Universities Press

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Srinivasa Kumar

In a first course in transportation engineering at the undergraduate level, the various aspects of road
transportation, particularly highway engineering, are generally covered in detail.This book extends
the discussion to other critical components of the transportation system, namely railways, airways
and waterways, by emphasizing the basic infrastructural components, principles of planning,
functional design, operation and management of the infrastructure in each case. It dwells on the
latest approaches/methodologies in the design and evaluation of railways, airports and docks &
harbours, and includes a large number of illustrations, images and worked-out examples to enhance
the understanding of the design elements and components of the system in a practical way.

Salient features of the book

Docks & Harbours: Planning, layout, construction and maintenance of docks and harbours.

R Srinivasa Kumar is a faculty member in the Department of Civil Engineering, University College of
Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad. He has a BE degree in civil engineering and ME and
PhD degrees in transportation engineering. He was awarded the Indian Roads Congress
Commendation Certificate for the best research paper published in the IRC Journal (20012002). He
has worked as a member of the State Technical Authority (STA) for the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak
Yojana (PMGSY), Rural Roads Project. He is the author of Textbook of Highway Engineering (2011),
Pavement Design (2013) and Pavement Evaluation and Maintenance Management System (2014)
published byUniversities Press.

Cover design: OSDATA, Hyderabad

www.universitiespress.com

RAILWAYS, AIRPORTS, DOCKS & HARBOURS

Airports: Airport master plan and runway orientation; aircraft characteristics, design and orientation of
runways using Wind Rose diagrams; FAA design standard for minimum wind coverage; classification of
airports and estimation of design runway length (FAA and ICAO standards); standards for geometric
components of runway and taxiway system as per FAA, ICAI andCASA; description of instrument landing
system (ILS), approach lighting system, VASI, precision approach path indicator lighting system and
visual aids; air traffic control (ATC) with the terminal component facilities; design of runway pavements
based on UFC, FAA, PCA, US Army and Air Force systems; ACN-PCN system of rating aerodrome
pavements; airport pavement drainage system, failures-evaluation and the maintenance aspects.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Railways: Details of Indian Railway routes; features of permanent way components; geometric design of
railway tracks; functional aspects of points and crossings with solved examples on design of turnout
components; signals used in Indian Railways, their aspect form; working principle of axle counter and
track circuit; particulars of automatic signalling system; types of interlocking systems and their merits
and demerits

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING
Railways, Airports, Docks & Harbours

ISBN 978 81 7371 924 0

Universities Press
Srinivasa Kumar: Transportation Engineering

9 788173 719240

R Srinivasa Kumar

Universities Press (India) Private Limited

Registered Office
3-6-747/1/A & 3-6-754/1, Himayatnagar
Hyderabad 500 029 (A.P.), India
e-mail: info@universitiespress.com
Distributed by
Orient Blackswan Private Limited
Registered Office
3-6-752, Himayatnagar, Hyderabad 500 029 (A.P.), India
Other Offices
Bangalore, Bhopal, Chennai, Ernakulam, Guwahati, Hyderabad
Jaipur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai, New Delhi, Noida, Patna
Universities Press (India) Private Limited 2014
First published 2014
Cover and book design
Universities Press (India) Private Limited 2014
ISBN 978 81 7371 924 0
All rights reserved. No part of the material may be reproduced or utilised in any form, or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without written permission from the publisher.
Set in Times 10/12.3 by
OSDATA, Hyderabad 500 029
Printed at
Graphica Printers & Binders
Hyderabad 500 013
Published by
Universities Press (India) Private Limited
3-6-747/1/A & 3-6-754/1, Himayatnagar
Hyderabad 500 029 (A.P.), India

Disclaimer: This textbook does not constitute a standard, specification or regulation. Trademarks or manufacturers names appear/are used in this book only because they are considered essential to the object of subject
discussion and do not necessarily constitute an endorsement of the product by the author or the publisher.

Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
1 Introduction to Railway Engineering
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of Routes
2 Components of a Permanent Way
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Rails
2.2.1 Function of Rails
2.2.2 Types of Rails
2.2.3 Brand Mark on Rails
2.3 Coning of Wheels
2.4 Creep of Rails
2.4.1 Eects of Creep
2.4.2 Theories Related to Creep
2.4.3 Measurement of Creep
2.4.4 Correction of Creep
2.4.5 Measures to Reduce Creep
2.5 Rail Joints
2.6 Wear of Rails on Curves
2.7 Cutting of Rails on Curves
2.8 Bending of Rails on Curves
2.9 Welding of Rails
2.10 Sleepers
2.10.1 Functions of Sleepers
2.10.2 Types of Sleepers
2.10.3 Sleeper Density
2.10.4 Aging of Sleepers
2.11 Rail Fastenings
2.12 Ballast
2.12.1 Types of Ballast
2.12.2 Geometric Parameters of Ballast
2.13 Formation

ix
x
1
1
1
4
4
6
6
6
8
8
8
9
9
11
11
11
12
14
14
14
15
16
16
17
25
25
26
30
30
32
33

iv

Transportation Engineering

3 Geometric Design of a Railway Track

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Gradients
3.3 Compensation of Grade on Horizontal Curves
3.4 Horizontal Curves
3.4.1 Extra Clearance on Curves for High Speed Routes
3.4.2 Cant and Related Terminology
3.4.3 Determination of Cant or Superelevation
3.4.4 Transition Curve
3.4.5 Safe Speed on Horizontal Railway Curves
3.4.6 Length of a Transition Curve
3.4.7 Elements of a Transition Curve
3.4.8 Length of Transition Connecting Two Circular Curves of a Compound Curve
3.4.9 Length of Transition Connecting Two Circular Curves of a Reverse Curve
3.5 Vertical Curves
3.5.1 Types of Vertical Curves

35
35
35
37
37
40
40
41
44
45
46
48
53
53
54
54

4 Points and Crossings of Railway Tracks

4.1 Points and Crossing (Turnouts)
4.2 Terminology
4.3 Essential Requirements of a Good Crossing
4.4 Types of Crossings
4.5 Design of Turnout Components

57
57
58
61
61
66

5 Signalling and Interlocking of Railway Tracks

5.1 Introduction to Signalling
5.2 Objectives of Signalling
5.3 Classification of Signals
5.4 Classification of Stations
5.5 Quadrant Aspect of a Semaphore Signal
5.5.1 Two Aspect Signalling (TAS)
5.5.2 Multiple Aspect Signalling (MAS)
5.6 Signalling Systems
5.6.1 Mechanical Signalling System
5.6.2 Electrical Signalling System
5.7 System for Controlling Train Movement
5.8 Interlocking
5.8.1 Fundamental Principles of Interlocking
5.8.2 Types of Interlocking
5.9 Modern Signalling Installations

73
73
74
75
79
80
80
81
84
84
87
87
91
92
92
95

6 Introduction to Airport Planning and Design

6.1 Introduction
6.2 The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
6.3 The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

100
100
100
101

Contents

6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9

Civil Aviation Safety Administration (CASA)

Airports Authority of India (AAI)
Airport Master Plan
Airport Site Selection
6.7.1 Concept of Zoning Laws
Terminology
Aircraft Characteristics Aecting Design of Airport
6.9.1 Size of Airplane/Aircraft
6.9.2 Length of Aircraft
6.9.3 Wing Span
6.9.4 Wheel Base
6.9.5 Gear Tread or Wheel Track or Landing Wheel Track or Landing Wheel Gear
6.9.6 Landing Gear Tread
6.9.7 Minimum Turning Radius
6.9.8 Weight of Aircraft or Maximum Structural Take-o Weight (MSTOW)
6.9.9 Combined Eect of Aircraft Movement
6.9.10 Landing Gear Tread versus Gross Weight
6.9.11 Ground Speed or Cruising Speed
6.9.12 Air Speed
6.9.13 Jet Blast
6.9.14 Surface Friction of Runway
6.9.15 Summary

102
102
103
105
109
110
117
117
118
118
118
118
118
119
120
120
122
122
122
122
122
124

7 Classification of Airports
7.1 Airports Categorisation
7.2 Categorisation of Airports by FAA
7.3 Airport Classification Based on Operational Characteristics
7.3.1 Classification of Airports by FAA
7.3.2 Classification of Aerodromes by ICAO
7.4 Concluding Remarks

127
127
127
128
128
129
130

8 Orientation of Runways
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Atmospheric Conditions Aecting Planning and Orientation of Runways
8.2 Configurations of Runways
8.2.1 Designation of Runways
8.3 Wind Rose Diagrams

131
131
131
133
135
135

9 Design of Runway Length

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Estimation of Design Runway Length by FAA (AC 150/5325-4B, 2005)
9.3 Estimation of Design Runway Length by ICAO (Part 1, Doc 9157, AN/901, 2006)

145
145
145
154

10 Geometric Components of the Runway and Taxiway System

10.1 Basic Components of a Runway

163
163

vi

Transportation Engineering

10.2 Declared Distances Associated with a Runway (ICAO 2006; CASA 2012)
10.3 Geometric Parameters of Runway and Taxiway
10.3.1 Runway
10.3.2 Taxiway
10.4 Instrument Landing System (ILS)

163
165
165
169
171

11 Airport Visual Aids

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Runway Markings
11.3 Taxiway Markings
11.4 Airport Signs
11.5 Approach Lighting System (ALS)
11.6 Other Lighting Systems

174
174
174
177
179
186
193

12 Airport Terminal Area and Air Trac Control System

12.1 Terminal Area
12.2 Components of a Terminal Building
12.3 Air Trac Control (ATC)

196
196
197
197

13 Design of Runway Pavements

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Structural Functions of Pavements
13.3 Types of Pavements
13.3.1 Flexible Pavements
13.3.2 Rigid Pavements
13.3.3 Composite Pavements
13.4 Design Factors
13.4.1 Distribution of Aircraft Load on to the Pavement
13.4.2 Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)
13.4.3 Sub-grade Strength
13.4.4 Pavement Material Characteristics
13.4.5 Other Factors
13.5 Overview on Airport Pavement Design Methods
13.6 Design Methods for Flexible Pavements
13.6.1 Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) System or US Army Corps Methods
(UFC, 2001)
13.6.2 FAA Design Method (FAA AC 150/5320-6E on
Airfield Pavement Design and Evaluation)
13.7 Design Methods for Rigid Pavements
13.7.1 Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) System Based on Westergaards
Stress Model (UFC 2001)
13.7.2 Portland Cement Association (PCA) Method
13.7.3 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Method

202
202
202
203
204
204
206
208
208
208
210
210
211
212
213

14 ACNPCN System of Rating Aerodrome Pavements

228

213
217
219
220
223
225

Contents

14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5

Introduction (ICAO 1989)

Overview on Mathematical Models
Determination of ACN of an Aircraft
Uses of ACNPCN Aerodrome Rating System
Overloading Operations

vii

228
230
230
233
233

15 Airport Pavement Drainage Systems

15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Influence of Moisture Fluctuations during Dierent Seasons
15.1.2 Frost Action
15.2 Drainage Considerations
15.3 Design Details of Surface Drainage System
15.3.1 Estimation of Design Run-o
15.3.2 Hydraulic Design
15.3.3 Types of Curb Channels and Gutter Channels
15.3.4 Design of Curb Channel or Gutter Channel
15.4 Design of Sub-surface Drainage System
15.4.1 Sources of Sub-surface Water
15.4.2 Estimation of Quantity of Sub-surface Water to be Drained-o
15.4.3 Estimation of Quantity of Sub-surface Water due to Infiltration (Qi )
15.4.4 Determination of Coecient of Permeability
15.4.5 General Design Criteria on Drainage Layer
15.4.6 Edge Drain or Longitudinal Collector Drain or Draw Down Drain
15.4.7 Perforation Criteria of a Longitudinal Drain Pipe

235
235
235
237
238
238
239
242
245
246
251
252
252
252
254
256
258
259

16 Failures and Evaluation of Airport Pavements

16.1 Introdution
16.2 Airfield Pavement Failures
16.2.1 Categorisation of Distresses in Asphalt Concrete Pavement
16.2.2 Categorisation of Distresses in Cement Concrete Pavement
16.2.3 Identification, Causes and Measurement of Distresses
16.3 Technical Evaluation and Strengthening of Airfield Pavements
16.4 Structural Evaluation of Runway Pavements
16.4.1 Structural Evaluation of Runway/Taxiway Pavement by
Testing with Heavy Weight Deflectometer (HWD)
16.5 Runway Pavement Condition Surveys
16.5.1 Concept of Pavement Condition Index (PCI)
16.6 Measurement of IRI Based on Quarter Car Model
16.7 Introduction to Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
16.8 Frictional Evaluation of Runway Pavement Surface
16.8.1 Introduction to Pavement Surface Friction
16.8.2 Friction Indices
16.8.3 Types of friction
16.8.4 Skid Resistance/Friction Measurement Methods
16.9 Runway Surface Friction Models
16.9.1 Rado IFI Model

263
263
263
263
263
264
265
266
268
271
271
273
275
276
276
277
278
280
280
281

viii

Transportation Engineering

16.9.2 Canadian Runway Friction Index (CRFI)

16.9.3 International Runway Friction Index (IRFI)

282
283

17 Maintenance of Airport Pavements

17.1 Introduction
17.2 Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Airfield Pavements
17.2.1 Interpretation of a Condition Rating
17.2.2 Structural Overlay with Reference to HWD Test Results
17.2.3 Surface Texturing Practices to Improve Skid Resistance
17.3 Maintenance and Rehabilitation Alternatives for Flexible Pavements
17.4 Maintenance and Rehabilitation Alternatives for Rigid Pavements

286
286
286
286
287
287
289
293

18 Planning and Layout of Docks and Harbours

18.1 Introduction
18.2 Harbours
18.2.1 Harbour planning principles
18.2.2 Terminology
18.2.3 Layout of a harbour
18.2.4 Classification of harbours
18.3 Ports
18.3.1 Requirements of a Good Port
18.3.2 Classification of Ports
18.3.3 Port Terminals
18.4 Docks
18.4.1 Classification of Docks
18.5 Transit Sheds and Warehouses

296
296
296
296
297
297
298
299
300
300
301
301
301
302

19 Construction and Maintenance of Docks and Harbours

19.1 Introduction
19.2 Construction of Quay Walls
19.3 Construction of Breakwaters
19.4 Tides and the Tidal Data Analysis
19.4.1 Types of Tides
19.4.2 Tidal Theories
19.4.3 Tidal Data Analysis
19.4.4 Applications of Tidal Data Analysis
19.5 Dredging
19.6 Maintenance of Ports and Harbours
19.7 Navigational Aids
19.7.1 Short Range Navigational Aids
19.7.2 Long Range Navigational Aids

305
305
305
306
311
312
312
313
314
314
315
316
316
321

Index

332

Appendix

337

2
Components of a Permanent Way
2.1

Introduction

The structure of a railway track comprising rails fitted on sleepers and resting on ballast and subgrade
is termed a permanent way. It is made up of the following components (Fig. 2.1).

Figure 2.1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Components of a permanent way; the dimensions pertain to single lane BG track

Rails
Sleepers
Fixtures and fastenings
Ballast
Sub-grade

All the above components of the track are extremely important for the safe functioning of the railways, and care should be taken to install them correctly, using the correct components for each type of
4

Transportation Engineering

Figure 2.5

Details of the brand mark rolled on FF rail sections

Generally, it is considered that a rail section can withstand 560 times its self weight per metre length.
For example, in the case of 60 kg rail, the maximum permissible axle load is limited to 560 60 =
33600 kg = 33.6 tonnes. Therefore, a suitable section of rail is selected according to the requirement
from the list designated types of the India Railway Standard. Similarly, minimum required weight per
metre length of rail section is calculated and the rail selected based on the maximum permissible axle
load.

2.2.3 Brand Mark on Rails

The Indian Railway Standard (IRS) rail sections are marked with brand marks on its web and as shown
in Fig. 2.5. The brand marks are rolled in letters of 20 mm text size and 1.5 mm thickness. Each brand
mark is rolled on the web at an interval of 1.5 to 3.0 m.

2.3

Coning of Wheels

The wheel rims are shaped like a truncated solid cone with a slope of 1 in 20 provided for (a) preventing
rubbing (or wearing) of the inside faces of the rails while keeping the distance between the outer edges
of the flanges correctly so that they just fit into the gauge distance, and (b) preventing the lateral
movement of the axle while covering a curved track, particularly, to keep the position of moving axle
on the curved path normalised as the truncated cone diameter of the outer wheel increases with the
decrease of inner wheel diameter. To accommodate this wheel tapering and to provide full contact
with the wheel rims, the rails are also placed at the same inclination, with slope of 1 in 20 with the
horizontal (Fig. 2.6).

2.4

Creep of Rails

The longitudinal movement of rails (in the direction of motion of the trains) with respect to the sleepers
is termed as creep of rails. Rails tend to move gradually in the direction of predominant trac. The
intensity of movement depends on the axle loads, impact on the end faces of rails at joints, width of
joint, and speed of operation. The causes of creep may also be due to poor quality/type of fastenings

10

Transportation Engineering

the travel, similar to what the wave motion theory states. The direction and amount of creep depends
on the net results of backward and forward forces.
Percussion theory: According to this theory, creep occurs due to the impact of wheel loads at the
rail end at the joints (Fig. 2.7(c)). The repetitive wheel loads on the rail end presses the trailing rail
downwards and the impact of the load is felt on the end of the forward rail. As a result, battering
(bending down) of the rails at joint faces takes place. Such repetitive impact of rolling wheels in the
direction of its movement pushes the forward rail ahead and causes creep. The percussion eect can
be controlled/eliminated by using strong/firm fish bolts, replacing worn out fishplates/spring washers,
tight packing of ballast, narrowing of the wide expansion joints, reducing design speed with reduced
axle loads, particularly on steep downward gradients.

Figure 2.7

Theories on rail creep (schematic)

40

Transportation Engineering

Figure 3.5

Variation in wheel loads distribution on rails over curves

3.4.1 Extra Clearance on Curves for High Speed Routes

The Indian Railway Board has issued instructions to be followed while increasing the speed over curves
of BG tracks (160 km/hr or 200 km/hr). Extra clearances between structures (if there are any) and
the adjacent tracks laid on curves for high speed routes (160 km/hr and 200 km/hr) are separately
prescribed as Annexure I and II of IRSD (2004).

3.4.2 Cant and Related Terminology

The following terminology is used to understand the basic concepts considered for geometric design
of railway tracks (IRPWM 2004).
Cant or superelevation: It is the amount by which the outer rail is raised or depressed with reference
to the inner rail of the curved track. A positive cant is defined when the outer rail is raised above the
inner rail; conversely, a negative cant is defined when the inner rail of the curved track is raised above
the outer rail.
The maximum value of cant to be provided on a curved track depends on the drainage levels of
surrounding permanent structures and possible upgradation/increase of speed in the future. The maximum cant value that should be considered for BG route groups A, B and C is 165 mm and for BG route
groups D and E is 140 mm; for MG: 90100 mm and; for NG (762 mm): 6575mm (IRPWM 2004).
Equilibrium speed: It is the speed of the vehicle by which the centrifugal force developed by the
vehicle over the curved track is exactly balanced by the amount of cant provided. As a result, the pressure distribution on both the rails will be equal (Fig. 3.5(b)). The amount of cant provided to obtain
this maximum speed for the designated curve is termed as equilibrium cant and is calculated by using
Eq. (3.9).
Equilibrium cant =

Gv2
gRc

(3.9)

Cant deficiency: When the speeds of vehicles travelling on the curved track are higher than the
equilibrium speed, the cant provided is not sucient to balance the pressure distribution on the rails
(Fig. 3.5(a)). The dierence between the cant required and the cant provided is called cant deficiency.
The following relationship may be used to calculate the cant deficiency.
Cant deficiency = Theoretical required cant Actual cant provided.

(3.10)

Geometric Design of a Railway Track

Figure 3.8

45

A typical combined curve

where R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature at points 1 and 2 respectively. L1 and L2 are the lengths of
the transition curve corresponding to times t1 and t2 . However, the above relationships do not satisfy
the given condition at the beginning point (or tangent point) of the transition curve.
Transition curves with spirals are preferred in railway alignments due to the following reasons.
Superelevation on the curved path can be increased at a uniform ratesame as the rate of decrease of radius of the transition curve.
Transition curves help to avoid the sudden impact of centrifugal force by providing smooth
change consistent with the vehicles path.
Centrifugal force is reciprocal to the change in alignment curvature. When the speed of the
vehicle is assumed to be constant, non-uniform change in the magnitude of the side pressure
takes place due to abrupt changes in curvature. The dierential side pressure (or thrust) has a
detrimental eect on the surface of the rails as well as the vehicle performance. In such alignment
of track with abrupt changes, transition curves should be inserted suitably.
Transition curves facilitate gradual change in turning angle of steering wheels.
They provide safe and comfortable travel on the curve even at high speeds.
Transition curves can be inserted in the alignment of railways between:
(i) Two straight parts of an alignment.
(ii) Circular curves aligned in the same and opposite directions having the same or dierent radii.
(iii) The alignment of a straight part and a circular curve.

3.4.5 Safe Speed on Horizontal Railway Curves

The safe maximum permissible speed on curves with dierent categories is determined by using the
following formulas as recommended by the India Railway Board (IRPWM 2004):

Fully transitioned curves

For BG : V = 0.27 R(Ca + Cd )

(3.14)

54

3.5

Transportation Engineering

Vertical Curves

Vertical curves should be provided at the junction of two grades when the algebraic dierence between
the grades 4 mm per metre or 0.4%. The minimum radius of vertical curve provided for a BG rack
is 4000 m for group A, 3000 m for group B, and for other groups, including all routes of MG track, it
is 2500 m (IRPWM 2004).

3.5.1 Types of Vertical Curves

Based on the nature and intensity of the steepness of adjacent grade lines, dierent types of vertical
curves are formed (Fig. 3.11). They are (i) summit (or crest) curves and (ii) sag (or valley) curves. The
intersection point of adjacent grade lines is termed as the vertical point of intersection (I). When the
elevation (or reduced level, RL) of point I is higher than or equal to any point on the vertical curve, it
is called a summit curve. When elevation of point I is lower than or equal to any point on the vertical
curve, the curve is called a sag curve.
The point of curvature (which is at the curve beginning) and the point of tangency (which is at the
curve end point) are termed as T 1 and T 2 respectively. The positive and negative signs of the gradient
(g%) indicate upward and downward slopes of the ground respectively. G is the angle of deviation of
adjacent grade lines which is equal to the algebraic dierence of tangent grades |g2 g1 | and its value
is expressed in decimal form. The above notations are used in Fig. 3.11.

Figure 3.11

Possible cases of forming vertical railway curves based on adjacent grade lines

Details of calculations of a model curve is presented in the Appendix.

4
Points and Crossings of
Railway Tracks
4.1

Points and Crossing (Turnouts)

Points and crossings are used to help trains transit smoothly from one track to another. The direction of
crossing of these two tracks may be parallel or diverging or converging. As the wheels of the trains are
made with inside flanges, they need to be driven properly at these track junctions. Points, also termed
as switches, are used to divert the vehicle from one track to the other; the gaps between the rails allow
smooth crossing of the flanged wheels from one track to the other. A complete set of track components
including points and crossings with lead rails is called a turnout (Figures 4.1 and 4.2).

Figure 4.1

Basic components of a right-hand turnout (or a switch)

57

66

Transportation Engineering

Figure 4.14

Scissors crossing (Courtesy: South Central Railway)

left-hand spring crossing. The movable wing rail is anchored at the heel of the crossing. The fishplate
fixed at the heel of the movable wing rail is bent to permit free movement of the wing rail.

Mixed gauge turnout

Mixed gauge turnouts have a common rail between the tracks and may form such turnouts with dierent
combinations of rail sections, crossing angles and gauge tracks.

Double turnouts
Double turnouts (or tandems) are designed sparsely on tracks which are located in congested yards.
As its essential feature, one turnout falls within the lead curve of another turnout. The adequacy of the
distance between the actual toe of the switch of one turnout behind the other depends on the ease of
divergence for the throw of the trailing switch rails. Based on the type of acute angle crossing formed
by the intersection of the gauge lines of the outer rails, these turnouts are formed with contrary flexure
and similar flexure.

4.5

Design of Turnout Components

The turnout may be laid with any one of the following geometry of switches:
(i) Straight switch (Fig. 4.15) (These are most widely in use on Indian Railways),
(ii) Partially curved switch (Fig. 4.16) and
(iii) Fully curved switch (Fig. 4.17(a) and (b)).
The fully curved switch may further be laid with any one of the following type of geometry:
Non-intersecting curved switch (Fig. 4.17(a)),
Intersecting curved switch and (Fig. 4.17(b)) and
Tangential curved switch (Fig. 4.17(c)).
Determination of length of lead (L) and radius (R) of turnout are the most important components
considered while designing turnouts. The values of L and R of the turnout with any one of the above
combinations (Figures 4.154.17) can be calculated by using the formulae recommended by the Indian Railway Standard Track Manual. The values of straight length along the rail measured from the

78

Transportation Engineering

Figure 5.4

Shunting signal on an independent post (position light type)

Figure 5.5

A detonator clipped on to the head of a rail

Co-acting signals: In case of no continuous visibility of the signal due to any obstruction, the
same signal is fixed and operated as a duplicate at higher altitudes, on the same post of the signal.
Repeating signals: In unfavourable terrain conditions (or a tunnel/bridge) where the normal
vision of the driver is obstructed, repeating signals are provided to repeat the condition of the
main fixed signal. They are placed where the main signal is required to be sighted (IRISET).
Fixed signals: These are installed at fixed locations along the line side of a track. They indicate
specific information that aects the movement of trains. Examples of fixed signals include semaphore
arms, discs, colour fixed light signals used in day and night times.
Semaphore signal: A fixed signal used only in day time by suitably positioning the elevated semaphore
arm. Its arm may be rectangular or fish-tailed with dierent colour forms fixed to a vertical post. The
rectangular arm is used to indicate stop and the fish-tailed arm is used for warner or distant signals. The
semaphore arm is projected from its post in dierent positions as shown in Fig. 5.6. Semaphore signals
without colour lights are not routinely used due to non-visibility of the arm during night time. Most
tracked line side signals are in colour light form and semaphore signals remain on the secondary line.

80

Transportation Engineering

train is further continuing its journey. Such rule with Intermediate Block Post is also applicable in this
category. For example, Class C stations are formed where bock sections are divided into two parts.
Class D stations: These are non-block stations. Class D stations are stopping places which are situated
between two consecutive block stations; they do not form the boundary of any block section. These
stations are used only as halt stations without signals.

5.5

Quadrant Aspect of a Semaphore Signal

The movement of a semaphore arm from position 1 through position 3 is called the upper quadrant
system (UQS) and its movement from position 3 to position 4 is called the lower quadrant system
(LQS) (Fig. 5.7). Two aspect signalling (TAS) is adopted in the lower quadrant (LQ) and multiple
aspect signalling (MAS) is adopted in the upper quadrant (UQ). The signals categorised in each case
are briefly explained below.

Figure 5.7

Positioning of semaphore arm in vertical plane

5.5.1 Two Aspect Signalling (TAS)

Warner signal
This signal is used to provide advance information to drivers to overcome the problem of (a) low speed
operation of trains which stop at the stop signal ahead, and as the result, (b) reduction in number of
trains operated per day in a block section. The warner signal only warns, it does not stop the train there.
The combination of red light with the fish-tailed semaphore arm mounted with an additional green light
ON, distinguishes the warner signal (Fig. 5.8) from the stop signal (Fig. 5.6(a)). The colour lights of
the warner signal display the intended information to drivers during night time when the semaphore
arm is invisible. When both the green lights are ON (Fig. 5.8(b)), it indicates that the there is no need

114

Transportation Engineering

Figure 6.7

Primary forces acting on an airplane in flight

thrust. Bernoullis principle states that a fluid that flows faster over a surface will develop less pressure
on it than a fluid that flows more slowly. Based on this basic principle, the wings of airplanes are
designed as airfoils and maintain less air pressure on its top surface than underneath. This dierence
in pressure across the wings-plane generates the lift force.
There are several types of geometric specifications pertaining to airports which depend on the physical
and technical characteristics of dierent type of aircrafts and their operational conditions. Aircraft
characteristics play a vital role in the geometric design of various components of airports. The following are a few details that show the relationship between aircraft characteristics and component parts of
an airport.
Weight of aircraft: It depends on several parameters, conditions such as fuel level, pay load and crew
and operating conditions such as maximum allowable weight of aircraft intended for take-o, landing
and at rest.
Pay load: It is the actual load carried by an aircraft which produce revenue. This includes
weight of passengers, mails, goods/cargo and baggage. Such maximum loads may be considered as individual or combined and designated as the maximum structural payload (MSPL).
The carrying capacity of commercial airlines may vary between 35 and 800 seats in case of local/regional airlines and major airlines, respectively. The MSPL will be less in case of passenger
carrying aircraft than cargo aircrafts since the space occupied by a passenger is more than the
space occupied by cargo/goods. This weight is considered as crucial; and is normally used to
design aircrafts based on the aircrafts purpose of usage. Technological developments in aircrafts physical design and their operational capabilities have made it necessary to make changes
in the conventional procedure of planning and specifications of pavements, airport airfield and
the terminal areas.
Operating empty weight (OEW): It is the lightest weight of aircraft. It consists of the weight of
its basic body and crew but does not include fuel and pay load.
Maximum gross take-o weight (MGTOW): It is the maximum weight authorised for take-o. It
includes the weight of the (i) basic OEW, (ii) fuel required for trip and reserve and (iii) payload;
the weight of fuel consumed during taxiing and for any ground manoeuvres is excluded.

118

Transportation Engineering

Figure 6.11

Component parts of airplane

6.9.2 Length of Aircraft

As the length of the aircraft increases, the distance between the main landing gear and the pilots
eye also increases. This will result in requirement of a larger turn fillet and turn radius and spacing
between adjacent taxiways. As an example, the length of aircrafts may vary between 23 feet 9 inches
for a PA28-Archer (of Piper), a piston and turbo-prop engine aircraft and 239 feet 3 inches in case of
an A-380 (of Airbus) jet aircraft.

6.9.3 Wing Span

This length is designed capable to lift and drag flight loads. In most airplanes, fuel tanks are situated
in the wings. The length including wing span and fuselage dictates the minimum required (i) width
of runway, taxiway and size of parking aprons, (ii) spacing between such adjacent pavements (i.e.,
runwaytaxiway and taxiwaytaxiway), and (iii) turning radius of large aircraft. As an example, the wing
span may vary between 33 feet 6 inches for Eclipse 500 (of Eclipse), a very light jet aircraft and 239
feet 3 inches in case of A-380 (of Airbus) jet aircraft. A study reveals that the width between the outer
to outer spread of the main landing gear may vary between 15 and 27% of the wing span (IIWG 2007).

6.9.4 Wheel Base

As an example, the length of aircrafts may vary between 41 feet 5 inches for A-320-200 (of Airbus), a
narrow body jet aircraft and 99 feet 8 inches in case of A-380 (of Airbus) jet aircraft.

6.9.5 Gear Tread or Wheel Track or Landing Wheel Track or Landing Wheel
Gear
As the fuselage height decreases, the width of the landing gear decreases. The width of the landing gear
is also interdependent on fuselage cross-section (IIWG, 2007). As an example, the length of aircrafts
may vary between 16 feet 8 inches for MD-87 or MD-90-30 (of McDonnell-Douglas), a narrow body
jet aircraft and 46 feet 11 inches in case of A-380 (of Airbus) jet aircraft.

6.9.6 Landing Gear Tread

The landing gear system supports the entire weight of an airplane during ground operations and landing. The wheel system is attached to the primary frame of the airplane and the type of gear system

122

Transportation Engineering

by the nose gear oset outward of the centre line of the taxiway curve (Fig. 6.14). The former case is
most generally adopted by pilots and it requires a small fillet but in the latter case, the size of fillet/area
requirement will be more because the path traced by the nose gear will be away from the centre line of
the taxiway curve.

6.9.10 Landing Gear Tread versus Gross Weight

The width of the landing gear tread will increase with increase of gross weight. Subsequently, wind
span increases. This increase in width of landing gear tread will dictate the minimum required width
of runway and taxiway, and their fillet radii (IIWG 2007).

6.9.11 Ground Speed or Cruising Speed

It is the relative velocity of the aircraft with reference to the ground, when the aircraft is operated in air
at its maximum speed (Fig. 6.15).

Figure 6.15

Calculation of ground speed with reference to air speed of aircraft and wind speed

6.9.12 Air Speed

It is the relative speed of aircraft with respect to the speed of wind.

6.9.13 Jet Blast

High speed jets aeroplanes are prone to eject hot (up to 1300C) exhaust gases at velocity up to 200
km/h. Deflectors are used to dissipate them (Figs 6.16 and 6.17).

6.9.14 Surface Friction of Runway

The runway surface should have minimum frictional resistance to stop a landed aircraft at a minimum
distance. This parameter is considered as a crucial safety measure during wet and snow climates.
Runway surface is provided with tinning to obtain a standard range of frictional resistance. The tinned
surface can also eliminate the possibility of occurrence of hydroplaning (loss of steering or brake
control when a layer of water prevents direct contact between the wheels and the runway) during

142

Transportation Engineering

Figure 8.6

Example problem: Wind rose diagram-II with additional runway

10
Geometric Components of the
Runway and Taxiway System
10.1

Basic Components of a Runway

The runway system comprises structural pavement of runway and the associated components such as
runway shoulders, blast pad, runway strips, runway thresholds, runway end safety areas, clearway and
stopway. These components are briefly defined and their applicable standards discussed below.
Runway thresholds: These are the markings painted across the width of the runway that denote the
beginning and end of the designated spaces for take-o and landing under specified conditions.
Clearway: It is an obstruction free paved rectangular surface abutting the end of a runway within
which an aeroplane takes o to an initial climb of 35 ft (10.7 m) above the surface at its end (CASA
2012). The length of clearway cannot exceed half the length of the take-o run available on the runway
(ICAI 2006; CASA 2012).
Stopway: A stopway may be optionally provided at the end of a runway on which an aeroplane may
be stopped in case of an aborted take-o. The width of a stopway must be as wide as the associated
runway width. The minimum length of the stopway must be provided as its other end finishes at least
60 m before the end of the runway strip. The stopway may be provided with an asphalt surface and
surface frictions similar to the associated runway surface friction. The bearing strength of the stopway
pavement should be able to support at least one single pass of the critical aircraft without causing
structural damage to the aircraft. Slope and slope change along the stopway should be the same as that
of its abutting runway but in no case should it exceed 0.8% for the first and last quarter of the length of
the runway (CASA 2012).

10.2

Declared Distances Associated with a Runway

(ICAO 2006; CASA 2012)

Declared distances represent operational distances to a pilot for landing, take-o or safely aborting
take-o. These distances indicate the runway adequacy for dierent operations of aircrafts. They are a
combination of the runway, clearway if provided and any stopway (Fig. 10.1). Declared distances can
be calculated for each runway direction in the following manner.
163

Geometric Components of the Runway and Taxiway System

171

Table 10.8

Minimum standard sight distance on taxiway (CASA 2012; Courtesy of Civil Aviation Safety
Authority, www.comlaw.gov.au)

Code letter

Minimum line of sight

A
B
C, D, E or F

150 m from 1.5 m above taxiway

200 m from 2 m above taxiway
300 m from 3 m above taxiway

10.4

Instrument Landing System (ILS)

An instrument runway is equipped with radio beam facility through which reference, landing can be
made by an instrument landing system (ILS).
The ILS is a standard sequential procedure based method used for navigation of aircrafts on to an
instrumental approach landing runway (Fig. 10.6). It was accepted by the ICAO in 1947. It provides
the horizontal and vertical guidance necessary for accurate landing during limited and reduced visibility
condition by adopting instrument flight rules (IFR). This accurate landing approach is a standardised
procedure. It permits descend of flight on to a runway by using navigation equipments which are
located on the ground in coaxial with the trajectory. It relays instant information about the angle of
descent to the point of touch down. However, the ILS equipment does not provide instant information
to the pilot about the distance to the point of touch down.

Figure 10.6

Basic components of an instrument landing system, ILS (Schematic)

11
Airport Visual Aids
11.1

Introduction

The visual aids used in association with the runway system may be broadly categorised into runaway
markings, taxiway markings, airport signs and the approach lighting system (www.faa.gov.in; Trani
2003).

11.2

Runway Markings

The markings for runways and the landing area of the general heliport are generally white. Red colour
marking is provided on heliports located in hospital premises. There are six basic types of (FAA AC
150/5340-1H; FAA AC 150/5340-18F; www.pilotfriend.com and airlinebrats.com) runway markings.
Runway centre line: The centre line of a runway can be identified by uniformly spaced stripes which
are marked along the centre of the runway (Fig. 11.1). These markings provide guidance to pilots
during landing and take-o operations.
Runway designation markings: Designation of the runway is marked across its width. This marking indicates the centre lines magnetic azimuth and includes a symbol applicable in case of parallel
runways, if they exist (Fig. 11.1).

Figure 11.1

Runway markings (A schematic diagram)

174

186

Transportation Engineering

Figure 11.20

Different types of rotating beacons used in airports (Courtesy of Hali-BriteInc. www.halibrite.

com)

Aerodrome beacon: A rotating beacon is installed at an airport or aerodrome on an elevated tower to

indicate its location to the pilots from the air, at night. The beacon produces flashes of colour lights at
24 to 45 rpm. Beacon visibility extends up to 64 km (at 400,000 to 190,000 candlepower). Beacons
come in any combination of clear, green, red and amber colour filters to meet required specifications
(Fig. 11.20).

11.5

Approach Lighting System (ALS)

Approach lights provide navigational guidance to the runway in the vertical and lateral plane with
relation to height perception, roll guidance and horizontal reference. The ALS plays a critical role
during the transition from instrument flight to visual flight for landing. They are very important during
inclement weather and low visibility operations in the airport. In such cases, the approach lights
facilitates continuing the approach to 100 ft above the runway, at which point, the geometry of the
runway can be seen clearly (Fig. 11.21).
Several types of approach lighting systems are available in airports in the US and a few commonly
used systems are listed below (FAA, 2010; www.flightlight.com; www.rainierflightservice.com/blog/cani-descend;www.carmanah.com; www.honeywell.com):
High intensity runway lighting system (HIRL): Examples include ALSF I and II, and short approach lighting system (SALS)/SALSF, high intensity with inner 1500 ft of ALSF I.
Medium intensity approach lighting system (MALSR): MALSR with runway alignment indicator
lights is used during instrument landing approach for aligning aircrafts with the centre line of
the runway. The MALSR use up to 63 steady burning lights to create a reference plane and up
to 8 lights to create a sequential strobing flash pattern light that rolls towards the runway threshold. Three intensity settings are used under changing weather conditions. Examples include
MALD/MASLF, MALSF.
The above ALS and their associated lighting system with the runway are briefly described below.
ALSF I and ALSF II: These are single and three intensity lighting systems (Range: 2,400 ft (426.72
m)). Approach lighting system with sequenced flash lights (ALSF) I and II is used for Category I and
II runways, respectively. These systems are useful during instrument landing approach (ILA) to align
the aircrafts with the runway centre line and to establish its vertical orientation. Up to 21 white lights
create a sequential strobing flash pattern that rolls towards the threshold end of the runway in use.

Design of Runway Pavements

a a
a
a aa aa
a a
a
a aa aa
a a
a
a aa aa
a a
a
a aa aa
a
a aa a

Figure 13.7

209

a a
a
a aa aa
a a
a
a aa aa
a a
a
a aa aa
a a
a
a aa aa
a
a aa a

Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) by equal stress concept (Based on Boyd and Foster 1950)

The ESWL for a single wheelsingle angle axle assembly (Fig. 13.7) on a flexible pavement can be
calculated from the following formula:

0.301 log10
d/2

,
(13.1)
log10 ES W L = log10 P +
2s

log10
d/2
where,
P = Wheel load Axle load/4,
s = Centre-to-centre spacing between the two wheels = (d + 2a),
d = Clear distance between the two wheels = (s 2a),
a = Radius of tyre contact area,
z = Desired depth.
The coordinates to plot the relationship between load versus depth of flexible pavement can be
calculated as (d/2, P) and (2s, 2P).
In case of ESWL on flexible pavements due to dual tandem assembly, the coordinates can be calculated as (d/2, P) and (2R, 4P), where R is the diagonal distance between the two wheels (Fig. 13.8).

14
ACNPCN System of Rating
Aerodrome Pavements
14.1

Introduction (ICAO 1989)

In 1981, the ICAO promulgated the ACNPCN method as the single universal system of rating aerodrome pavements. This method determines the weight limitation of aircrafts operating on the pavements by comparing the PCN (pavement classification number) with an ACN (aircraft classification
number). The ACNPCN system provides a universal standard of rating airplane/pavement compatibility, replacing several such rating systems, including the load classification number (LCN).1
The ICAO Annex 14 of Volume 1 specifies that the bearing strength of an aerodrome pavement
which is intended to be used for aircrafts having mass (i.e., maximum takeo weight, MTOW) greater
than 5700 kg should be rated based on the aircraft classification numberpavement classification number (ACNPCN) method (ICAO 1989). The ACNPCN method as specified by the ICAO (1989) is
explained in this chapter.
ACN: It is a number representing the relative damaging eect of an aircraft on a pavement for a specified standard sub-grade strength.
PCN: It is a number representing the bearing strength of a pavement for unrestricted operations by
aircraft, with ACN value the PCN. In other words, if the ACN PCN, the pavement can support the
aircraft without weight restrictions.
The ACNPCN method of expressing standard format of numbering is presented in Fig. 14.1.

1 * Load classification number (LCN): It is a system of classification of aerodrome pavements based on their supporting
capacity. It indicates the pavements ability to support loads due to ground operation of aircrafts without causing any cracking
or distresses. Plate load tests are conducted on the pavement and the ESWL of any aircraft is derived. The obtained number is
expressed as a single numberthe LCN. The ESWL concept has been briefly explained in Section 13.3.2. The factors aecting
LCN are listed as gear geometry, tyre pressure, composition and individual layer thicknesses of the pavement. If the LCN of the
runway pavement > LCN of an aircraft, the aircraft can be safely operated on that pavement, else its operation is restricted on
that runway pavement.
The LCN system was developed by ICAO in 1965. It does not discriminate between flexible and rigid pavements. The LCN
system of rating strength of runway pavements has become obsolete now, as the flexible and rigid pavements behave dierently
under loading.

228

246

Transportation Engineering

Figure 15.6

Typical inlet grates

Suitability of different types of inlets

Grate inlets eectively intercept water flowing in the gutter channel but there is a chance of
clogging due to debris.
Curb inlets are relatively free from clogging due to debris. They are preferred where (i) grates
placed in trac lanes would cause reduction in the eective width of the lane and (ii) grates
would pose problems related to safety of pedestrians and cyclists.
Slotted drain pipe inlets are suitable along curved lengths adjacent to curbed or uncurbed sections. They oer little interference to trac operation compared to grates. The clogging problem
remains the same as with grates.
Combination inlets and depressed combination inlets are more superior to the individual inlets.
Such inlets have greater interception capacity and avoid ponding of water on trac lanes due to
clogged grates. Depressed inlets are suitable on sloped length of sag curves.
Bell mouth shaped inlets are more suitable where there is no longitudinal gradient available. In
such cases, curb channels on either side are kept inclined and the run-o water is allowed to
enter into an RCC pipe of diameter 300 mm placed across the footpath at an interval of 10 to
15 m or any other suitable interval dictated by nearby airport roads alignment. The intercepted
water is ultimately discharged into a roadside channel drain.
Inlet grates should be installed 2 to 3 cm above the lowest places on valley curves so that infiltration of silt can be averted.

15.3.4 Design of Curb Channel or Gutter Channel

The maximum depth of flow (d), spread of water on the pavement (T s ) and location of inlet grates along
the gutter channel, with sucient infiltration capacity are usual criteria for deciding design adequacy of
gutter channels having any cross-section (Fig. 15.7). Provision for maximum allowable values of d and
T s are termed as pavement encroachment criteria. To determine the above parameters, rate of flow (i.e.,
discharge) in the gutter channel is essential and depends on the intensity of rainfall during the design
life, longitudinal gradient and surface characteristics of the catchment area. The design inflow into

17
Maintenance of Airport Pavements
17.1

Introduction

Airport pavement maintenance works are managed systematically for (a) assessing current condition
of pavements, (b) determining maintenance and rehabilitation needs and (c) prioritisation of the maintenance works of candidate pavements with reference to funding levels. For all these purposes, it is
essential to evaluate the airport pavements in terms of their distress or by any appropriate parameters
related to performance (WSDOT).
Airport pavement maintenance activities are briefly discussed in the following sections.

17.2

Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Airfield Pavements

17.2.1 Interpretation of a Condition Rating

The condition rating provides a rational basis for ranking the maintenance of member pavement sections considered according to their current condition index values with reference to its performance
curve (Fig. 17.1). In this process, the PCI (pavement condition index) can be used in the PMS (pavement maintenance system) to provide a benchmark for comparing the relative condition of a group of
pavements in a road network. The PCI is primarily used to support pavement management initiatives
of federal, state and local government agencies. This will facilitate avoiding ambiguous conditions
particularly during paucity of funding. Programming and long-term budgeting can be possible, with
reference to the list of such rankings. In addition, the index value assigned by the condition rating
provides an appropriate method of repair with suitable construction technology.
The condition index related with the condition rating provides a preliminary basic indication of the
type of repair work needed, suitable time and extent of maintenance (Fig. 17.1). Subsequently, longterm and short-term maintenance activities with their schedule can be worked out under the frame work
of budgetary allocation and available resources. Ultimately, the condition rating concept can be used
to evolve innovative approaches to tackle complex combinations of maintenance needs for pavements
under distress conditions influenced by inconsistent parameters related to trac, weather, drainage,
material characteristics and construction quality. The trend of performance curve which depends on
the rate of deterioration due to these factors will decide the timely management of several activities
specifically for cost eective maintenance. As a whole, the above concept of pavement maintenance
with reference to measured performance over a period of time is termed as PMS.
286

18
Planning and Layout of Docks
and Harbours
18.1

Introduction

In this chapter, we will discuss a few details and the required terminology which are essential for
understanding marine transportation and the maritime structures/components (AAPA).

18.2

Harbours

A harbour or haven is a place on a coast where vessels (such as ships, large boats and large barges) may
find shelter, particularly against stormy weather, wind and high tides. The artificial structures which
oer such protection in harbours include piers, jetties or sea walls, and breakwaters.

18.2.1 Harbour planning principles

The following planning principles provide guidelines for related individuals and organisations to facilitate the sustainable planning, development, management and enhancement of harbour and harbour
front areas.
(a) The site selected should be safe from strong wings, strong waves; the shore must be strong
enough to accommodate all required equipment installations at low principal and maintenance
costs.
(b) The main harbour components such as ports, docks, container stores, truck terminals and the
equipment associated with harbour activities should be situated accordingly so that their activities are not hindered due to their misplacement.
(c) The master plan of a harbour should accommodate all possible future needs of the forecasted
demand, specifically with reference to individual needs.
(d) The harbour must be protected and preserved for the use of economic and social purposes that
enhance the living standards of the people at the local and regional level.
(e) It should group tourism attractions in clusters while balancing the needs of other uses.
(f) Hinderland areas nearby should be integrated with the public waterfront through improved visual
landscape, cycle tracks and truck lanes.
296

19
Construction and Maintenance of
Docks and Harbours
19.1

Introduction

In this chapter, we discuss construction of dierent component structures of docks and harbours. Their
maintenance activities are also explained.
The harbour structures explained below, each have their particular merits for a given set of conditions and each require to be considered carefully within the evaluation process (Maine 1997).

19.2

Construction of Quay Walls

Quay walls are earth retaining structures which are used as berths for docking floating vessels and
transfer of goods. They also function as pathways between the transit shed/warehouse and structures
built oshore.
Quay walls are of various types. They are used for anchoring during halting (i.e., mooring purpose)
and berthing of any type of water vehicle such as ships, vessels, boats or barges. Quays are equipped
with dierent types of anchoring installations such as bollards (which are fixed on its floor and used
for anchoring ships), fenders (which are fixed on its vertical face and again used for anchoring ships),
cranes (which are used for lifting weights) and other equipment moving along the ship.
The following types of quay walls can be built in a harbour/port based on the type of components/materials used and the site condition.
Gravity or solid block quay walls: These are early conventional types of quays and their self weight is
designed as the water pressure retaining structure. The basic principle behind the design of the gravity
wall is to provide the structure such a heavy weight that its resultant weight and the other static and
dynamic forces acting on it disallow slide out or rotate or slip. These walls are suitable in areas where
the load bearing soil bed is strong enough to withstand the vertical loads. The durability of the walls
depends on the type of solid blocks used to build the quay wall. Conventionally, stone blocks were
used. In recent constructions, heavy weight concrete blocks have also been used.
Sheet piled quay walls: The sheet pile wall is a vertical beam which is loaded by water pressure and
soil pressure on either side. Sheet piled quays are suitable at coast lines with weak soil. The fixation
capacity of the piles in loose soil determines the stability of the quay during its operation and against
305

Universities Press

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Srinivasa Kumar

In a first course in transportation engineering at the undergraduate level, the various aspects of road
transportation, particularly highway engineering, are generally covered in detail.This book extends
the discussion to other critical components of the transportation system, namely railways, airways
and waterways, by emphasizing the basic infrastructural components, principles of planning,
functional design, operation and management of the infrastructure in each case. It dwells on the
latest approaches/methodologies in the design and evaluation of railways, airports and docks &
harbours, and includes a large number of illustrations, images and worked-out examples to enhance
the understanding of the design elements and components of the system in a practical way.

Salient features of the book

Docks & Harbours: Planning, layout, construction and maintenance of docks and harbours.

R Srinivasa Kumar is a faculty member in the Department of Civil Engineering, University College of
Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad. He has a BE degree in civil engineering and ME and
PhD degrees in transportation engineering. He was awarded the Indian Roads Congress
Commendation Certificate for the best research paper published in the IRC Journal (20012002). He
has worked as a member of the State Technical Authority (STA) for the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak
Yojana (PMGSY), Rural Roads Project. He is the author of Textbook of Highway Engineering (2011),
Pavement Design (2013) and Pavement Evaluation and Maintenance Management System (2014)
published byUniversities Press.

Cover design: OSDATA, Hyderabad

www.universitiespress.com

RAILWAYS, AIRPORTS, DOCKS & HARBOURS

Airports: Airport master plan and runway orientation; aircraft characteristics, design and orientation of
runways using Wind Rose diagrams; FAA design standard for minimum wind coverage; classification of
airports and estimation of design runway length (FAA and ICAO standards); standards for geometric
components of runway and taxiway system as per FAA, ICAI andCASA; description of instrument landing
system (ILS), approach lighting system, VASI, precision approach path indicator lighting system and
visual aids; air traffic control (ATC) with the terminal component facilities; design of runway pavements
based on UFC, FAA, PCA, US Army and Air Force systems; ACN-PCN system of rating aerodrome
pavements; airport pavement drainage system, failures-evaluation and the maintenance aspects.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Railways: Details of Indian Railway routes; features of permanent way components; geometric design of
railway tracks; functional aspects of points and crossings with solved examples on design of turnout
components; signals used in Indian Railways, their aspect form; working principle of axle counter and
track circuit; particulars of automatic signalling system; types of interlocking systems and their merits
and demerits

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING
Railways, Airports, Docks & Harbours

ISBN 978 81 7371 924 0

Universities Press
Srinivasa Kumar: Transportation Engineering

9 788173 719240

R Srinivasa Kumar