da% !&i$e "e&i-u!%+a de%ga%
$ola&i!a +a%g "e&la.a%a% 2 u!a&a da% ela!a% -u!u" mag%e! !e&"ali- 3 . Pa&a
ilmu.a% me%+e"u!%+a $ola&i!a mag%e!i- %o&mal da% !e&"ali- . S!&i$e The &a!ua%
-ilome!e& $a%*a%g # da% me&e-a "e%a&/"e%a& ime!&i $ada -edua ii $egu%u%ga%
daa& lau! +a%g "e&*ala% di !e%gah Samud&a A!la%!i- . De%ga% -a!a lai%# *i-a A%da
"ia meli$a! daa& lau! dalam e!e%gah e$a%*a%g $u%ggu%ga% Mido)ea% # $ola
"e&ga%!ia% ga&i $aleomag%e!i) di -edua ii a-a% ama $e&i .
A$a mu%g-i% i%i "ia "e&a&!i 6 Pada a.al%+a# $a&a ilmu.a% !elah "i%gu%g oleh $ola/
$ola ime!&i da&i ga&i/ga&i mag%e!i- dalam "a!ua% daa& lau! . Kemudia% dua
-elom$o- ahli geologi # "e-e&*a e)a&a i%de$e%de% # da!a%g de%ga% $e%*elaa%
+a%g ama . Me&e-a me%guul-a% aga& daa& lau! !elah !e&"elah e$a%*a%g Rigde
Mido)ea% da% "ah.a "a!u/"a!u di -edua ii +a%g "e&ge&a- me%*auh da&i Rigde
!e&e"u! 2gam"a& 1.B 3 . e$e&!i "a!u/"a!u !e&e"a& !e&$iah # la0a da&i "a.ah
me%gge%a%g -e dalam )elah # mem$e&-ua! me%*adi "a!ua% 0ul-a%i- "a&u di daa&
lau! . Ke!i-a la0a di$ada!-a% # "u!uh $ada $ola&i!a mag%e!i- Bumi $ada aa! i!u .
Sei&i%g .a-!u # daa& lau! me%+e"a& "e&!i%da- e$e&!i "a% "e&*ala% # mem"a.a "a!u
"a&u mag%e! *auh da&i ga&i !e%gah da&i $u%ggu%ga% "ai- de&e)!io% . P&oe i%i
-emudia% di-e%al e"agai daa& lau! me%+e"a& . Pe%emua% daa& lau! me%+e"a&
mu%g-i% adalah "agia% +a%g $ali%g -ua! !u%ggal "u-!i u%!u- me%du-u%g hi$o!ei
$e&gee&a% "e%ua .
Ahli geologi !elah me%u%*u--a% "ah.a uia "a!ua% daa& lau! me%i%g-a! de%ga%
*a&a- da&i $u%ggu%ga% Mido)ea% . Ba!ua% !e&muda +a%g !e&le!a- di e$a%*a%g ga&i
!e%gah $u%ggu%g "u-i! # di ma%a la0a "a&u %ai- melalui )elah -e daa& lau! .
Sema-i% *auh "a!u !elah $i%dah da&i $u%ggu%ga% # +a%g le"ih !ua me&e-a . Se!ia$
e!e%gah *u!a !ahu% a!au le"ih # u%!u- &eo% +a%g !ida- e$e%uh%+a di$ahami #
meda% mag%e! "umi "e&"ali- e%di&i u!a&a me%*adi ela!a% # da% ela!a% me%*adi
u!a&a . 2 I%i di"aha le"ih la%*u! dalam Ba" ; 3 . Se"agai $em"ali-a% mag%e!i-
!e&*adi di maa lalu # $ola&i!a $e&u"aha% di)a!a! dalam "a&u !e&"e%!u- "a!u di
e$a%*a%g $u%ggu%g "u-i! Mido)ea% . =ail%+a adalah ga&i/ga&i ime!&i da&i "a!u
de%ga% "ola- $ola&i!a %o&mal# !e&"ali- # %o&mal# !e&"ali- . I%i "agia% a-hi& da&i "u-!i
me+a-i%-a% e"agia% "ea& ahli geologi daa& lau! +a%g me%+e"a& mema%g !e&*adi
da% "ah.a "e%ua/"e%ua !elah "e&gee& da&i lo-ai ali%+a .
Gam"a& 1.B
A$a $e&"edaa% a%!a&a "a!u de%ga% $ola&i!a $aleomag%e!i) %o&mal da% a!u
de%ga% $ola&i!a $aleomag%e!i) !e&"ali- 6
5a.a"a% : Se"uah "a!u de%ga% $ola&i!a %o&mal memili-i -u!u" u!a&a mag%e! di
daa&%+a o&ie%!ai +a%g ama e$e&!i ha&i i%i -u!u" u!a&a . Se"uah "a!u de%ga%
$ola&i!a !e&"ali- memili-i mag%e!i- u!a&a da% -u!u" ela!a% !e&"ali- da&i o&ie%!ai
me&e-a aa! ha&i .
1( . Lem$e%g Te-!o%i- I% A Nu!hell
Pada !ahu% 178( -e"a%+a-a% ilmu.a% !elah me%*adi +a-i% "ah.a $e&gee&a%
"e%ua !elah "e%a&/"e%a& !e&*adi . Namu%# !e!a$ u%!u- me%em$a!-a% emua i%i
"e&ama/ama me%*adi model +a%g -ohe&e% . Model i%i me%*adi !eo&i lem$e%g
!e-!o%i- . 2i%i die"u! !eo&i e-a&a%g # "u-a% hi$o!ei =i$o!ei adalah !e"a-a% # .
!eo&i didu-u%g oleh "u-!i ilmiah +a%g lua da% $e%gu*ia% 3 . Be&i-u! &i%g-aa%
i%g-a! da&i !eo&i lem$e%g !e-!o%i- .
Te&lua& # "e&"a!u "agia% da&i "umi adalah -e&a- . Se"agaima%a die"u!-a% di a!a #
ada dua *e%i -e&a- # +a%g &ela!i1 !e"al 2 -e!e"ala% &a!a/&a!a ?B -m # a!au ;( mill 3
da% e"agia% "ea& !e&"ua! da&i g&a%i! # da% -e&a- amude&a # +a%g &ela!i1 !i$i
2 -e!e"ala% &a!a/&a!a < -m # a!au e-i!a& B $a"&i- 3 da% e"agia% "ea& !e&"ua! da&i
"aal! . Di "a.ah -e&a- adalah ma%!el # *uga !e&"ua! da&i "a!u # !e!a$i "e&"eda da&i
"a!ua% -e&a- . Di $ua! "umi adalah i%!i # +a%g !e&"ua! da&i logam %i-el "ei # !ida-
&o)- . 2 A%da a-a% "ela*a& le"ih "a%+a- !e%!a%g !&u-!u& i%!e&%al "umi dalam "a" ? 3
. Toghe!e& # -e&a- da% "agia% !e&lua& da&i ma%!el mem"e%!u- li!o1e& # !i$i # di%gi% #
&a$uh # la$ia% "e&"a!u 2 e-i!a& 1(( -m # a!au 8( $a"&i- # !e"al # &a!a/&a!a 3 . Ma%!el
di "a.ah li!o1e& a%ga! $a%a # ehi%gga &ela!i1 lu%a- # e$e&!i dem$ul # me-i$u%
i!u !e&"ua! da&i "a!ua% $ada! . Bagia% da&i ma%!el la%gu%g di "a.ah li!o1e&
die"u! a!e%o1e& # i!u a%ga! lemah -a&e%a de-a! de%ga% uhu di ma%a "a!ua%
mulai me%)ai& .
5i-a A%da mela-u-a% e"uah $e&)o"aa% di ma%a A%da me%em$a!-a% # -e&e% # hell
&a$uh a%ga! !i$i 2 e$e&!i li!o1e& 3 di a!a $a%a # "aha% lemah +a%g aga- li)i%
2e$e&!i a!e%o1e& 3 # a$a +a%g a-a% !e&*adi 6 A%da mu%g-i% mem$&edi-i "ah.a
-uli! !i$i a-a% $e)ah me%*adi $o!o%ga%/$o!o%ga% . 5u!&u -eadaa% li!o1e& "umi #
melai%-a% di"agi me%*adi "a%+a- 1&agme% "ea& # a!au $i&i%g . Saa! i%i ada e%am
$i&i%g "ea& li!o1e& # mai%g/mai%g u%!u- mem$e&lua "e"e&a$a &i"u -ilome!e& #
da% e*umlah "ea& $i&i%g +a%g le"ih -e)il . Pela! "e&ada dalam -o%dii +a%g die"u!
io!a+ # +a%g "e&a&!i "ah.a me&e-a $ada daa&%+a 9 me%gam"a%g 9 $ada
a!e%o1e& +a%g lemah # e$e&!i "lo- -a+u me%ga$u%g di a!a ai& .
A%da da$a! mela-u-a% $e&)o"aa% de%ga% ge&a- lem$e%g de%ga% ha!i/ha!i
mema%a-a% lili% dalam $a%)i da% mem"ia&-a%%+a di%gi% am$ai mem"e%!u- -uli!
!i$i a!au -e&a- . 5adilah lili% )ai& ha!i a%ga! $a%a .
Pi-i&-a% lagi !e%!a%g !i$i # &a$uh 1&agme% me%gam"a%g di a!a $a%a # "aha% li)i% .
A%da mu%g-i% "e&ha&a$ "ah.a ge&a-a% dalam ma!e&i +a%g me%daa&i a-a%
me%+e"a"-a% 1&agme% &a$uh "e&gee& e-i!a& . Se-ali lagi # i!ulah a$a +a%g !e&*adi
$ada lem$e%g li!o1e& "umi . Se"agai ge&a-a% !e&*adi di dalam ma%!el $a%a# $i&i%g
hi1! da% "e&i%!e&a-i de%ga% a!u ama lai% . Ge&a-a% !e&e"u! meli"a!-a%
$e&i!i.a &umi! +a%g e)a&a -ole-!i1 di*ela-a% oleh i!ilah 9 !e-!o%i- 9 2 da&i -a!a
!e-!o% Au%a%i# +a%g "e&a&!i 9 !u-a%g -a+u 9 a!au 9 $em"a%gu% 9 3 . 9 Lem$e%g
!e-!o%i- 9 demi-ia% me%ga)u $ada !udi !e%!a%g $e&ge&a-a% da% i%!e&a-i lem$e%g
li!o1e& .
A$a li!o1e& 6
5a.a"a% :
Lua& 1(( -m 2 8( mil 3 da&i "umi# -e&a- da% "agia% a!a ma%!el # di a!a a!e%o1e& .
11 . Pi&i%g Ma&gi% Da% I%!e&a-i
Lem$e%g li!o1e& "e&i%!e&a-i de%ga% a!u ama lai% !e&u!ama di e$a%*a%g !e$i
me&e-a # a!au ma&gi% . Pela! da$a! "e&i%!e&a-i dalam !iga )a&a daa& # me&e-a
da$a! $i%dah da&i a!u ama lai% 2 me%+im$a%g 3 # me&e-a da$a! "e&ge&a- -e a&ah
a!u ama lai% 2 -o%0e&ge% 3 # a!au me&e-a da$a! melu%)u& mele.a!i a!u ama lai%
. A-i"a!%+a # ada !iga *e%i ma&gi% $la!e : di0e&ge% # -o%0e&ge% # da% me%gu"ah
ma&gi% -ealaha% .
Ma&gi% di0e&ge% adalah $a!ah !ula%g "ea& di li!o1e& di ma%a lem$e%g "e&ge&a-
!e&$iah da&i a!u ama lai% 2gam"a& 1.8A 3 . Ke!i-a -e&a- amude&a mem"agi
!e&$iah # daa& lau! $e%+e"a&a% !e&*adi da% $u%ggu%g Mido)ea% !e&"e%!u- # e$e&!i
+a%g ada di !e%gah/!e%gah Samude&a A!la%!i- . Ke!i-a -e&a- "e%ua mem"agi
!e&$iah # "ea& "e%!u- -e&e!a-a% lem"ah # e$e&!i di A1&i-a Timu& dima%a Lem$e%g
A1&i-a eda%g me&ega%g da% !e&)a"i-/)a"i- . A-hi&%+a # amud&a "a&u "ia
!e&"e%!u- di "e%ua $ele"a&a% )elah lem"ah # )o%!oh mode&% i%i adalah Lau! Me&ah .
Dalam -edua "e%ua da% amud&a # ma&gi% +a%g "e&"eda di!a%dai oleh gem$a "umi
2 +a%g die"a"-a% oleh $eme)aha% da% &e!a- "a!u 3 da% gu%u%g "e&a$i 2 +a%g
die"a"-a% oleh "a!u meleleh da&i ma%!el me%gali& -e $a!ah !ula%g 3 .
Ma&gi% -o%0e&ge% !e&*adi di ma%a dua lem$e%g "e&ge&a- -e a&ah a!u ama lai% .
Ada !iga *e%i daa& ma&gi% -o%0e&ge% : o)ea% / amud&a# amud&a / "e%ua # da%
"e%ua / "e%ua . O)e%i) -e&a- !e&"ua! da&i "aal! # +a%g le"ih $ada! 2 hea0 / ie& 3 da&i
"a!ua% g&a%i! +a%g mem"e%!u- -e&a- "e%ua . Se!ia$ -ali -e&a- amude&a !e&li"a!
ma&gi% -o%0e&ge% # $ada! !e%ggelam -e&a- amude&a di "a.ah lem$e%g lai%%+a
2gam"a& 1.8" 3 . P&oe i%i die"u! u"du-i # da% !em$a!/!em$a! i!u !e&*adi die"u!
:o%a u"du-i . Io%a u"du-i +a%g me&-ed oleh $alu%g amude&a +a%g dalam da%
*alu& gu%u%g "e&a$i # e$e&!i di I%do%eia 2 :o%a u"du-i lau! / lau! 3 a!au A%de
2 :o%a u"du-i lau! / "e%ua 3 .
Ke!i-a a!u "e%ua meme%uhi "e%ua lai% de%ga% ma&gi% -o%0e&ge% # !ida- ada -e&a-
amude&a +a%g !e&edia u%!u- mem"e%!u- :o%a u"du-i . Se"ali-%+a # "e%ua
"e&!a"&a-a% da% me&ema # mem"e%!u- "ea& # $egu%u%ga% !e&a%g-a! e$e&!i
=imala+a # i%i adalah :o%a !um"u-a% 2gam"a& 1.8) 3 . :o%a !a"&a-a% da% :o%a
u"du-i memili-i "a%+a- a-!i0i!a gem$a "umi # +a%g die"a"-a% oleh "a!u
"e&!a"&a-a% da% g&i%di%g mele.a!i a!u ama lai% .
T&a%1o&m ma&gi% -ealaha% adalah $a!ah !ula%g "ea& di ma%a dua lem$e%g
li!o1e& melu%)u& mele.a!i a!u ama lai% # g&i%di%g e$a%*a%g !e$i da%
me%+e"a"-a% gem$a "umi aa! me&e-a $e&gi 2gam"a& 1.8D 3 . 4o%!oh mode&%
+a%g !e&-e%al adalah Sa% A%d&ea Gaul! di 4ali1o&%ia # di ma%a lem$e%g Pai,- +a%g
"e&ge&a- -e u!a&a / "a&a! lau! &ela!i1 !e&hada$ Lem$e%g Ame&i-a U!a&a .
Semua *e%i i%!e&a-i lem$e%g +a%g !e&*adi aa! i%i # -a&e%a me&e-a !elah !e&*adi
!&ough!ou! e"agia% "ea& e*a&ah "umi . Kami !ida- e&i%g mem$e&ha!i-a% ge&a-
lem$e%g -a&e%a lem$e%g li!o1e& "e&ge&a- a%ga! lam"a! "iaa%+a a%!a&a 1 da% 1(
e%!ime!e& $e& !ahu% . Ta$i -i!a e&i%g me&aa-a% gem$a "umi da% me%gama!i
a-!i0i!a 0ul-a%i- +a%g !e&*adi e$a%*a%g ma&gi% lem$e%g a-!i1 . Be-a lu-a da%
ia/ia i%!e&a-i lem$e%g -u%o *uga dia.e!-a% dalam )a!a!a% &o)- "agi -i!a u%!u-
"ela*a& .
A$a $e&"edaa% a%!a&a :o%a !um"u-a% da% :o%a u"du-i 6
5a.a"a% :
Se"uah :o%a !um"u-a% !e&*adi di ma%a dua "e%ua "e&!emu . Se"uah :o%a u"du-i
!e&*adi di e$a%*a%g lau! / "e%ua a!au amude&a / amude&a ma&gi% -o%0e&ge% .
1' . Ko%0e-i : A%g-a!a% Me%gemudi
Teo&i lem$e%g !e-!o%i- !elah di!e&ima oleh ham$i& emua ahli geologi # !e!a$i
"e"e&a$a $e&!a%+aa% !e!a$ . A$a +a%g me%+e"a"-a% ge&a- lem$e%g 6 Bagaima%a
ma%!el "e&i%!e&a-i de%ga% -e&a- 6 A$a +a%g mem"ua! u"du-i !e&*adi 6 Pa&a
ilmu.a% memili-i $emahama% daa& da&i $&oe i%i # %amu% &i%)ia% "elum
e$e%uh%+a "e&hail. Ki!a !ahu "ah.a ge&a-a% !e&mal dalam ma%!el e!ida-%+a
e"agia% "e&!a%ggu%g *a.a" u%!u- $e&ge&a-a% lem$e%g li!o1e& . Ki!a *uga !ahu
"ah.a ge&a-a% dalam ma%!el die"a"-a% oleh $ele$aa% $a%a da&i dalam "umi .
Ma&i -i!a meme&i-a $&oe $ele$aa% $a%a "umi da% mem$e&!im"a%g-a%
"agaima%a me&e-a me%+e"a"-a% ge&a- lem$e%g .
Suhu di dalam "umi !i%ggi e-i!a& B(((
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4el)iu 2 4 3 2 le"ih da&i 7(((
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Gah&e%hei!
C G D3 di i%!i . Se"agia% da&i $a%a i%i +a%g !e&ia da&i a.al "umi # %amu% "e"e&a$a
di a%!a&a%+a !e&u/me%e&u dihail-a% oleh $elu&uha% &adioa-!i1 . u%u& dalam "umi
$a%a i%i ha&u di"e"a-a% # *i-a i!u !ida- # Bumi a-hi&%+a a-a% me%*adi "egi!u
$a%a "ah.a elu&uh i%!e&io& a-a% meleleh .
5a.a"a% :
Sel1 Te!
1 .
a . me%i%g-a!-a%
" . me%gu&a%gi
) . !e!a$ ama
d .
' .
a .
" .
) . "e&"eda
d .
; .
a . "e%ua
" . -e&a- amude&a
) .
d .
? .
B .
8 .
H .
< .
7 .
1( .
11 .
1' .
1; .
*a.a"a% :
1 . e"uah
' . d
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B .
8 . G
H . G
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7 . Tida- Te$i e"e%a&%+a da&i "e%ua ma%a -e&a- "e%ua "e&!emu -e&a- amude&a #
!a$i i%i "iaa%+a !e&!u!u$ oleh lum$u& 2 da% -ada%g/-ada%g de%ga% ai& 3 . Kami
me%de,%ii-a% !e$i "e%ua me%*adi e!e%gah me%u&u%i le&e%g "e%ua .
1( . Se"uah !eo&i didu-u%g oleh "u-!i ilmiah +a%g lua da% $e%gu*ia% # hi$o!ei
adalah !e"a-a% .
11 . P&oe $em"e%!u-a% "a!u !ida- $e&%ah "e&he%!i . Be"e&a$a "a!ua% +a%g
!e&"e%!u- e"elum "e%ua "e&ga"u%g # "e"e&a$a aa! me&e-a "e&ga"u%g # +a%g lai%
elama $emiaha% "e%ua # da% maih o&a%g lai% e!elah me&e-a me%*adi !e&$iah .
1' . Ke!i-a "e%ua di$u!a& -em"ali -e 9 "e&ga"u%g 9 $oii 2 Pa%gaea 3 # geologi da%
uia de$oi!o glaial )o)o- de%ga% a%ga! "ai- di elu&uh "e&ga"u%g . Alu& glaial
da% go&ea% me%u%*u--a% "ah.a e "e&ge&a- -e lua& -e egala a&ah da&i a$a +a%g
-emudia% -u!u" ela!a% .
1; . 5e%i u!ama da&i ma&gi% lem$e%g +a%g di0e&ge% 2 amude&a a!au "e%ua 3 F
:o%a u"du-i -o%0e&ge% 2o)ea% / amud&a a!au lau! / "e%ua 3 F :o%a -o%0e&ge%
!a"&a-a% 2 "e%ua / "e%ua 3 F me%gu"ah -ealaha% .