PART FIVE

LATER SCHOOLS
OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH
 t --^
L-r-u
SOU
CIRC
CEN
LAT

""."T*:rf:,s:;"lill,*ijsj
D E C C A NA N D
SOUTH
C I R C Ag T H
CENTURY AND
LATER

( t
v < IjhatnaPl iq
:Nt}

T
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oNizanabad p oManlha
ddapallio

're-oKanmnaaar
KolhaP

ia;amkondao,., o"l

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o sansareddi ! nv
-
o Paranch€rul

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. ^.}
i,,-,ll$o^"","""3ff1"*
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 Detail af 21,34,

C H A P T E RT W E N T Y - O N E

The Cola and RelatedSchoolsof the Tamil south

(Mid-Ninth to ThirteenthCenturies)

The Colas were the successorsto the Pallavas
as the most prominent south Indian dynasty.
However, the distinction between Pallava and
Cola art goes far beyond chronological impli-
cations, lor while Cola-period rrr revea]s an
indebtednessto the Pallavastyle, it is much more
than merely a second step in a pallava-Cola
chronologicalcontinuum.An imporranrregional
disrinctionmusr also be nrade when discussins
PallavaversusCola art. The homeland of rhi
Pallavas and the region where most of their
monuments are found was centered around
Kaflcipuram, but the Cola nucleus was further
south in the viciniry ofTanjore. Thus, it is likely
that disparatelocal'traditions had some efect on
the art. It is alsoprobable that the art traditions of
lesserknown families, such asthe Pdlrdyas,Mut-
tarayars,and Irukkuvels had some bearine on the
formation of the Cola idioms, although much
work is yet to be done before the inferaction
between these groups is understood. Further-
more, the Colas may have had a long-standing
artistic tradition of their own upon which to
draw (though nothing remainsofit), for they are
known in history as early as the third century
n.c. in A6okaninscriptions.Xpigraphson sorneof
the approximately one hundred extant Cola
stone temples indicate that these monuments
replaced earlier brick structures,clearly indicat-
ing an art tradition prior to the secondhalf of
the ninth century, at which timc it apparently
became the practice to either build or rebuild
religious structures in stone.l Initiation of the
stonetradition is largely associatedwith the reign
of Vijayalaya Cola, who wrested control of
Tanjore probably from the Muttarayar chieftains
in the middle of the ninth century and thus
brought the Cola family into a political and
artistic prominence that was to last approxi-
mately four centuries.
Although most authodties agree tlat a free-
standing stone temple at Narttemalai datesfrom

509
51d IATER SCI{OOIS OF THE DtrCCAN AND THI
approximately the mid-ninth century, thcre is
considcrabledisagreemcntabout the patronage
o f t h c . t n , c t r t r e( F i g .z r . r ) . A P a n d l r i n s c r i p t i o n
of rzz8 reGrs to it as the Vijayalaya Coliivara
templc,z a name suggestingthat the nonument
was built during the reign of Vijayalaya Cola
and rvas perhapspatronizcd by hin.r. However,
the tenple difers considerablyin form and style
from others that are more firnly cstablishedas
early Cola structures.On that basis,aswcll ason
other inscriptional evidenceat the site, the teul-
ple is now thought to be a nonurnent of Mut-
i"rny", m".r.,f".tl,re dating fron-r around the
middle of the ninth century.3 Thus, while its
creation roughly coincides with the rise of the
CoJa family and Vijayalaya specifically,it may
nor be a Cola tcrnpleper se.Strchscemingcon-
fusion frcquently arisesin the study of South
Asian art when dynastic designationsare used to
dcfine styles. For example, to be considcred a
"Cola" templc, must a ternple have been dedi-
cated by a C61aking, a membcr of his family or
SOUTI]
:' {
;.{
retinue, or one of his subjects,or is it suflicient ::::t{
simply that the templc rvas created during thc
period of Colr supremacyand in Cola territorics?
Basic questionsof terminology such as this are ., D!
'rill widely dircnr.cd uirh reg.rrd to Coh art __: - &
_ -:-''rl$
(and indecd, many other arcasof South Asian art
history). It is probably most accurateto consider _ :_::11l
the Vijayalaya Coli6vara temple a rnonument of ::-:::=
Muttarayar patroragc, but onc constructed dur-
ing the late pre-Co]a or early Cola pcriod, and
therefore a fitting subject for study in relation-
ship to early Cola art.a
Dedicated to Siva, the Vijayalaya Coli6vara
temple consistsof a joined ardhana1lapasrnd
tinaxa orientcd to the west and surroundcd by
.ub,hrine' (parinralnyas:Fig. zr.z). OF thc.c.
six rcnain and there are traces of a seventh,
although it is possiblethat originally there werc
eiglrt of thern dedicated to thc eight parioaru
asis conmon in south
deities(astapaivarailerafa),
Iudian Saivite tenplcs of this period.6 All these
elementswere originally enclosedina rectangular
-
 co+A ANDR.ELATEDSCHOOLS

m
5r t
2r. r. Vijayalaya Colrsvaraternple
fronr west. NarttaDralai, Tarnil
Nadu, India. Ca. mid-ninth cen-
tuly.
tl

nt

NT

NT

zr.z. Plen of Vijayalaya CdliSvara

tenple. Narttemelai,Tarnil Nadu, India. Fo--,- -j 5
Ca. mid-ninth century.

ir sufiicient compound, The exterior of the main temple is

during the nearly devoid of figurative sculpture except for
r territories? the two duarupalas on the wesr(Figs.zr,r, 2t 3),
I as this are some figures on the upper stoies of the vimaxa,
to Cola art and a seriesof small sculpted panels placed at
rtl Asian art intervals along the base ofthe ternple,Insread,it
, ro consider is mainly omamented by the detailing of various
oDument of elementsofthe architectural scheme, including
ructed dur- the base (adhisthana),the walls of the first story
period, and (tala), and the cornices and other details of the
ir relation- upper stories. The pilastered wall tr€atment rs a
typically southem architectural feature, but the
a \,ollsvara lack of niches containing deities (devakostha) is
mdapas and at variance with the usual Cola format, again
rouaded by suggesting that the structure is not of COla
of rhe"" manufacture.The pilastershave plain and angu-
a seventh,
rhere were
ft parivarc
on in south
21,3. DrAfipAIa to left of west entrance, Vijayelaya
-6 All these Coii3varatemple. N,rttamalai, Tanit Nadu, India. Ca.
rectangular mid-niuth century.
JI2 LATER SCHOOLS OF THI DECCAN AND THE SOUTH
lar brackct-typc capitals. The heavy cornice of
tbc prastara abovc thc pilastcrcd wall separates
thc first ticr (rala)from the secoudrala, which is
continuous around both thc llrttaa,r and t]re
atdhaua4lapa.However, this is the final level of
the ardhamatl/apawith its llat roof while the
superstnrcfrrrcof the uittnna cotrtinLtc.in a
series of diminishing talas, the next two bcing
squarc in plan, the next round, and thcn the
rvl.rolctoppcd by a citctir likharc. In contrastto
P , l l r v r s r r p e r , t r r t c t u r eusl .t i c h \ c c r ) r t o r i s c
directlv out of the walls bclorv, the suPcrstruc-
ture of the rirrdzn is rcccsscd.Like the main
ternple, tlte parivarrrshrineshave pilasteredwalls
and appcar vcry simple duc to thc minimal
figLrrative sculpture. These shrincs arc single-
storied, consisting of a gafihaglha, and ardha-
napdapa alad a rowd iikhara above the shrine.
Tlre entranceto tl'\c dhamar4apaofthe main
ter.npleis flanked by a pair of dvarapalas(Ftg.
zr.3) that are approxirnately buman-size. These
two-arr-nedfigures stand in the twistcd rnanner
with one leg turned acrossthe body often seenin
southernIndian styles.Each figure rcstson a club
and has one hand in the uisuaya, or wondcring,
pose. In style, the slendcr bodics are part of the
southcrn trxdition visiblc since the Setavahana
and Iksveku periods, although detailsof the cos-
tur.neand jewelry nay bc indicative of regional
or local styles.
Witlrin, dre ardhanax/apa has six pillars,
arrangcdin two rows of thrcc (Fig. zr.z). In
sizc,botlr insideand orLt,the uimaflais larger than
the ardhana4dapa and it consistsof two elernents,
the garbhagfia propcr and a surrounding pas-
sagcr,vay.Perhaps the rnost striking fcaturc of
tl.re shrine area is the circular plan of the gar-
hlngrha.The srrrroundingpass.rgcwayis very
narrow, suggesting that it rnay not hxve bccn
used for circunumbulation by devotees but
may h.rvc bccn n functionrl fc.trureserring rs r
transition bctlvccn the circular wall of the sl.rine
and tlrc rcctanguiar exterior of tl:'e vimana.
Thc circular slrrine containsa liiga md a yoni.
'Whether
or not tlis temple and others of
Vijayalaya's time are truly "Cola" r,vorksis un-
certain, but by dle time of Aditya I, Vijayalaya's
son, wlro ruled fiom 87r to go7 and extended
the Cola holdings to includc former lands of
the Pallavas extcnding to the Rastrakula ter-
ritorrcs, a Cola stone tradition nust havc been
well established.Inscriptional evidence suggests
rh.rrAdity.rI rvrsrccpon.ib]c[or thc consrrrrcrion
of rows of Siva tcrnplcs that wcrc likc thc
"banncrs of his own victorics"-of stonc on thc
two banks of thc Kaviri Rivcr.T Onc author has
listed r.norc than forty temples belonging to this
period,s although it is likcly that some of these
were monurnents of thc Muttarayars, Iruk-
kuvels, or other contemporary families. Aditya
l's son, Par5ntakaI (r. Sol-SS), was also respon-
siblc for building a nurnbcr of tcrnplcs, includ-
ing a funerary tenlrple (pallippadai) over the
remains of his fathers and thus, under Aditya
I and Par-ntaka I, Cola art as we know it
received its first major impetus.
Thc surviving templcs of this carly stagc, thc
late ninth and first half of thc tenth centuries,
arc gencrally small in size,rnade completely of
stone (in contrast with later temples, which
oftcn have brick supcrstructurcs),and consistof
a joited a hana4/apa artd vimdna. Invariably,
thesetcn.rplesdisplay exquisite workmanship. A
finely preservedexample is the Brahmepuri$vara
ternple at Pullar.nangai(Fig. zr.a). Thc tcrnple
was clcarly in cxistcnccby 918, asindicated by an
inscription datcd in the clcvcnth year of Par-n-
taka I, at which timc it had alrcady bccn conse-
cratcd.r0However, construction may have taken
placc during the lattcr part of Aditya I's reign or
during the first part ofthat ofParantaka I. Dedi-
cated to Siva (the name Brahrnapuri(vara is not
original), the temple faceseastand consistsof the
ardhama4dapa xtd uinana (Ftg.zt.5), akhough the
front portion of the a hama1lapa has been
obscuredby the addition of a later mukhanatllapa
and tlre superstructureof the vitnata has urtdev
gone modi{ication in post-Cola times. The
rcmplc i. in a shrllow mrsonrl pit. a
"irurtcd
fairly common feature of errly Cola temples,
apparcntly originally intended to havc bccn filled
with water. The lowest member of the tcmple
base is carvcd in an inverted lotus design, and
thus the tenplc wasprobably conceivedsymboli-
cally as rising fron thc cosmic watcrs on a lotus.
Such direct use of water and water symbolism
secmsparticulxrly to have been a southem lndian
feature, as suggestedin earlier Pallava cavesand
 THECO}A AND RELATED
SCHOOLS J'J

lrrakrila ter-
sEhave been
rnce suggesls
construction
iere like the
: stoneon the
re autl-rorhas
nging to this
ome of these
evars, Iruk-
rilies. Aditya
, also respon-
rples, includ-
ai) over the
mdcr Aditya
n-e know it

rlr' stage,the
rr}r centudes,
ompletely of
opies, which
rnd consistof
r- lnvariably,
rkmanship. A
hmapuri Svara
. I ne temPle
rJicatedby an
'ear of Paran-
r been conse- 2r.4. Brahmapuri6varatemple, south wall fron south-
zl have taken east. Pullamangai, Tamil Nedu, India. C0la period.
Ca. late ninth--early tenth century.
ra I's reign or
rtaka L Dedi-
riivara is not
corrsistsof the
. ahhough the
rpa has been
w*hawa4lapd
iaa has under-
I flmes. IIIe
risonry Plt, a
Cala temPles,
are beenfilled
o: the temple
:. design, and
:ir-edsymboli-
re:: on a lotus.
:e: symbolism zr.,s. Plan of Brahnlpuriavara temple. Pullamangai,
:utrern Indian Tamil N,du, India. Cola period. Ca. late ninth-early
lava cavesand tenth century.
 TIIE SOUTII
514 LATER SCEOOLSOF TUE DECCAN AND

rr Ltl
on west wall of vifiafid'
Brahma- 2r.?. Litigodbhava comPosition 1frr
2r.6. Caneia on south wall of ardhana4,lapa'
-,"*of.. i,.li'","1.iit*" rempie.Pu)lamangai'Tamil Nadu' Gie
Tamil Nadu' lndia' la:t
'Cola
Putlamangai' r.rdi". C^ol" p"tiod. C". leteninth-early tenth century'
""ii*t, period. Ca late ninth-€arly tmth cenury'

E: Lrc=a
by the
preciseform' or the south wall ofthe airrana(identified Lc--c r:e
temples,although -of not in this scenes and tree above)' Liirgod-
fir" .*t.rio.t the ardhoma4(opa anduimara ".".t"p-tt"S In th. *.'t of rhe uinana (Fig' ,ialr-il - cr
are articulatedin the standarddivisions
ofbase' t't r,o"i.rutii q-f .i
,rlri,'st"lt"t" on the north o{ th< vimdno' and
-"11. ,op"rrt ucture, althoughtheseelements GiN::
"nd i^"tiv p"tga on the north wall of the ar- -;
diff", from thoseof the Vijayalaya Egr:
"onrii"t"bly zr.8)' As in standardicono-
Coli6u"." ,.-pl. at Nentamalai one of the dhonlaadapa"(Fig. fu-t z-r-:
ex- in Hinduisnr, the placement ;-- -:-*
-or, oro*inal,, elementsof the base'for
;t"ohj; ;'d.;
beglnrung ot
of yafis (lion$, which is com- Jf C"".Si and Dtrrga representthe lc ::r icr
a*ple, is rhe frieze of obstacles) and
The *Jti" Ot th. o"ve'coming
-olt.. Cut" t.-pl"t, bo*t earlyandlate of religious victory' respec-
E::]E

wirh pilastered niches th" rsi._c: .'

;;llt ;.. ".ii.rr"-.nt of Daksir'rarnurrt
(a*,"eutlnl "ni"ul"t"d rively.Likewise-the appearance
that protrude flrom the suface of ie :.ri u
and (the "southern Form") of Siva is appropnate
it. *.ii, it aoai"g one eachon the south appears
lr:;:-*e ..
and one on the io the south, while Brahma commonly
north sidesof the ardhand4lapo, in southem-style temPles' The =o..;
sides of the I)imana' h ;;';i";,h
.ooth. *"rt, and north of the Lingodbhavarnurti in the
$\::ti:]\

to be later variants olr oi"""t"""t :ai .-i B

form, thesenichesaPPeu indicates the Saivite dedication
i""t,-"
ail" ,r"*-.n of eariiletPallav" walls asseen'for "i"ft" and carriesthe implicit suggesuon P:-;.r-.-u
Mi'mallt' ofthe temple, S.n-rrc;t
example, in the "Arjuna rutho" at over
(Fiq. 14.23). of Sir,"', in{ittit"tt"ss and his supremacy ;-_tta rn,
olu"m
t;-;;.?,
pro"."diog clockwise around the ' 'ili. and Brahma.
Visnu i.:x- !
systematlc iiig.aUft""" form(Fig'zr'7)isexplained
temple, rhe /erako5lhas teveal a ic: res;r
i" of Pure4as'Supposedly'Viqlruand
with Ga4eia
i"o.iler"phi. program beginning
l:5 iLal
"-""^tit
Brahm-awere engagedin an aJgument
concem-
(Fig zr'6)'
r" irrJ..'r.ft*"tt if rhearihanandapa archi- -= *- .r'
ll-*iti"rt ."" oi ,i"* *"' thi principal
(now lost)
and proceeding with Dak5in:rmUni
 THE COIA AND RELATID SCHOOTS J'J

pilasteredniches, is used not only in early Cola

ternples such as this, but also is found in later
monuments. Gaqre6a, in the south niche of the
mdhanandapa (Fig. zr.6), for example, is accom-
panied by gazas(he is lord of rhc ganas.as one
of his names, Gar.rapati,implies) and his mouse
u7hana appearsat the upper right. The Durga
group on the north side of the a hamatl(apa
(Fig. zr.8) similarly contains the main figure
of the goddes standing atop the head of the
defeated,decapitatedMahisa, and she is flanked
by representationsof her lion, deer, and male
devoteesin the side niches. The composition of
the Durga group recalls the Durga rclief in
the Varaha cave at Memallapuram (Fig. r4.rz),
including the devoteewho is about to decapitate
himself at the lower left.
Above each sculpture group at Pullamangai is
a decorated tympanlrm dclicatcly carvcd with
foli,rteand othcr moriG thar carricsout minor
aspectsof the templc's iconographic program.
6a well of vimAnd, 2I.8. Durgi on noth wall of a hanu1lapa, Btehma- Stylistically, the figures revcal a debt to Pallava
puriivara temple.Pullamangai,Tardl Nadr:, India. art in the relaxedposturesand naturalisticstances.
Fi, Tamil Nedu,
l)' tenth century. Cola period.Ca. lateninth-eariytenthcentury. A slenderbody type prevails,asis generally true
sinceSatavahana-Iksvtkutimcs in the southeast
regions, and the high headdresses and detailing
dentfied by the tect of the universe when a giant liiga appearcd of the jewelry and garments further reveal ties
rbove),Lingod- before them. Brahma took t}rc form of a goose to Pallava and other south Indian styles.
hs uinana (Fig. (hathsa),or rode upon his hathsarahana, to seek l n a d d i t i ' n t o t h c r n c i n i c o n i c6 g t r r eg r o r r p s .
the dmana, rr'd the top of the linga, whlle Vi94u took the form the temple is adorned with numerous, smaller,
;all of the ar- of a boar to find the bottom. When neither sculptcd vigncttcs, including standing figures
srandardicono- could find the end of the lihgo they realized that within small pavilionlike forms that project fiom
they were in the presenceof something greater the upper portion of the wall of the temple
, the placement
he beginning of than themselves,namely Siva, and they began above the empty pilasterednichcs fanking the
f obstacles)and to pay devotion to it, at which time Siva mani- iconic niches. These omate architectural forms
ncoryJ resPec- fested lrimself in the liiga. (According to some add a great deal ofvisual interest to thc extcrior
rf Dakgiqamnrti versionsof the text, Brahma did not admit that of the temple and consist of pilastered nichcs
r is appropdate he had not found the end of the liiga arrd, surmounted by candtolalas.A lively figure in a
nmonly appears becauseof this lie, was doomed to have no naturalistic pose adorns each of these pavilions.
e temples. The temples dedicated to him-a modification un- In addition, the baseof the temple is dccorated
ramfrti in the doubtedly intended to explain the almost total with morc than sixty small panels located
ir-ite dedication lack of Brahma temples in South Asia.) hr the beneath thc pilasters of the wall (Fig- zr.9),
plicit suggestion Pullamangai relief, the central niche contains including representationsof aspectsof Siva and
tuPremacyover Siva appearing in the liiga while Brahma flies Visnu, episodesftorr. the Ranayapa, and other
above and Vigqru furrows below. In the side subjects.
rr.7)is explained niches, Brahma. (left) and Visqru (riglrt) pay Another temple approximatcly contemPo-
rheir rec^e.t. t^ en'. raneous with the Brahmapuri(vara temple at
redly,Vigru and
This format, in which a central niche contain- Pullamangai is the Nege(varasvami tcmple at
iunlent concern-
' principalarchi- ing the principal subjectis flanked by subsidiary Kunbakonam, which hastraditionally beenheld

-
5]O IATER SCHOOLS OF THI] DTCCAN AND THT SOUTH

{
a

2r.9. Detail, basc of Brahrnapuriivarx tcmple. Pulla-

mangai, Tanil Nadu, India. Cola period. Ca. latc
ninth-early tenth ccnlury.

I
2r.ro. PlaD of Nascivarrsve ti ter11ple.
Kunbakonarn,
Tanil Nadu, India. Ca. lateninrh exrrhtenth century-

fril
to be a Cola tenple from the reign of Aditya i
i"
or Par-ntaka I.1r It has rightly been noted tlut
if this templc were not obscured by thc many
Iater additions and surrounding buildings oflatcr
date (which makc it difiicult to photograph),
as well as by stucco accretions ro the original
structure, it would indeed bc one of the finest
of all South Asian artistic crcations.As is typical
of this period, the original structure consistedof
an adhana4lapa and a vimaxa (Fig. zr.ro).
The beauty and elegancc of this period's
sculpture style is nowhere more clear than in
the figures that adom the pilastcred nichcs on
the exterior walls of the temple. These include
deities in the principal niches, such as a higlly
naturalistic and rclaxed reprcscntation of Siva
as Bhiksttana on thc norrh side of the temple
(Fig. zr.rr). In this form, which was extremely
popular in south Indian art, Siva becomes an
asceticin order ro atone for his sin of having
cut of one of Brahma's headsin anger. Forbid-
den to wear clothing, Siva is adomed only with
ornamcnts, including a snake around his hips.
 THE COIA AND RELATED SCHOOLS

2r. r r. SivaasBhiksetanaon north wall of NageSvaras- zr.rz. Femalefigure o1INagejvarasvani temple.Kun1-

Xumbakonatn,
vami temple. Kumbakona0r, Tamil Nadu, Ildia. Ca. bakonam, Tamil Nadu, India_ Ca. late ninth,early
snih century.
late ninth-carly tenth century. tenth centuty.

tr of Aditya I In addition, he holds a skull cup in his front left

:n noted that hand, representing the skull of Brahme, wirh
bv the manv which Siva begged for food. Secondaryniches
ldingsof later on the temple walls contain representationsof
photograph), standingfi gures,eachapproximately human-size,
rhe original some of which may depict charactersfrom the
of the finest Ranaydt-16 (Figs. zr.tz-t4)-rz Theseare so lifelike
. As is typical and naturalistic in pose, facial Gatures, and
e consisted of individualization of form that it is possiblethat
. z r .r o ) . the representations are based on specific in-
this period's dividuals. Such a tradition is unusual but not
clearthan in unknown in south Indian art, and may be traced
ed nicheson at least to the Pallava period. The naturalism of
theseinclude the figures indicates a predilection rhat was
r.as a hig,hly maintained in the south at least since Iksvaku
mon or )rva times. Again, the slender body type with the
rf the temple narrow ankles, wrists, waist, andjoints prevails,
rasextremely except in specific instances where fuller forms
becomesan suggestthe requisites of the subject marter, as
in of having seenin one ofthese niche figures (Fig. zr.14).
oger.Forbid- Many ofthe figures appearto be almost totally
rd only with 2r.rj. Male figure on NageSvarasvenitcmple. Kum-
fiee from the niches,and convey the appearance
bakonam,Tarnil Nadu, India. Ca. late ninrh-early tenth
rnd his hips. of truly standing within them rarher than being cenrury.
J]8 TATER SCHOO1SOF THE DECCAN AND THB SOUTH
Anardvati was in good condition at least until
A..D. rz34 and it is known that the Co]as were
active in this very region at certain trmes.
Another important monument from this
early phase of Cola art is the Koranganatha
templc at Srinivasanallur,which may have bcen
buili during the reign of Aditya I or that of
Parentaka i (fig. zr.r5).ta On the exterior, the
temple's division lnto thc a hanan/apa ar'd
,inino ^pp" rs typical. However, within, a
vestibule or antcchamber (antarala) separatlng
thc pillarcd hall from the shrine is a very unusual
addiiion to the carly Cola temple plan (Fig.
z r . r 6 ) . A : i s g c n e r ailn C o l r - p e r i o da r c h i t e c t t t r e .
rlte ardhana4dapais flat roofed wlrile thc rirraaa
risesin ticrs (rala),in this case,two (/r,ltala),and
is then cappcd by a square gritla (neck) and
likhan. Made of brick rathcr than stone, the
supcrrtructtlre of thc vinata apparcntly'uffqrqd
danrrge ,nd has bcen rcpaired l hcrcfore. the
cxterior dctailing of this portion of the temple
tcmPle.Kum-
21.14.Male figurc on Nageivarasvani cannot be studied as a reliable index of the
tcn'h
bakonan,Tamil Nadu,India.Ca.lateninch-early orisinal form. The cntire temPlc is situatedin a
rnaionry-lincd pit and the lower moldings of
the base includc a nassive double lotus, again
in an apparentattenPt to suggestthat the temPle
attached to then. One autho. has correctly ariseson a lotus from thc cosmic waters A plank
remarked that COla sculPturesare best seen in acrossthe fiont of the moat enablcsthe devotee
the architectural settings for which they were to enter the templc rvithout rvalking in the
intended,rl due to the dynamic interaction watcr. Circunambulation of the structure was
createdby the relationship of the figure and the undoubtedly performed on the outer side of
niche. In spite of the naturalism, even in the the moat.
facial features,the figures fall within what must
be consideredto be the stylistic parameters of
south Indian sculpture and reveal a clear tie to
Thc carved dccoration of the exterior of the
tcmple ranks anong thc best of this period A
yali lriezealotlg tlte ba'e i. frrrclycrrvcd. con-
l
earlier traditions. Thus, the face of the sculPture .i'iinq of .rnirnacedforms of lions. r' wcll as
in Figure zr.r4 looks remarkably similar to the rnd evcn .onte figtrrc5.The main
"l"ph.,ntr.
icorrographicprogr'rrrr oI tl'e tcrnple is car-
f"cesof maoy early imagesfrom Andhra Pradeslr,
particularly those seen on Buddha {igures frorn ri"d o.tt ty approxin.ratelyhuman-sizcfigures in I
ihe Satavahanaand Ikgvaku periods; it is also pil:rsterednichcs on the cxrerior wajls oI rhe
'arr)haunndapa
possible that the garment falling over the left
ihoulder is derived frorn Buddhist styles of the pattem tra;eablc
and uinana in rhe couth Indian
to the Pallava period. A deco-
l
K61ra River region. Thus the earlier Andhra , r , " d r v - p " n u - ( F i g s .u r . r 7 . z r . r o ) w a sp l a c e d
traditions may have perrneatcd the south and ,bou.'.".lt principJ ti.h.. ,ltlrotrgh thar on
persistedin the later style developments.How-
!ver, it is an intriguing possibility that the Colas
or Cola artists had actually seen some of the 2r.16. Plar of Koransanatha ternplc. S Div3sanallur,
I
Andhra region Buddhist remains, for inscrip- Tanril Nadu, India. C61a Pcriod. Ca. tate ninth-+ar1y
tional evid-encereveals that the Great Stupa at tenth centurY.
 THB COIA AND RTLATEDSCHOOTS Jrg
r- ,: untll
:_ r lvere
s{
,l
' :. r11 this ir

i . q.rnetha
..'e bcen
rhat of
:. rrior, the
,.::o1raand
: ',r'ithin, a
- : jeparating
-.c11'unusual
: .: plan (Fig.
- .uclitecture,
; the lirlana
dtitala), al'd
; (Iieck) and
:lrn stone, thc
i.:(-ntly sufi-ered
Thercfore, the
..f thc temple
rnclcx of the
:i siturtedIn a
:: moldings of
: ; lotus, again
:-r.rrthe tcr-t-rple
. ..rcrs.A piank
- :. tl-redevotcc
:lking in the
: rlrLlclule .was
2 r . r J . K o r a n e i n a r h a r c n p l e f r o r n s o u t h e a s t .S d r l i v a s a n a l l u r T
, arlil
Nadu, India. Cola period. Ca. iatc ninth-carly rcnth ccntnry.
rLrter sidc of

=-fr] r
-:..:rriorof thc
':.ris
p c r i o d .A
cirvcd, con-
ilrF
::.. as rvell as
:-,. The rrrain
: i:r:Plc is car-
: -,:2.'figurcsin
'..,rlls of the
. .outh lndian
'-::.,J.A deco- il
:, ..-aspllced
- ',:gh rhat on

': r,\ rsllallur,

l!
:.:: ninth early ,p - ,p _
.?. i +
'':
J2O LATERSCI{OOLSOF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH
2r.r8. Fcnlale frgure on rvcst !r-a1l of /i,rira, Koran-
Nadu, Indix
$nath:r tenlple. Sriri\':tsanallllr, Tlllil
Cola period. Ca. latc ninth-early tcDth cenlury.
the north is missing. The niche on the south of
the adhama4/apais empty but thc n.rainniche on
the soutlrofthe yilrbra containsr representJtion
of Siva Dakginamurti (Fig. zr.r7) accompanied
by animals and seatedhuman devoteesarranged
in tiers in the fanking niches as well as large,
standing malc attcndants in separatcnichcs on
eithcr sideofthe main composition. 5iva, beauti-
fully carved, sits in a peaceful attitude. Thc
central deuakasthaon the west of the temple is
empty, the in.nge having been lost, but it is
flani<ed by a pair of Gmalc attendants in the
pilasteredniches to either side (Fig. zr.I8). Like
others at this temple, the figures in tlis group
display a great degree of refinement in the
carving and in the vcry naturalistic poses and
attitudes, and seem to be situated comfortably
within their narrow niches. The figures are
perhaps rnore omately decorated rvith jewelry
than hasbeen scenin the preceding nonuments,
posibly an indication ofa stylistic direction. Thc
highly ornate, iloriated tympanun.r above the
niche on tl:e west (Fig, zr.r9) carriesa representa-
tion of Varaha holding the earth goddess, a
subjectwhich may be important in deterrnining
 THB CoLA AND REIATTD SCHOOIS Jzt

,t.17. Si.'" Dakgiqamiirti or

south wall of rimana, Kot^t-
ganatha temple. Snnivasanallur,
Tamil Nadu, India. Cola period.
Ca. lateninth-+arly tenth century.

2r.r9. Tympanum on west, Ko-

ranganttha temple. Sriruvasanal-
tur, Tamil N.du, India. Cdla
period. Ca. late ninth-early tenth
century.

the identification of the now lost image of a
deity originally placed in the niche below.15
The deeply cut forms and delicacy ofthe carving
testify to the skill of the craftsmen. On the north
side of the uimdna, the main nicbe contains an
image of Brahma, asis common in Cola-period
t"-il"r, he too is fanked by standing at-
n the south of "od
tendlants.The last ,y'evakasthanrche ot the temple,
main niche on
that on the north wall of the ardhawa1(apa,
rePresentaaron
containsa seatedrepresentationof Siva. A pair of
) accompanied
iotees arranged tludrapalaswere probably originally placedin the
rvell as large, now empty niches fanking the enrrance ro the
temple on the east.In contrast to the Pil.stered
,rate niches on
and-figured exterior walls of the temple, the
n. Siva, beauti-
interioi is starkly plain except for the pillars
anitude. The
and pilasters;although it is possiblethat the walls
I rhe temple is
lost, but it is were originally painted. (Traces of paint are
found at Narttemalai on the flat walls and this
iendants in the
ig. zr.i8). Like may document what may have been a comrnon
practice.)
s in this group
oement in the The next phase of architecture and sculpture
following the reigns of Adirya I and Parantaka I
listic poses and
has been called the Sernbiyan Mahadevi phase,
eJ comfortablY
named after the queenof Gar.r{araditya(949-57),
tre figures are
who died early; his surviving queen became a
d rvith jewelrY
great patron of the arts through her religious
trq monuments,
devotion. It is thought tlat her influence on art
c direction. The
was felt for a period ofabout sixry years,during
rum above the
which time she founded and patronized numer-
ic a representa-
ous establishments.Inscriptions clearly testify
Lrth goddess, a
to her activities from the time of Parentaka I
in determining
duough the reigns of her son Uttama I (ca.
969-8j) and the first part of the reign of the
greatRajarajaI (085-ror4).During the Sembiyan
Mahadevi phase,numerousolder brick temples
were rebuilt and "almostovemightreplacedby
thosein stone."16
The monuments of the SernbiyanMahadevi
phase mark a departur€ from the grace and
delicacyof the earlierCola and relatedtemPles,
which preserved somethingof the naturalismin
the figure style and poseof figures that had ex-
istedsincePallavatimes.Instead,figurestook on
a stiffer, drier appearance, anticipatingthe forms
to be found on later Cola monurnents.In this
way, the south€rndevelopments parallelmany
of the trendsin other parts of SouthAsia,for
by about the late tenth and early eleventh
centuries many other regional schools also
underwent a sort of "stylistic dessication"in
which imagesoften seemedto be l.iGlessrepeti-
tions of earlier, livelier formulae.In southIndia,
as in other parts of the subcontinent,this may
have been Dartlv the result of codification of
iconic typeJand'development of greateradher-
enceto textualorescriptions.
Many of the monuments of the Sembiyan
Mahadeviperiodhavebeendamaged, somehave
been refurbished so that the original forms are
difiicultto distinguish, andothersareofmediocre
or poor artistic qualiry. A rePresentation of
Durga in tle north wall devakastha ruche of
 522 LATER.SCHOOLSOF THE DTCCAN AND THE SOUTH
2r.2o. Durg: on north wall, Agastyeivara. remple. undertaking.l? It was thus the product of a
Anangur,TarnilNadu, India. Cola period.Scmbiyan
Mahtdevtphase. Ca.A.u.979.
the Agastye6varatemple at Anangur (Fig. 2r.2o)
suggestssomething ofthe style change,however,
and contrasts sharply with female {igures of a
slighdy earlier date (Fig. zr.rz). The temple was the fact that the Raslrakutas had been over-
built by Sembiyan Mahadevi around 979,
demonstrating that by the late tenth century,
the figure style had lost the gentle countenance
that had characterized much of earlier south
Indian art.
If size alone was the cdtedon for quality of
art, there is no doubt that the Great Temple at
Tanjore (Tafijdviir) would stand among the
foremost architectural creationsproduced in the
world prior to the twentieth century. Indeed,
at the time it was built, it was not only one of
the largest buildings in South Asia but in the
world. Ir seemsto representa moment in ancient
lndian history when the apogeesof both the
political and artistic realms coincided, for the
size and grandeur of the temple are an eloquent
expressionof the extent and power of the Cola
empire under Rejaraja I, the creator of the
monument. Many ofthe architecturalfeaturesof
the temple must be classified as innovations,
that is, they are more than simply the next step
in a continuum of artistic developments from
earlierperiods: the sizealonewas unprecedented.
Thus, while it is by no meansthe only surviving
temple from the reign of R.jaraja I, it is indeed
the most comrnanding and the supremeexample
of what might be calledthe late Cola phase.
The Great Temple is also called the Brhadc6-
vara (Great Lord), in rcfercnce to Sirr"'s gre"t-
ness. Furthcr, it was called Rajarajefuaraafter
Rejareja I himself, in with the
"""ord"tr..
common practice of naming the lirig,zenshrined
in a Saivite temple after a famed individual or
the king or patron. RajarajaI, "King of Kings,"
as he named himself upon his coronarion in
98J, nust have cnlistedcraftsmenwbo had been
working at other projects in thc empire in order
to create his great monumenr, for it was built
in approximately seven yeafs, from roo3 to
roro, a significant achievemcnt for such a vast
unified, concertedbuilding efort, conceived and
executed nearly at the sxnle time, and although
additions and modifications were made in the
following centuries, it should be considered
largely a product of the reign of Rajaraja I and {
a testimony to his greatnessas a king.
Rajaraja I's rise to powcr was facilitated by
powercd by the Later Calukya Taila II in 98o. -.,:--
Thc kingdom he had inherited was rather -*
small due to the blow that had been dealt the lry--
Colas by the Ragtrak[1aKlsna III at the Battle
of Takkolam during the reign of Parentaka I.
q+t
| , -t-
"
However, under him, the empire grcw to be
strong, well organized, and wealthy, having
considerableinfuence not only in India but in -+-
Southeast Asia as well. Rajarrja I naintained
a large navy and invaded Sri Lanka, making
Polonnaruwa a provincial capital. In addition,
# .-
he gained Nolambavadi and Gangavadi, which
furthered the conflict with the Later Calukyas,
who had taken over the forrner Rastraklga
-n
lands.
The Rajaraje(varatemple is contained within
an enolmous rectangular enclosure(Figs. zr.zr, -.i
\-
zt,zz). Prcceding the temple on thc castare two
temple gateways (gopuns; Figs. zt.zr, 2r.23,
 THE COIA AND RIIATTD SCI]OOTS 52J

:.:.ovatlolls,

::::il1ts fron1 :
:::lccdented. ,3
'. survlvlng
: -. :r is indeed

:, f1l:1se.
-: :.rc Brhade6-
Sile's qrcat-
.::'.'r'ara a er
..:.' r.-ith thc
:.:1.:cnslrrined
: :rJividual or
:::-- of Kings,"
, t:onauon tn
...i: o had been
: -:ir.'itr order
: 1: l-as built
::t:n roo3 to
: r'.rch a vast
::idr.lct of a
: r:rccivc.l and
.1 .,1r1.^,,o11
: ::lcle in the
:- considcrcd
'.'-
..:: rreja I atrd

::.:ilitatecl by
. - D('en OVer-
:.:-.l II in 98o.
.t .,.,,rs rathcr
.: rr dealt the
. .: rhe Battle
,rlrantaka I.
:: :Ia$' tO be
. :;:r. h:rving
:: I::.lie brrt in
- ll:rinteined
-. - --^l-:-^

1 addition,
:.:-,ldi, rvhich
:...: Calukyas,
:.: Rlstrakuta

-:.:rcd rvithin
: F i g l . ur . z r ,
, :.i I are tWO
2I.2r. Rejarajelv:ra tcmplc fron rvcst looking northcast. Tanjore,
:,.:r,21.231 Tamil Nadu, India. Cola pcriod, rcign ofRajaraja L C:r. roo3-ro.
524 LATER SCHOOIS OF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH
zr.zz. Plan of Rajarejcivara
templc. Tadore, Tamil Nddu,
India. Cola period, reign of Re-
jaraja I. Ca. roo3 ro.

l
t
I fi

=!EiL
zr.z3. Outer 3opura from west,
Rajarlje(vara temple. Tanjore,
Tamil Ntdu, India. Cola period,
reign of RajarajaI. Ca. roo3-ro. G
_t ,,, ,q,r 2gc
2r.24. Inner 3oPara frorn east'
RaiJr:ieivrra tenrPle Tanjorc.
T;il-Nidu, Indi.r. col.r period.
t
reign of Rejaraja[. Ca. Ioo3-ro' *
 THT COLA AND RXIATED SCHOOIS 52S

::::i1 Nadu,
: :':sn of Ra-

:::.;. Tanjore,
:: Cola period,
I Cr. Iooi-ro.

:::.:. Tanjorc,
: Cola period,
. Cir. roo3-Io.
 52b LATER SCTTOOTS
OF THE DTCCAN AND THr SOUTH

zr.2+). Gopuras{e not a new Gature at this time

in south Indian architecture, for formauve exam-
ples are knom as earV as the Pallava period.
However, the forrn and emphasis given to them
here marks a departure from earlier tradition and
paves the way for the ultimate development of
the south Indian gopura into the dominant
architectural Gature of the temple comolex.
In later sourh Indian temples. thi creation of
gopurusis intimately linked wirh the construction
of additional enclosure walls (Tnaharas) b'alt
successivelyaround the main temple. Ultimately,
as many as seven concentric prakards were b.ullt
around some tenples, each having one or more
monumental goprras. Usually, the gopuras farth-
est from the center of the temple, that is, the
latest ones, tended to be largest in size.Because
ofthis, it has often been suggestedthat over the
centuries, architects and Datrons became more
ambitious and technically berter able to create
monumental forms and that the laree size was
thus a sign of the later date. While t"his,nay be
partially true, it is clear that a precedent for
such sizedifferentiation existsit the two gopuras
of the Rajarajeivara temple, where it may be 2r ,25.Drardpaldo\ eastface,innergopura,
Rejarijeivara
{irmly establbhed that both gateways, though temple.Tanjore,Tamil Nadu,India.Colaperiod,reign
of RajarajaI. Ca. roo3-ro.
different in scale, are of the same date, both
having been completed by ror4 as known from
inscriptional evidence.l8Therefore, another, but
still unknown, reason must explain the delib- in south Indian gopura architecture, and that PCErs- tl
erate change in size between the gopuras. served the practical purpose of rninimizing the rPPcn-{
The form of the Rajaraje6vara golnrcs camot weight of the superstructure. The superstructures Tffi
be explainedasan outgrowth ofearlier entrance- of the two gateways are similar, although that .:r'.'rr r
ways alone, in spite of their functional link with of the outer gopwa has {ive tiers, while that of ro&
such structures. Harle has clearly shown that the inner has three. Each is topped by a barrel- -llgd
the form of these gateways is based on the roofed iala. The exterior of the gateways are Firiir d
form of the vimana itself in terms of methods elaborated with pilastered niches, and some i.'iqEri
of construction, disposition of elements, and sculpture, including a pair of monumental bv :n <a
even iconographic patterns, a fact verified by dvarupalasflenking the eltranceway on the outet \a.n<ii m
an examination of Hindu architectural texts, face of the ir.ul,ergoputa (Eig. zt.z5), which are nos boc
which reveals that new instructions were nor approximately two and a half tines human-size. m-ain rem
devised for the building of goputas,but rather, Each standswith one leg thrust acrossthe body irtg. pil
instructionsfor the zlnarcwere "pirated" to serve in a_manner not unlike contemporaneous images
in the new building.le A major modification, of of Siva as Nataraja (Fig. 2r.34). The four-armed, &rine are
course, is the creation of a passagewaythrough fanged, dvarapalas are strikingly different in $'est (Fig,
the gateway to allow novement through it. style from figurative carvings of the earlier rhe east a
Although the basements of the Rajarajeivara phasesof Cola a!t, for they are heavier in body ro the anfz
gopurasare made of stone, the upper storiesare build and more elaborately omamented- In of ttre ten
brick, a combination that becomes the norm addition, in spite of their presumed dynamic Althour
 THE COIA AND REIATTD SCHOOTS 527

3,':Fry'

-.:. R.jar.jeivara 2I.26. Detail, lowcr iier of rinrfla wall, Rajaraje6vara

renlplc. Tan-
.: :eriod, reigD Jore, Txmil Nidu, India. Cola pcriod, rcign ofRajara.jaL Ca. rooj_
ro.

:::e. and that poses, the figures are remarkably static in extelior treatmcnt of the walls o{ thc uinata
:rnimizing the appearance,almost totally lacking the scnseof with its hcavily reccsscdand projccting nichcs,
,:!arstructufcs spontaneousmovement within the architcctural dceply carved pilastcrs, and huge, carved-in-
.:.rhough that context so often seenin earlier Cola and Pallava the-round figures creatcsa very differcnt efect
'''.'hilethat of works. on thc viewcr (Frg. zt.z6). The schemeis much
: bv a barrel- Aligned with the two gopwas on thc cast more elaborate rhan that of carlier ternples,
:alelvays are within the compound.
_-1
is the main templc consisting not only of the major der.'akasthas
1 ;. :. ,
l.. and some dedrcxrcdro Sivr. The Sivl rcmplc is prcceded but intermcdiary pillar and vase motifs (&arr6&a
nonunental by an enormous monolithic reprcscntation of paijara).Tlrc deeplycarvedyali fiiczc5cp.rraring
'. -.n rhe outer Nandi measuring nearly six metcrs in lcngth, the base of the temple (which is carved with
r_r, rvhich are now housed in a pavilion of a later date. The iengthy inscriptions) fiom dre wall area further
.--human-size. main temple consistsof a pillared porch, rwo enlivcns the wall surface. Thc lower ticr of
:.ris the body largc pillared nat/apas (mukhanaxdapa and. nichcs on tlte vimdxa wall contains mainly rep-
.:raorlsitnagcs ardhanaxdapa),ar atltdrala (vestibule), and thc resentationsof differcnt forms of 5iva, inciuding
.:oUl-armed, shrine area, all aligncd on an axis fron.r east to sevcral dancing icons (Fig.2r.26). Dancing Siva
iiFerent in west (Fig. zr.zz).In addition to the starrcaseon forms arc cspeciallyprominent in rhc later Cola
: ,:he carlier the east,a monumental set of stairs grvcs access period and appcar commonly in metal sculpture
:r ier in body to the anturalaon both thc south and north sidcs (Figs.2r.33,2r.34)In this case,thc figure on thc
:=lented. In of the temple. right danccs the kalantukadance, thc dance of
'':j dynarnic Although based on earlier C61a forms, the time and cternity, whilc that on thc lcft performs
 J28 TATXR SCHOOIS OF THE DECCAN AND THT SOUTH
the morc well-known anarda tan/aua. In the
more hardencd treatment of detail and the less
spontaneousand naturalisticposeand expression,
the figures differ greatly from carly Cola and
Pallava works but arc typical of thc later Cofa
phase. The upper tier of figures on the vimanq,
anturala, and mukhamandapa walls bears thirty
representations of Siva in his Tripurdntaka
(Destroyer of Threc Cities) form, in which he
vanquishesthrce powerful demons by destroying
their thrce citadcis with a single arrow. Thc
popularitv of this theme at tlis temple suggests
that it had a special importance ro Rejaraja I
and may have servcd as a symbol of his military
strength and irrperial authority.zo
Perhaps the n.rost impressivc aspect of thc
Rajarajeivaratemple ts thc uinfina, wlic]r reaches
a h e i g h to f a p p r o r - i r n . r r esliyx r yr r e l c r se n d m r y
have been lhe taile\Lsrructrrrein Sourh Asia
at the time it was built (Fig. zr.zr). Consisting
of the base noldings, a two-tiered rvall,
a superstructurerising iu a scries of fourtecn "nJ
diminishing tiers, thc r.vhole is capped by a
monolithic ill/iara repured to weigh eighty
tons: it is traditiollally hcld that this ji&fiara was
set into its prescnt position aftcr iraving been
hauled up an inclined plane about six kilon.retcrs
long, the lcngth neccssaryto make the slope
gradual enor-rghfor the stonc to be movccl. Thc
tower is pyrarnidal and straight sided in profile,
in contrast to thc curved shape of northern-
style superstructurcs,and it is ciearly based on
earlicr south lndian prccedents, consisting of
a multiplication of elementsrather than creation
of a new form.
Accessto the anturald and garbhagrhaof the
tenlple is rcstricted ancl no photographs of
these arcas havc been publishcd. Thc liiga
enshrincd in thc sancruilry is said to be one of
the fincst in all ofsouth Asia, and like rhc renlplc
tlr.rt hou.c' it. colossrl in rj2q. [.r rhe uppcr
cylindrical stone alone mcasurestluce netcrs
i n h e i g h ra n d r r r o r ct h r n . t v e n r n e r c r ri r r c i r -
cLrmfercnce. Surrounding the sinctLrm 1s a
circulnambulatory passage,within which are
threc colossal sculpturcs of Siva, ouc cach on
the south, wcstr and nofih sidcs of the passage-
way, aswcll as a scricsof paintings on the walls.
These paintings arc of great interest for they
representrhc only major body of COla painting
known, having been discovered in r93o when
a later layer of painting of the Nayak period
began to f:rke off Only portions of the Cola
paintings have been published, but they show
a great lelationship to sculptural idioms of the
timc. A pair of malc figures that have been
identified, perhapswithout foundation, as Raja-
raja I hirnself and his grrr Karuvlr Devar (Pl.
33), shows that the dark line used to outline
the figures and the details of their hair, jewelry,
and facialfearure\cre.rtcs:r configurarionquire
sinilar to what one might expect if a drawing
was made of a typical Cola sculpture of this
date (compare F\g. 2r.26, right). The alrnond-
shaped cyes, the straight noses, and eveir the
shapes of the faces arc stylisdc features that
must have becn products of specific aesthctic
and/or iconograpllic concernson the pat of the
artists. In contrast with earlier Indic paintings,
such as thosc of Ajante, outline plays a much
more dominant role in delineating the forms,
and color is applied in a 1lat, rather than modu-
lated rnamrer so that thcrc is iittle suggestionof
light or three-dimensionality created by the
color. In gcncral, this conforns to the develop-
ments occurring within painting styles all over
South Asiil at dis titrre. It is seen,for example,
in Pala nranuscripts, and western Indian Jain
paintings of r slightly later date, and continues
to bc the trajor artistic modc in later south
Indian paintings as wcll. Tire palette includes
prinadly cath and nineral colors, relating thc
painting styles to those of the Dcccan as se€n
under the Rasrrakiitasat Ellora or carlier under
the Vekatakasat Ajant-.
The Rajarajcivaratcnple at Tanjorc marked a
dcparture from thc carlicr soLrthlndian temples,
which hacl becn smallcr in scale,morc personal
in fccling, and sin.rplerin form, and simtltanc-
ously pavcd the way for futurc strrlctLuesalso of
grand scale. Such inlluence was fclt altrost im-
mecliately,for RajarajaI's son, Rejcndra I, soon
followed his fathcr's cxaruplc and constructed
titc Cre.rr Tcrnplc. rlso crllcd Brlr.rdcivrra.ar
Gar\gaikondacolaputarn (Fig. zt.z7). ln totz,
Ralrrijr I h.rd nr:rdeRijcnJr:r rlrc yuvardja.or
heir apparent,in keeping with thc general Cola
practicc, arld by ror4, Rajcndra lvas on d1c
 THE ColA AND REIATED SCHOOTS J29

C : painting
c :;3o when
\."'-k Period
s :: rhe CO]a
':: rhey show
::ioms of the
r-:: have been
;:ion, as Raja-
;ur Devar (Pl.
seJ to outline
: hair, jewelrY,
.uuration quite
r if a drawing
llpture of this
I nc almono-
rnd even the
: teatures that
rcifrc aesthetic
the part of the
ndic paintings,
plays a much
ing the forms,
templc from southeast.Gairgaikorllacofapurarn,
zr.r7. Bghade6vara
rer than modu- Tamil Nadu, India. Cola period, reign of Rajendra I. Ca. third
i!- suggcstionof decadeeleventhcentury.
reated by the
ro the develoP-
: stl'les all over
r. for example, throne, ruling until ro44. RajendraI extendedhis Gangaikon{acolapuram, and it is likcly that the
:rn Indian Jain father's empire even furthcr, making it perhaps site had bcen consccrated before that timc.
r. and continues the most extensiveHindu stateofthe period.Dur- However, the temple was probably primarily a
in later south ing his reign, embassieswere sent to China (ro16 product of the third decadc of the eleventh
;.rlette includcs and ro33), and he made victorious crmpaign' century. Much of thc tcn.rplccomplex is now in
..r:. relating the into northem India and broughc water from ruins and some parts wcre apparently nevcr
)eccan as seen the holy Ganges River back to south India, completed. The main structure has a double-
..r carlier under thus "sanctifying" the Cola lands.Becauseofthis, storied basemcnt, as had thc Tanjore templc,
hc called himself conquerer of the Ganges and b:ut the uimonaiscs only in eight tiers to a height
.:r]orc marked a founded a new capital, Gangaikondaco]apuram of over fifty metcrs. In contrast to thc Tanjore
. ir.lian tcmPles, (City of the Cola who conquered the Ganges) towe!, the Gafrgaiko4dacolapuen'\ ltilafla l1as
:. nrore personal to comflemorate the event.zl an inwardly curved rather than straight profile
. ;nd simultane- Rajendra I's monumental temple at his new and the storiesseem to decreasemore abruptly.
r:r.rcturesalso of capital was obviously modeled after his father's Greatercrowding ofthe walls ofthe rimana with
s ilt almostim- temple at Tanjore, although the later structure sculpture than at Tanjore also occurs but, in
R:'endra I, soon is much more uneven in terms of the quality of typical Cola fashion, figures are displayed in
-,,J aonstauatad its workmanship. It is possible that the temple nicheswith accompanying scencs.
tsrhade6vara, at was begun even beforc the Ganges expedition Perhapsone of the finest sculpturesfrom this
::.:7). In rorz, (wlrich musr have taken place before toz3. as it temple is a represcntationof Cande6Snugraha-
:.-: )rttratajo,ot is mentioned in an inscription of that year) and morti (Fig. 2r.28). Siva'spower to give grace to
::.: gcneral Cdla was possibly named only after his victory. An a devoteeis calledarugraha.lrt tlis case,he grants
.a. ..4, ot th" inscription from rozg refers to a king's palaceat favor to a young boy named Can{eia, and
S3O IATER SCHOOLS OF THE DTCCAN AND THE SOUTH
2r.28. Siva confeEing grace on Caqdc(a, Brhadc(vara
tcmple. Gangaiko4dacolapuran,Tarnil Nadu, India.
Cola pcriod, reigr, of Rijcndra I. Ca. tbird decade
eleventhccntury.
therefore this for- of Si,r" is called Caqdci-
anugraham[rti- Car.rdeia was a resident of the
Cola country and a devotec of Siva. When he
tended cows, they gave so much milk that he
usedthc excessin his worship of Siva by pouring
it over liigas he made of sand. Thinking drat
Car.r{eia was being wasteful, iris father kicked
dorvn one of the liigas, whereupon Candeia,
without even looking up from his devotions to
seewho had done this, chopped of his father's
leg. Becauseof Ca4deh's devotion, Siva granted
graceto thc boy.In this rcliet, Siva,who is accom-
panicd by Parvati, placesa wrcath (symbolizing
victory) atop thc head of thc seatedboy. It has
bccn suggestcdz2 that this dcpiction may have a
double meaning,perhapsreferdng to thc victorics
won by Rajendri I through the g.".. of Siva ,s
well. Stylistically, the broad, full forms of thc
bodies anclthc lack ofarticulation ofthe muscles
and bones suggests ties to Deccan sculpture
schoolsrather than to strictly Tamil schools.It is
possiblethat Rajendra l's northward expeditions
had some effect on thc art.
By the latc Cola period, the basicconponcnts
ofthe devcloping south lndian temple were well
established,and included the principal templc,
grtcways, and subsidiary stluctures. In contrast
rvith many north lndian developraents,in which
tenples n-ray be discussedas single structures,
the devclopcd south Indian temple must be seen
as part of a large conplex, as in thc cascof the
Saivitc tcmple at Cidan.tbaram. Largely a
product of the rcign of Kulottunga I23 (ro7o
rr22) and his immediate succcssors, thc templc
was founded much carlicr and is even meirtioned
in relationship to certain Pallava kings. The
templc compound consistsof a serics of four
enclosurcsthat are arrangedin a rectilinear plan,
surrounded on all four sides by extremely
wide streets used by temple carts (radas) on
procession days. Thc strcets of the town have
been laid out in such a way that they seem
to be extensions of thc plan of the temple
itself. lndced, the temple was thc doninant
focus of the town as well as its symbolic center.
Covcring an area of about fifty-five acres,
the tenplc neasures more than 3Jo meters by
about 3r5 fifteen meters along the outer (fourth)
prakara.zaThe fourtlt prakan, which may be the
product of a later building period, defines thc
tcnple boundary, but it is at the third enclosure,
which has thc highest wall, that the sacred
precinct of thc tcmple properly begins. Much
of the ternple has bcen rnodified in later tincs,
including thc two rnain shrines, which are ap-
parenrlylergcly rnodcrn. One of the'c i' dedi-
catcd to Siv, ;. NrtareJa.Lord of Dance, in
corrnemoration of Siva'ssupposedpcrformance
of his cosmic dance at thc sitc. Thc other con-
tains an "cther" (akaia) liigq, onc offive liigas,
each made of one of the five clcmcnts of Indic
cosmology, enshrincd in south Indian tcrnples.
It hasbeensuggestcdthat some ofthe irrcgularity
of thc ovcrall plan of the temple cornplex may
be due to the accon-rr-nodation ofthc two sl-rrines.
'fhe
gopwas of the tltrd prakara, one of which
is illustrated here (Fig. zr.zg), and thc Nr'tf4
SaLLa(dancchall), a rna4(apa thlr takes the form
ofa temple cart (Fig. zr.3o), are ofthc latcr Cola
pcriod.
 THE COIA AND RTIATED SCHOOIS 5?T
r]rd expeditions

anc components
r:lrple werc well
incipal templc,
::c:. In contrast
:r.nts, in which
:rgle structures,
:-J n-rustbe seen
. :he caseof the
-- T -.^-l., -
': rr Tz3 /rarru
i!.:s. the temple
€\'en mentioned
;:'a kings. The
: leries of four
rr'crilinearplan,
'-...-,.-,-^t,,
2l-.s (lathas)on
:be towr have
::ar they seem
-i rh" t" -.1"
rhe dominant
i mbolic centcr.
zr.zg. SottthgopuraftoDr insideSiva ternple I-
ii--five acres, compound. Cidanbararn, Tamil Nadu,
_ijo meters by Indi.r.Complcrcdb) r272.
.:-outer (foufth)
:rc: may be the
rri. defines thc The thrd prakarais not perfectly rectangularin following the pattern of the othcr gateways).26
:ird enclosure, shape. Its folu gopurasare not arranged to be In plan, design,form, style, iconography, and
::r the sacred opposite each other; their positions may have to some extent size,there is an undcrlying unity
tregins.Much been determined by the location of already to the fow gopurqs.Each is built of stonc up to
rn later times, existing structures in the compound. The west the main cornice, above which the structure is
'.'.hich are ap-
- and eastgopurasare placed south of ccnter on of brick and plaster. Although the sizc of the
rheseis dedi- their sides, possibly to align thern with the towers vades slightly, each is about forty raeters
oi Dance, in central s]uines, which are off- center from the in height and has a seven-story supersrrucure
ej performance thitd prakarc- Harle has shown that all four consisting of -ialas,pavilions, and other features
Tre othcr con- gopuraso{ the thnd, prakara werc conceivcd at that were by this time comn-ronto both uimaxas
: of fivc liigas, one time, were part of an overall schemc, and rnd gopurasand is capped by a barrel-vaulted
:::ents of Indic are relativcly close in date. Thc west gopura, iala {Fig. zt.zg).Thc straight-sidedprofiles ofthe
Lrjian temples. tlte earliesr,
and that on rhc casrv ere in exisrence towers and the double-storied basemcnt recall
-:re
irregularity by rz5o, and the south gopura(Fig.2r.29) was tlr.euindna of theRajarejc(varatemple at Tanjore
: --omPlex may completed by o7z-25 The north gopura, o{ten (Frg. zr.n), supporring Harle's contcntion that
:1: rrvo shrines. considercd to be a product of the Vijayanagar the form of the goputa is indeed basedon that
. .,ne of which period because of an inscription and portrait of a pimana.At the cntranccway to eachgopura,
=--i thc Nrttc statue of the Vijayanagar king Krsqadevaraya, a seriesofpilasters is subdividcd into rcctangular
: ::kes the form was probably startedin the same pcriod as the units that contain sculpturesof dancc posesil-
: ilre later COla others, although it was possibly completcd by lustrating thc dance texts known as the Natya-
Klsnadevaraya in the sixteenth century (closely jastras, evidently as a corollary to the dedi-
532 LATEE. SCHOOLS OF TIIE DICCAN AND TIIB SOUTII
cation of the temple to Siva asLord of Dance
(Nataraja).
Iconographically, the sculptural programs of
the fow goyurasof the third prabara presenta.
kind ofmicrocosmof Saiviteiconographyofthe
Cola period, for virtually every forrn of ttat
deiry known at that time is presentedhere.Many
of the imagesare identifiedby inscribedlabels
and thereis almostno repetitionof imageson a
$ven gopura.Although the schemeof the west
gopan dlffers from that of the other tbree, in
general,the programsare similarexceptfor the
necessary modificationsmadefor correctplace-
ment of directional figures, the dikpalas, since
theseinvariably facethe cardinalpoint of which
*rey are regent. Gar.re3a is invariably placed in
the first large niche on tte outsideof the facade
to the dght of the entrance and Gairga and
Yamunearealways{ixed in the sameprescribed
place.The imagesare of the matureCola style,
which apparentlychangedlittle after the tirne of
RajarajaI. The deeplycarvedfiguresare very
three-dimensional, an effectpartially createdby
the deep nichesinto which thev are ser.
Afteithe twelfth century, thego?r/4 surpassed
the vimanaasthe most dominantvisualelement
of the southIndiantemolecomolex.While the
uiflafn tower was the most prominentel.ment
of the Rejarajeivaratemple at Tanjore (Fig.
zr.zt), clearly overshadowing the still monu-
mental and tmpresive gopuras,at Cidambaram
and in later templesthe emphasisis increasingly
placedon the gateways.A full explanationof
thisphenomenon is yet to be made,althoughthe
additionof extrafrAkArasandgopwaswasprob-
ably simply the result of a desireto add to
alreadyexistingholy shrines.The increase in
sizeremainsa przzle, and as suggested earlier,
cannotsimply be ascribedto greaterambitious-
nesson the part ofthe makers.
Another featurethat beganto be prevalentin
sourh Indian temples of the twelfth and thir-
teenthcentudesis the transformationof maxdapas
into cartlikeforms. The Nrtta Sabhd. at Cidam-
baram,posibly built during the reign of Kulot-
tunga III (1178-rz16),is an elaboratelycarved
hall distinguishedby the presenceof carved
wheelsandhorses,which suggestthat the entire
structareis a rdtha,or templechariot(Fig.zi.3o).
Examples of this metaphor in temple architec-
ture exist since at least the early twelfth century,
and it is apparently a southem irurovation, al-
though its origin is still obscure. Its appearaoce
in the Sun temple at Konarak (Fig. 19.28) is
likely to have arisen from southem iniuence.
Piobably, the symbolism is associatedwith the
concept ofportable imagesofdeities, often pade
of metal. which were carried in procession in
wooden temple carts, the form of which was
translated into stone to suggestthat the immobile
ma4lapa of the temple was such a transporter of
the gods.
Such portable metal images,in fact, comprise
a major corpus of artistic remains from the
Cola period, and a study of Cola-period art is
hardly complete witbout discussion of them.
A great deal of work needs to be done before :r,-aa -\-r!,
Cidlnba-rr
the full implications of chronological, regional,
Ciir Fic
and workshop distinctions are known, for most Eda.tuge
of the images survive from the period of Raja- :aCr &ir.Er
raja I and later, after which the Cola figural sryle
changedbut little. As in the caseof the study of
Cola temples, the problem of dre artistic debt Taajore.
to the Pallavasis yet to be solved. Metal images cf metal ir
generally lack inscriptions that provide infor- ako work
mation about their place and date of manu- *at tbe T
facture, and since there is no reason to presume &c maly
that an image found in a ternple was necessarily Raj"taj"it
made in a local workshop due to the potability saiptions r
of such iurages,great confusion ariseswhen at- Iodiar ia:
tempting to &scussthe schoolsofcasting. A great 6e norrl s
technical proficiencv is visible in the vast ma- are solid
jority of C6la-period rnetal images, which,
botl are c
along with their great iconographic variety and posedly, x
rnultiplicity, suggeststhat either an important :llo;- of fir
but unl<nown earlier tradition existed, or that as coPPel
Cola craftsmen quickly developed their idiom sit! the r
in responseto favorable circumstanceswithin regions-zi
that period. The production ofmetal imageson a rie draper
large scale implies great wealth in the empire, the work
since metals have an intrinsic value and could iruge und
also be used for jewelry, coins, weapons, and which the
other items. It is interesting that the Cola flore- a dare sele
scencecoincideswith the intense production of god r,r'as"
metal images in Bihar and Bengal under the rhe god- C
Pdlasand Senas,and one wondersif new deposits lugs or hol
of ore were discovered at that time, leading to be carried
the burgeoning. the i,n.ge:
 THE COLA AND ITELATTDSCIIOOTS JJJ
E-: :- architec-
-i : ::]l centuly,
,.-.i^- ^t

r- ,:: :lPPearance
- : t . r 9 . 2 8 )i s
::.::r iduence.
:.-.=redwith the
:::,.. o{ten made
i lrocession in
..t s'hich was
:i rhe immobile
.: lranspoltcr of

: iact, comprise
::ins from the
. ---i^l ^-. :^

r ion of them.
:e dolre before 2r.3o. NI/ra SablZ, Siva ternpte.
.-,-- .-^i^-^l Cidanbararn, Tamil Nadu, India.
Cola period, posibly rcign of
: -.lr n, for most Kulottunga IIL Ca. late tweifth-
:::too oI t(aJa- carly thirtccnth century.
: : irgural style
-i 'h" .t"1., ^f

-.' ,rrtistic debt

Tanjore, Rajarajat capital, was a major center
. \,Ietal images
of metal image production, although therc were
::ovide infor- also workshops in outlying regions. It is likely
i:rc of manu-
that the Tanjore workshops produced somc of
-i:r to Ptesume
'...:s necessaflly the many images given by Rejaraja I to thc
Rajarejeivaratemple at TanJorc asdescribedin in-
::le portability
scriptions on the baseof the templc. The south
::rrcs rvhen at- Indian images differ tcchnically from those in
the north since,by and large, south Indian imagcs
- :ie vast tr1a- are solid rather than hollow cast, although
---:lcs. which, both arc created by the lost-wax proccss.Sup-
: ..--;^,., ^-l
posedly, south lndian images were made of an
::r inlportant
alloy offive metals,the paiicaloha(usually given
s:.icrl, or that as copper, silver, gold, tin, and lcad), in contrasr
,::hcir idiom with the octo-alloy traditional in thc northern
.::nces within regions.z?Finishing details, such as elcments of
the drapery, were oftcn done by chasing after
the work had been cast, and in particular, the
--:: and could image underwcntan eyc-openingccremony,in
-.'.'.iPons,and
which the details of the cyes wcrc added, on
--.- Cola fore- a date selectedby asrrologen, at which time the
::..duction of god was "awakened" and the sculpture became
:. .urder the the god. Often, south Indian metal imagcs have
lugs or holes in thc pcdcstalsthat :rllow thcn.rto
be carried with poles in processions(invariabiy,
the images would be clothed and would not
appear ungarbed as tbcy arc displayed today in
muscums). Metal images were oftcn considered
"proxies" for the "immovablc" deity within the
sanctum of thc ternplc, and would be carricd in
processions and in circumambulation of the
templc.
South lndian metal imagcs,like thcir northern
counterparts, often form part of iconographic
groups or scts. A typical group consistsof a
male dcity, his consort, and various attendant
figures, sometimcs enacing a spccific subject.
For example, a group of figurcs, four in ail,
r,cpresentsKalyanasundara,or the Marriagc of
Siva and Parvati (Fig. zr.3r). Thc group is
from Tiruvcnkadu and posibly datcs fron the
carly elevcnth celtr]ry, that is, from thc pcriod
of Rajareja I- The figures appcar in hicrarchic
scale.Siva, tl.Lelargest,holds thc hand ofparvati,
who is approximetely equal in sizc to Visnu.
Laksmi, the consort of Visnu, is proportionately
thc samesizc in relation to Visnu that Parvati is
to Siva, the appropriate scalcLetwccn god and
consort. The prescrvAtion of this figurc group
a s a r r n i t p r o r i d c sa n o p p o r r u n i t yr o e \ d n r i n (
lour figurerofdiffcrcut god. rluc rie ofrlrc sanre
datc and workshop, and thus cstablisha certain
5J4 I-ATER SCHOOTSOF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

2r.3r. Marriagc of Siva and PtNatr (Katyenasundarannrti).Fronr

Tiruvenkadu, Tanil Nadu, India. Cola period, possibly rcign of
R,jar4a L Ca. cerly eleventh cenlury. Bronze. H: 9J crlr. (Siva)-
Tanjore Art Gallery, Tanjore.

stylistic control. Too often, scholarsattemPt to
anallzc 'tylc by studying figuresrh rt .rreicono-
graphically dissirnilar,in which cascit is diltrcult
to difl-erentiatc stylistic charactcristics flom
iconographic Gatures. In gcncral, for example,
fcmale {igures are shown in a rclaxed posture
while Visr]u is normally shown frontally and
stiffiy posed. An analysis of "style" based on
rclativc relaxation ofpose, a valid index in sorne
cases,would thus be inappropriate in such an
instance.Stylistically, the facial featuresand thc
treatmcnt of the garments and ornaments find
close parallels with contemporaneous stone
,culptrrrct.this i' also clcarJyte.n in an inrrgc
of Sin" Bhiksatana (Figl zr.3z) also frotr
",
Tiruvenkadu in the Tanjore district clatingfrom
,bout rhc mid-elevcnrhcentury.(An inscription
dated to the eguivalcnt of a.n. ro48 may rcfer
to this image.z8) Compared with the carlier
example of the samc subject on the Nage(va-
rasvemi templc (Fig. zr.tr), which rcvealed
the heritage of Pallava-type naturalism, this
{igure more closcly parallelsstone images fron
the time of Rajareja I and later in the full forms
of the body, broad shoulders, and the rather
crisply delincateddetail.
Perhaps the subject par excellenceof the Colt
pcriod is the form of Siva known as Nataraja,
Lord of the Dance, of which a vadety of types
of
Sppear in Dretal sculpture. Dancing forms
Siva (literally, (ttd murti) were not new at tlis
time, but the Cola patronageof the Cidambararn
temple dedicated to Siva as Nataraja and the
production of numerous representations of
Nataraj:r during dre Cola period signify that the
icon had a spccialmeaning in Cola tin.res.Siva's
dancing forms appearin both angry and pacifrc
aspectsand depict individual danceshe perforrned
on specific occasions,the most famous ofwhich
was the danceto dcstroy thc universein ordcr that
it could be rebon again. ldentification of the
dancedependson both hand and lcg positionsand
 THE COLA AND RLLATED SCHOOIS (?{

zr.tz. Siva as Bhik:alana.From lrruvenkrdu. T.rmil zr.3 3. Siva Nalaraja in catwa pose.From Tiruvaranga-
Nedu, India. Cdla pedod. Ca. mid-eleventh centuy, lam, Tamil Nadu, India. Cola period. Ca. mid-tenth
possibly ro48. Bronze. H: 89 cm. TaIljore Art Gallery, century. Bronze. Hi 7z cm. National Museum, New
Tanjore. Delhi.

ruralism, this on subsidiaryor accornpanyingelements.One period, a senseof inner liG and naturalisrn.
r images om of the earliestknown Cola Naqarajabronzesis A more commonlv depicted form of Siva
',le fulI forms from Tiruvarangalam,probablydatingfrom the Natarajafromthe Coli period showsthe god with
ni the rather mid-tenth century, which shows Siva in the his left leg thrust acrosshis body performing
catwa pose cltaracterizedby the two bent legs the dnandatatllava (datce of blis$, alsocalledthe
e of the Cola with the right leg bearing the weight of the nadanta,zsas seenin a large image dating from
r as Nagar5la, body andthe left posedwith the heelup andthe around the twelfth century (Fig.2r.34). The
riery of types toeson the ground(Fig.2r.33).(A reversalofthe nad'anta is believedto have been performed by
ing forms of leg positionswould indicatethat Siva was in Siva at Cidambaramafrer vanquishinga group
)t new at this the lalirc pose.)His four arms are gracefully of heretical ruiJ. According to some textual
: Cidambaram posed;the front left is h the da4fuhastaposition sources,Siva had taken the form of Bhiksatana,
raraja and the ('ttaflhand"; sometimesalso calledgajahasta the wandering ascetic,and was accompaniedby
sentations of or "elephant-hand"sinceit resembles the trunk Vipqu in the form of Mohini, the Gmale seduc-
3nify that the of an elephant);the back left holds a flame; tress,when he went to visit the rji.t to test them.
a tirnes. Siva's the back right holds a drum ((anaru); and the However. the rgrs attempted to desrroy Siva
n- and pacific front right is in the abhayapose.Sivadanceson by creating {irst a tiger, then a serpent, and
rhe performed the back of the dwarf Apasmdra(Moya!aka), then a dwarf (Apasmtra or Mriyalaka), each of
:lous of which who symbolizes ignorance.This image.in rerms which Siva overcame in turn. These creatures
;e in order that of its graceand the lilting effect of the pose, symbolize the threefold bonds or Gtters to be
iedon of the is surpassed by none in South Asian art, and overcome by the r;is, with the tiger represent-
r positionsand shares,with stonesculpturesof the early Cola inq their beast-natureor untamed minds, the
 536 LATER SCHOOIS OF THE DTCCAN AND THX SOUTH

snake denotirlg such evil traits as cgoism, and

the dwarf, thcir ignorance.It is possiblethat the
three creaturessymbolize the tirrcc "miseries,"
the fear of which Siva is saiclto dcstroy during
his dance.3oThe dancc, thcn, reprcsents thi
heretics'ovcrcoming of their inherent character-
istics, which were obstaclesto their realization
(and recognition) of Siva and rhe rcsultant end
to thc cycle of rcbirth. Coomaraswamy, in his
classicessayon the dance of Siva, says that the
"Esscntial Significance of Shiva's Dance is
threefold: First, it is the image of his Rhythmic
Play as the Source of all Movcment within the
Cosmos . . . Secondly,the purposc of his Dancc
is to Releasethe Countlcsssoulsof men from thc
Snare of Illusion: Thirdly, the Place of the
Dance, Chiclambararn,the Centre of thc Uni-
verse, is within the Heart."3l As in the casc of
most religious icons in SoutL Asia, a profound
meaning as wcll as a narrative or cxotelc one
is thus in.rplied.
..In, the typical nadann itrLage(Fig. zr.3a),
)lva s arms are arranged rn the same nannef :ls 2r.34. Si"" Natarejapcrforning the natJaa. Fron
Tanii N:du, India.Colaperiod.Ca. twetfth century.
in the preccding inagc and hc holds the same
Brorrzc.H:96 crD.NationalMuscum, New Delhi.
attributes. The drum, according to one text that
Coomaraslvarnyconsulted,s2 syn-rbolizes creation,
and as a musical instrunrcnr is cspecially ap-
propriate to the dancing modc. The fire, accord- cremation fire through which thc individual is
ing to the srme soLlrcc,represcntsdcstruction, relcasedfron.r this world. The burning ground,
whilc tlre abhayanndra deirotesreleascand the according to Coomaraswamy, is not thc place
gajahastaposepoi:iLts to thc,lifted foot, thc refrrge wherc our earrhly bodics are cremated, but in
of thc sor-rl.Typically, Siva clancesupon the the hcarts of Siva's lovers, thc "placc where the
dwarf rvhour he has just vanquished, and he ego is destroycd [thc crematorium] signi{ies the
wexrs thc clcfcated snake as all orn:rnent. ln statewherc illusion and deedsare burnt away."33
textual clescriptions,Siva is said to wear the skin Siv^'sjatus (hair) fow outwarrl roward the rim
of thc tiger that had been crcatcclby the rsrsas of flane and bcar a representationofrhe goddess
vu'ell, although this is often absent in bronze Ganga, an allusion to the desccntof the Ganges
images.Horvevcr, sinceit is invariably depictccl and pcrhaps hcrc a symbol of purification as
in paintings, it nay have been includetl as an wcll. Other elen.rentsof tire irnage such as the
a c r u a cl l o t l r f o c o m p l (t c r l r c b r o n z ei r r r . t g c .a.n earrings and othcr adornments also have syn-
obvious suggestion, sincc invarirbly the metal bolic meaning, rendering the image a complex
imageswere drcssedwith clothesand aclornncnts assemblageof ideas.
during their worship. Thus, the tluee bcasts Ako popularly represented in Cola metal
createtiby thc rslsto detcr Siva would have been irrrageryarc depitions of rhe Krrna incamarion
an integral part of thc total imagc. A ritr of firc of Vis4u- Krsna is sornctimesshorvn as a young
surrounds the ccntral image, and this element boy dancingupon thc serpentKaliya (Fig.2r.35),
has becn vrriously intcrpretcd by differcnt who had bccn contaminating the waters of a
authors. On one level, it may be suggesteddrat pond at Vrindavana, wherc Krsna lived as a
the rim of fire may syrnbolize thc purifying child. By dancing on the hoods of the serpent,

2r.35.Krsnaon Kaliya.Fron TamilNadu,India.Cdla
pcriod.Ca. terrh century.Bronze.H: 59cDr.Natioual
Museum,New Delhi.
:-rividual is he rcduced Kaliya to helplessness, causing the
serpent ro repeni. It is tempting to draw r
- .L- ^t^^- parallcl to the Nataraja imagery, although the
: :ld, but in Krsna icon is lcss complicated, for herc Krsna
-:--.'rr herc the deGan Kaliya, whosc namc is a variant of the
,::nifies the word kala, mcaning rine. In this act, thcn,
j a:ri a1vay."33 Krsna is thc ovcrcomcr of time, and hencc the
..:rJ the rin.L provider of ir.nmorality, and his dcGat of
: ::r.' goddess KaJiy.r may bc contparcd botlr ro Durga's
: :he Ganges delcarof Mahis.rnnd Srv,'. derrrucrionoflhe
::::rcationas triple fctters by his dance. The image shown
: ,:rch as the datesfiom around the tcnth century.34
' rave sym- In addition to representationsof deitics and
:- l complex deiry groups in Cola bronzes, a number of
human devotecs and saints arc also popuiarly
Cala metal portrayed. One of the most dramatic of such
::ncarn2tloll images shows the female Saivite saint Karaikkal
---rs a young Ammaiyar, whose ernaciatedform and hideous
: Fig.2r.35), appearancetestify to the severity ofthe penances
'.'.aters of a and dcvotions shepcrformcd in order to scethe
, iived as a beatificvision of Siva dancing (Fig. 2r.36). Two-
arncd, as is general for human devotces, she
THE COIA AND REIATED SCHOOI,S JJ7
2r.36.KaraikkalAmnaiyer. FroDlTanil Nadu,India.
C0laperiod.Ca. twelfrhcentury.Bronze.H: 4r.5 crn.
NelsonGallcry-AtkinsMuseurn,KansasCiry (Nelson
Fund).
holds a pair ofcyurbals and appcarsabsorbedin
her dcvotions. Her boly body, scant garb, and
fangs suggestthe negation of physical beauty in
favor ofthe vision ofthe divine.
Another mctal imagc shows the saint Maqikka
Vasahar (Manikka Vachaka), who is believed
to have practiced austcritiesat Cidambaram ancl
miraculously to havc given the gilt of speech
t o t ) r cn r r r t ed . r r r g h r corf c C o l ak i n g ( f i g . - z r . 3 z ) .
Thc image datcsfrom about the twclftl.r ccntury,
although thc issue of whcn thc seint himself
actually iived is debatecl. Manikka Vesahar's
devotional appeal is among the strongestof the
Tamil Saivite saints,possibly becauscthe hyrnns
he composed givc great importance to the ex-
pressionof emotion. In one verse, for example,
he implores Siva's blessing:
O Siva wreathed with honeyed blossours,
"When shall comc rhe monr
When Thou wilt grant Thy grace to me?"
I cry with anguish torn.s5
 5-td rATER SCHOOLSOr THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTr{
2r.37. Manikka Vasalur. From TarDil Nadu, India.
Cola period. Ca. twelfth cenrury. Bronze. H: Jr cn.
National Museun, Ncrv Delhi.
In this image, asin others of saintsfrorn thc late
Cola pcriod, sometling of thc naturalism and
grace found in early Cola-period art seemsto
pcrsist,for the figure standsin a rclaxed (though
standardized)pose and thc artist has taken great
care to emphasize the smooth contours of the
body.
Buddhist metal imagcs, though less well
knorvn than those of the Hindus, wcre also
prociucedduring the Cola period. At Nagapag-
tinam in the Tanjore district, which had been an
irnportant tsuddhist site at leastsincethe Pallava
period, numerous mctal imagcs of the Cola
period were found in hoards in the monastery
CoNcrusror.r
The COla period may be seenas one ofconsider-
abie artistic unity, yet a great deal ofrichness and
diversity is alsopresent.Within the Cola period,
south lndian art underwent a major alteration.
2r.38. BodhisattvaMaitreya. From Negapattinam,
Tamil Nadu,India.Colaperiod.Ca. eleventhccnrury.
tsronze,I:l: :9 cm. MadrasGovcrnmerltMus€um,
Madras.
area and near the Chinesebrick pagoda.soMany
of the images show a striking similarity in style
to contemporaneousHindu sculptures,as dem-
onstratedby a figure of Maitreya (Fig. 2r.38).
This imagc shows the bodhisattva holding a
rosary in his upper right hand; his upper left
hand may once have held. a nagal<esara flower,
whilc the lower left hand is in urada mudra, and
the iowcr right is in thc abhaya mudra. He rs
recognizcd by the stupa in his headdress.In the
treatment of thc facial featuresand details of the
costume and jewelry, the sculprure strongly
resemblc Cola Hindu images of about the
eleventhcentury.
Whilc works fiom the early Cola period main-
tain something of the simplicity, naturalisn,
and more personalizedscalethat were character-
istic ofearly south Indian idioms, as those of the
 THE CdlA AND R.ELATED
SCHOOTS Jrg
Pallavasand other dynastids,later Cola works in art had gready expanded and many forms that
are often rnarked by a greater formality in the had not been seen earlier began to appear. In
depiction of figures and by monunentaliry and contrast vr'ith a number of contemporary art
ambitiousnessin the architecturalschemes,such schoolsin the north, virtually no ,uLi..t
as the tall vimanasar'd.gopurasof temples.By the appear in Cola art. "roti"
late Cola period, the Hindu pantheonmanifested

century.
,\4useum,

36Many
in' in style
as dem-
2 r . 38 ) .
holding a
upper left
o fower,
eudra, and
He is
In the
ils of the
srrongly
about the

maut-
raturalism,
c-haracter-
of the

Pallavasand other dynasdirs,later Cola works
are often marked by a greater formality in the
depiction of figures and by monurnentality and
ambitiousnessin the architecturalschemes,such
as rhe taTlyimanasandgoputasof temples.By the
late Cola piriod, the Hindu pantheonmanifested
THB Co[A AND RELATTD SCHOOLS Sjtg
in art had greatly e*pandedand rnany forms that
had not bean seenearlier began to appear.In
contrast with a number of contemDorarv arr
schoolsin the north, ,rimr"lly no eroic subl""ts
appearin C6!x ert.

36Many
in style
as dem-
(Fig.2r.38).
holding a
upper left
fower,
madrn,and
He is
In the
&tails of the
strongly
about the

main-
naturalism,
character-
&ose of the
 :!-::

---,-: ::r
__
:i:, _:

*:--:a':

D e t a i lo J , , . 2 1 .

CHAPTER TWENTY-Tvr'O

Later DeccanSchools

Although rlrauy of the most fanous and impor- the form), is rvidely acccptedas referring to the
tant monulnents of South Asian art are located temple types lnost commonly found throughout
in the Dcccan, the artistic dcvclopr.ncntsof tl.rc northerlr India; &avi/a, as thc namc implies,
region as a whole, from the earliestto dre latcst rcfers to the southcru, or Dravidian, style; : -:'::a-._:
periods, arc rarely discussedand poorly undcr- uesaraliterally rrcans "rn e" and, by irnplica-
stoocl.At lcast sincethe time of tl.rcEarly Wcst- tion, a hybrid, and thus might be an apt descdp- : ::a--: ii:,i j
ern Calukyas, rltonurrrerrtsin purely northern tion of the mixed arclitcctural forms of the ::i:::1!t-c.::
and southern styles lvcre built in tl.rc Dcccan, Deccan. However, it is difficult to apply the :--_::a:a: a
a fact that is rlot surprisillg considering the tcrn-r to specific examples instead of just to a -I ;nc :
geographic position of the region. In addition, generic typc, although thc aesaradesignation is :]..'.-inin:,
many temples were built that bore Gatures of usually assumedto be most appropriatc to the :$a nta-e
both nordrern and southern typcs at oncc along buildings of dre Later Calukyas of Kalyar.riand :: :he ihre
with individualizing characteristics that defy the Hoysalas. -irE. are r
traditional classification.These temples belong In spite of tlre mixed character of Deccan :ecicrions.
to what nust be considcred to be a broadly a.t, to view it as simply a bridge between the
inn1arll\'(
based "Deccan style," within which, of course, northem and southcm styles or as no ll]ore iis disrincr
there is considerable variety. It is likely that than a con.rbinationof those two better under- Inporrar
the Deccan style encompassesthe uesaraform stood stylc groups lvould be to overlook the ralher e\!e
described in textual sources.l Frequently, these significant devclopnents in both tcmple building elrhough n
texts descdbe the three major architectural and sculptllre that are preservcdin the Deccan. ano. ln _qe
typcs of ancicnt India as tagarc, drauila, ar'd Within this geographic area, nLrmerousformal or studicd
uesara.Ndgaru,which literally means"pertaining distinctionsmay be made, at leastsomc of which perhaps be
to the city" (posibly indicating the origins of are depcndcnt upon regional factors. Late and can'in

540

sculpture styles of the western Dcccan, for
exanple, tend to depict a full-bodicd, robust
figure typc, probably rcllective of earlier tradi-
tions in that arca sLrchas that of the Vakarakas.
Conversely, in thc cast, following the carlicr
patterns establishcdundcr the Satavehanasand
Iksvakus, sculpted figures tend to bc lcan and
IATER DtrCCANSCHOOTS 541
slender. The full raruifications of thc stylistic
developmentsof the Deccan are yet to be nrade
known and it is posible at this time only to
providc a bricf outlinc of the major develop-
ments. As in othcr rcgional styles, religious
patronage and other factors had great beadng
on the evolution of the forms.

THE IVESrERN GANGAS oF TAIAKID (TlNrIr Crlrruqy)

From the sccond to the eleventh centruy A.D.,

kings of the so-callcd Ganga line rulcd ovcr
parts of r,vl.rat is now Karnataka (formerly
Mysore) statc, usually as fcudatories of more
powerful ruling families. Onc branch of this
family, the hstcrn Grngas, came to be powcrful
it Orissa rnd, as 1vc bave seen,clistinguishcd
thcr-nsclvcsthlough the impressivc nlonllneDts
rhcy built. The Wcstcfn Gxngashad their capital
at Talakad and \4'cre pron.rincnt pxrticularly in
the tcnth ccntury. This fanily playcd an impor-
tant rolc in thc polidcs of the Dcccan during
tl.re last period of Rastrakuta mle bur wcrc
subjugatcd in roo4 when the Colas captured
Talakad.
:::rring to the Historical and political information about the
-: rhroughout Gangas survivcs in thc nun-reroushero stoncs
(r,trag,r/s) ploduccd to commcnorrtc the deaths
..,,.,....,t-.
of warriors and m.:n-rbcrsof the royal linc in
: ... i,---li-^
keeping with a prxctice that s.as prevalcnt
throughout the Deccan sincc carly tilles. Onc
: r:nrs of the cxar.r.Lplc, fron.rl)oddrhundi in I{arnaLakr,shorvs
:,. rpply d1e the dcath of thc Western Garisr kins Nitimarga ez.r.HerostoneshowingdcathofKing Nitirnarga(II).
ri -just to a (lI) and dates lrom arould 9zo (Fig. zz.r). Frorn Do{{ahundi, Kernataka,India.WestemGdlga
- :'iiqrlatioois Reclining on a couch, thc king is attended by period.Ca. 92o.Granjle.H: r46.Jcrr. StatcArchaeo-
-':irtc to thc logicalMuser.rm,
Bangalore.
t$''o mxlc figurcs. Thc rathcr aninated forlDs
\.LLrini.rnd of tl.rethree figures, inciucling that of thc dying
king, are typical of Wcsteru Ganga hero stonc
:: oi Deccan d e p t c t r o n sJ. s a r e t h e c o s t L , r n c rc. o n . i . t i r L g lSelgolain Kamalaka, a center rcputcd to have
, :a!\l een the
primarily of loincloths, and thc hairstyle, rvitb been irnportant at lcast since thc tir-r-reof the
.:i t10 n1(Jre its distinctive topknot. Maurya dynasty. ln 982, thc ministcr of thc
_::rer unclcr-
Important Wcstcrn Ganga renains are found Westcrn Ganga king Rajan:rlla IV, Clnunda
', rrlook the
rathcr cxtcrlsivcly at their capitxl city, Talakad, Raya, dcdicated an inpressive Jain terrple at
:..:re br-rilding
' :t:a Dcccan. "ltl'oug1m ' . r n yo f t l r c r r r o n r r r r . n t... l c i r r r u i r ) . Sravana Belgola, commonly known as the
aocl,in general,none havc beenrniclcly published Camunda R-ya ,aJli (Fig. zz.z), and at thc samc
:::.rlrs fotmal or sttdicd. Instead, the Western Gangas arc place in the loilorving year, 983, he dedicated
::; ofrvhich pcrhaps best known fot a nunlber of sffucturcs thc colossalstrtue of Behubali, popularly called
: : : a o 1 5 .L a t c and carvings at thc ,Jainholv sitc of Sravena Gommaqe(vara(Fig. zz.3)., A dcvout Jain,
 J42 LATERSCHOOLSOF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH
22.3. Behubaii (Gornmate(vara). Sravana Belgola,
Karnataka,India.Westen Ganga period. Dedicatedin
983.H: ca. r8 m.
22.2.C^tu]\da Rayatemplefrom southeast.Sravalra
Belgola, Karnataka,India. Western Ganga period. ::: : :::
Dedicatcdin 982. - .--:;-::_. 1
:.::-.- :..::i
- .:i ,-; a
Cdrrrund.rl(ayr was a distinguishedgcncral.a
Lnowledge:rblc gcnrlemrn *h"o kncw a nrrmber
of languages,and the author of the Canunda
Rayn Pura4a.a work dared 978 in rhe I;l ''-.. .. .
Kannada language. The granite temple (6asrl)
is cssentiallysouthern in form, as secn in the
tiered superstruct[re over the shrine and the
pilasteredwalls. The absenceof figure sculpture
between thc pilasters or in nichei in the walls
is a feature often found in Jain ternples in the
Deccan and the south, although is not exclusivc
to them. Such treatment continues one trend
visible at lcastsinccthe time of the Early Western ::::-: :-l :::
Calukyas(Fig. r5.r).
The colossal statue of Gommateivara (Fig.
zz.3) said to be the largesr free-standing
_is_
monolithic sculpture in the worid, reaching a
height of abor.rteighteen meters. By virtue of
its location on top of a hill, it can bc seen for
great distancesaround. In form, the figure is
cluractcrized by high, squarc shoulders, curly
hair, a flat nose, thick lips, and a small waisi.

As in thc casc of many other Jaln ln-tagcs,a
stiffnesspervades the statte. This, however, is
not a stylistic or artistic deGct but rathcr rcflccts
the communicative content of thc imagc. It
might be suggestcd that thc dry, sometimes
lifcless,effcct ofJain art is due to the fact that
thc Jain saints and ttrthaikarasare consideredto
bc bcyond the material, sensualworld and its
attachments. Instead, they represent the realnl
of pure objectivity. Gommate6vara, thc son of
Rsablranadra,the first tirthaikara, was a Jain
THE LArER Caruxvas o F K A L v A N i ( 9 7 3r o c a . r r 8 9 )
In approximately 973, the Rastrak[gas,who ]rad
dominated the Deccan for norc than two
hundred years,were finally overtbrown by Taila
II, founder ofthe Later Calukya line, ruling from
Kalyani in what is now Andhra Pradesh. This
family claimed dcsccnt from the main line of
the Early Western Calukyas of Sadami. nxcept
::i:ast. Sravana for a brief interregnum of approximately
-:nga period.
twenty-five years, when their Kalacuri feuda-
tories wrested control frorn thcm, thc Later
Calukyas of Kalya4i remained in power until
around rr89. Thc Later Calukyas of Kalyani
-. : ^----^l " are irnportant not only politically and artistically,
::: .r' a nulnbet but alsobecauseone oftheir kings, Vikramaditya
: ::te Camu4(a II, was the patron of thc famous poet Bilhar.ra,
::n the local author of tlre Cawapaicalika.
The art of the Later Celukyas of Kalyani is
:. seen in the often seen as a kind of link between thc art
---:rne and the traditions of the Early Western Calukyas and
:::re sculpture those of thc Hoysalas. This is suggcsted by
,, in the walls the fact that sorne of their earlier monLrncnrs
are built in sandstone,continuing the earlier
; :.ot exclusive tradition, while thc later ones arc invariably
-.s onc trend made of a finc-grained chloritic schist that lcnt
::rly Wcstern itself to finer carving and greater detail and
pavcd the way for the intricacy of Hoysala
sculpture. However, Later Calukya art and
:iee-standing architecture is more than just a link between
- --"-l-i-^ - two other art schools;it repr€sentsa ra'idespread
Br- virtue of tradition that had important effects on Deccan
::. be seen for art. More than fifty extant temples havc bccn
identified as belonging to the Later Calukya
period, ranging in location from Andl.rraPradesh
. small waist. in thc eastto Karlataka in thc wcst, with many
LATERDECCANSCHOOLS J 4Ji
saint who stood so long in meditation that vincs
grew up around his unnoving body. His
posture is a spcci{ic standing meditation pose
known as kayotsarga,which is characterizedby
the firmly planted fcet, unbent knces and arms,
and thc positioning of the arms so that they do
not touch the body. The slight smile on thc
face of the saint indicates his inner tranquility,
and it docs not interrupt the senseof concentra-
tion that tbe inage convcys.
of then.rconccntratcd in the vicinity of Gadag,
nor lirr From rhe Early Wc'tern C.rlrrkyasices
of Aihole and Badami. Unfortunately, few of
thcsc temples have receivcd rnuch notice, and
none has been fully studied and intcgratcd into
the body of knowledge concerned with south
Asian artistic developments. Further, Kalya4i,
the dynastic capital, which undoubtcdly con-
taincd some of the most important art rnonu-
ments, is largely in ruins and has not been
reconstructed.Thus, though the importance of
Later Calukya art is evident, it is not fully
understood.
Howevcr, the Mahadeva tenplc at Ittagi,
near Gadag, cxcmplifies the developed style of
t h e l - r t e r C e i u k y r . o I K a l y a n r( F i g .z : . a ) . B u i J r
by Mahadeva,a military oflicer of Vikranaditya
VI, and callcd "emperor amoug tcmpies"
(deualaya ukrauarti)in ir' forrnd.rtioninscriprion.
the ternple was dedicatedin Saka ro34 (a.o.
rrrz).3 Thc main structluc faceseastand is thc
central unit ofa group ofstructures on a tenacc.
It consistsof a pillared hall wit]r a porch on
each side of it, an antechanber, and shrinc
(Fig. zz.5). A pillared na4dapato thc eastof it
complctes the temple schemc.Thc antechanber
located bctwccn thc pillared hall aud thc shrine is
not visible fron.r thc cxtcrior except that ir is de-
marcated above by a projecting elemcnt of thc
superstructurcatop the shrinc.The supcrstrlrcture
is ticrcd in typicaily southcrn fashion although
thc uppermost portions have becn rebuilt and
their original appcarance is not known. In-
creased elaboration in the trcatment of the
 544 LATER SCHOOLSOF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

ID 22.6. I)etall, wall treatnen! of

t
Mahadevatemple. Illagi, Karqa-
taka, India. Period of Later
Calukyas of Kalyani- Dedicated
in Sakacra ro34 (A.D.rrr2).

a
.-'-

22.4. Mahadcva ternple, rear

sectionsfron llorrh. Illagi, Kar-
4,!aka, India. Pcriod of Later
C,lukyas of Ka1ya4i.Dedicated
in Sakaera ro34(A.D.rrr2).

re
lr
l
.l

z.:.,s. Plan of Mahedeva tenple. Ittagi, Karnataka,

India. Period of Later Calukyas of Kalyani. Dedicared
in Sakaera lol4 (A.D.rrr2).

-

.ll Eealment of >
le. hlagi, Karna-
enod of Later
haDi. Dedicated
(-LD.r 112).
6ple, rear
Iqragi, Kar-
d oi Later
- Dedicated
rt12).
exterior wall surfaces,moldings, and superstruc-
ture indicate a departure from Early Westem
Calukya traditions and anticipate the Hoysala
developments.Wall treatment includespilasters,
deeply carved niches (rnany of which have tower
forms above them as repetitions of the main
forrn of the viuarc ttself), ar.d figurative sculp-
ture (Fig. 22.6). Becauseof the projecting bays
on the limafla especially,the form of the struc-
ture appearsto be scallopedratkr than simply
rectangular.The large na4d.apato the eastof the
temple odginally contained morc than sixty
pillars. Many of them, like some on the exrerior
porches of the temple, are so perfectly shaped
that it is sometimes said that they were lathe-
turned, a claim also made regarding many other
pillared structuresin the Deccan. Like almost all
temples of the Later Calukyas, this structure
does not have an interior passagewayfor cir-
cumambulation.
IATER DECCAN SCHOOTS 54J
An approximately contemporary or perhaps
slightly later example of a Later Calukya monu-
ment is the Dodda Basappatemple at Dambal,
also near Gadag (Fig. 22.7). Unlike orher
structures ascribed to the Later Calukyas, this
temple has a stellate plan (Fig. zz.8), similar
conceptually to a type frequently seenin Hoysala
monuments (Fig. 22.38). However, it differs
from even the Hoysala examples, in which only
the uimina is stellate,for here both the matl/apa
ar.d vimana are stellate.In this casc,thc sanctuary
is based upon a twenty-four pointed star and
the mandapdupon a thirty-four pointed star,
although the actual number of points is smaller,
since some are omitted due to the juncture
between the separatehalls and the addition of
entry stairs into the natl(apa. The angles of the
stellateplan are right, not acute, indicating that
the design ofeach star was formed by rotating a
square around a central point. Stellate temples
were not an innovation at this time, as exan-rples
are known from much earlier periods of Indic
architecturc. However, the complexity and
richnessof the form is characteristicof the late
style to be brought to culmination under the
Hoysalas.Temples such as this and the previous
example clearly suggestsomething of the com-
bination of northern and southem elernents
that characterizesmuch of Deccan architecture
and may represent the ,esara type. The tiered
treatment of the superstructureof the vimana,
for example. is clearly .ourhern in origin. yet
the profile created by the diminished n.rasonry
coursesand delicatc carving suggeststhe typical
northen-style iikhara (Fig. zz.7). In particular,
this superstructure has a soaring and vcrtical
profile, reminiscent ofnorthern forms. The wall
pattern, consisting of pilasters,niches, and other
repeating architectural elements, but generally
lackingfigurativescnlpture.indicates as5ociarions
with southernIndian architecturalstyles.
The sculpture style of the Later Calukyas of
Kalyar.ri evolved over tirne and was subject to
regional variation, just as was the casein other
important art traditions of South Asia. An
example offigurc sculptureis found in a carving
fiorn Jalasangaviin Karnataka, which datesfrom
around t roo and depicrsa womJn wriring a
Sanskrit inscription in the Kannada soipt (Fig.
J46 LATER SCHOOLSOI THE DTCCAN AND THE SOUTH

'

': ': ] _-_\;

22.7. DoQll Basappatemple. Pambal, Kerrr.Fkr, Indir.
of LaterCalukyasof Kall anr. Early twelfth centurl.

::.9.-Wonlan
lndia. Period
Stone. i\'luser
Resesrch lnsll

ro 5q 6lr
Fo_
.Q F rp 1,5 Za

22.8. Plan of Dodda Baseppl temple. Dambal, Karnalaka, India.

Period oflater Calukyasof Kaly,rli. Early twelfth century

22.9.-WonunwriliDg. Fron Jalasangavl, Kar4llaka,
India.Periodof LaterCalukyasof Kalyeti. Ca. rroo.
Stone.Museun of Arc and Archaeology,Karura{a
Rcscarch University,Dharwar.
Institute,KarDetaka
22.9).lntcrestingly, the inscription itsclf mcntions
the nanre of King Vikramaditya Yl$o76 ttz6)
of the Crlukya family and thereby provides the
approximate date. Undcr Vikramaditya VI,
during whose reign thc Mahadeva temple at
Ittagi was built, the Later Calukyas were said
to have cxpcricnced a florescencc in art and
literature. This sculpture, with its epigraph
cleverly intcgratecl into thc composition and
story, demonstratcsthc skill ofthe Later Calukya
artist in rcpresentinga figurc in a twistcd, com-
plicated pose. Thc gcncrous body proportions
suggcst tics to other $.estern Dcccan styles of
carlicr pcriods, as seen in the round hips and
thighs, br.rtthe aimost contortcd pose and profile
view of the facc suggest associations rvith
northern sculpture styles of thc Solankis or
IATXRDTCCANSCHOOLSJ47
C.,ndell.rs.Hervily laden with ornanrentation
r n d r j e r o e l e dg i r d l e .r h ef i g r r r er n t i c i p a t ensr a n y
of thc carvings of the Hoysala dynasty.
The downfall of thc Latcr Celukyas was
facilitatcd by thc risc ofthe Kalacurisof Kalyanr,
,r,ho were scions of the Cedi Kalacr,rris(Hai-
haya$. These later Kalacuris seized control
from the Calukyas of Kalyani fiorn about r 156
to rr8r, and by rr89, the Calukyashad been
weakenedsuficientJyto aJlow two other families
to rise to power: the Yadavas, in the northern
part of thc cmpirc, and the Hoysalas, in thc
south. A third dynasty, that of the Kakatryas,
had alreadyclaimedscmeofthc easternrealmsof
thc Calukyas.The Kalacuri interregnum, though
brief, v'as important culturally sincc tbis fan.ily
patronized the so-called Lingayat or Vira6aiva
religious n-rovement.In particular, a rcvival of
this religious group r''asled by one Basava(r rz5-
7o?), r ho became primc ministcr under the
Kalacuri king Bijjala (rt56-68). Still a popular
religious forcc in this rcgion of India today, the
Vira(aivas arc ardcnt devoteesof Siva who may
have exerted what might be considered a
"negative" influence on templc building and art
in tiris region, since they do not believe in
building temples or in worshiping in thcm.
Instead, cach devotee wcars a iiiga in a small
case:lroLlndhis ncck and thus cach carricshis
own sign of thc god. In somc rcspccts, the
Vira(aivas nay havc been influenced by the
Islamic rcligion, r'hich had dccply penetrated
portions of hrdia by thc twclfth ccntury. For
example, in contrast to the usual Hindu practice
o f c r c m r t i o n .t l r e V r r . t ' . ' i r a sb r u y t l r e j r d c r d :
in additiol, thcy do not beJievcin a castesystenl
or in thc privilcgc of the brahnans,3ndthey be-
licvc in thc unity of a single god, Siva. Further,
thcy rcject traditional rit.rals and Hindu forms of
worship. It is possiblc that thc iconoclastic con-
ccpts of drc Muslims were known by the Vira-
(aivas and ied to thcir anti-tcnple and anti-
imagc practiccs.While it is of coursenot possible
to talk ofViraiaiva art or arcl tecturebecause of
this, in the context of lndic art, such a rcligious
sect is important as a rcninclcr that thc material
objccts that wcrc originally produced and those
that reurain providc only a partial picture of
cultural life in ancient India.
54d IATER SCHOOTSOF THE DECCAN AND THE SOUTH

T H E Y a D A V A s o F D E V A G T R (Ti r 9 i t o r 3 r r )

Upon the collapse of the Later Calukyas of rcgional sryles,such as those of Gujarat and the
Kalyar.ri,the Yadava line was founcled in rrgr, Deccan CSlukya rypcs. Howcvcr, perhaps the
taking over the northern part of the former most characteristicof the Yadava temple types
Later Calukya lands. The Yadava capital was at is thc so-callcd Hcmadpanti style, namcd after
Devagiri (Daulatabad) in Maharastra in the Hemadra, a minister to the last two Yedava
westem Deccan. At timcs, thcir powcr was vcry kings, Mahadeva (rz6o 7r) and R-macandra
great, for they rnade conquests to thc north (rz7t-t 3t r), who reigned until the Muslins
in Gujarat, thus augmenting thcir holdings. conqucrcd them, Hen.radra is credited with
Many of the tenples found in the regions having had three hundred such templcs built.
of thcir control bear similarities to other Hemadpanti-style temples are characterizedby

jSyertrGe,!€!::,

l ro,

zz.ro. Siddheivaratemple. Lilnpangron, Mahtrtgfra, India. Period

ofYadavas ofDevagiri. Ca. late thirteenth ccntury.

u.---,,,,--19 0

M
9r t

zz.rr. Plan of Siddhcivara temple. Linpangaon, Maharaglra, India.

. r . l J r e I l r i r ( e e n r h( e ' , r u r ) .
P c r r u du f Y a d r r r s o f l - r e v " g i r i C
 LATIRDECCANSCHOOLSJ4g
their heary form and by the fact that thcir An excellentexan.rplcofthe Hernadpanti type
extedon are nearly totally dcvoid of sculptural of tcmple is the Siddireivara temple at Lin.r-
l-: irdt and the embellishment. This undccoratcd style appar- pangaon, probably a product of the late thir-
::. PcrhaPsthe cntly gained widespread popularity, replacing teenth ccntluy (Fig. zz.ro). Although thc roof-
: rcnlPle types the much more elaboratcstmcturesthat had been ing may be a replaccmcntofa later date and the
:. named after built previously. Such a rcversal in thc general original forrn n.ray havc hacl grcater heiaht,
: |\1'o Yedava trends of Indic art and architccture during this the overall appcaranccof thc main temple and
: Remacandra period deservcs an explanation beyond rhe t h e d c r : c l r e .Nl . r n d p
r . r ri l i o n p r c c c d i r rigr i ss q r r . r r
:hc Muslin.rs uually hcld view that thc ncw form rcsulted and heavy. Extcrnal clecoration is confincd to
::l.lited with from cconon-ric constraints. It miglrt bc sug- string courses, moldings, pillars, and to thc
:rnrplesbuilt. gested, instead, that the popularity of drc picrced window scrccnswith primarily gcome-
:,::acterizedby Hemadpanti style may be linked to the facr t r i c r l c s i g n :r h J l u h i l r r . r r c l 'yn g g c s l. r s s o c i r t i o n s
that the Yadava kingdorn was increasingly with Early Wcstem Calukya monulr.rcntssuchas
tlrrcrrened by Mu'linr lorces cornirrg rnto the L-d Kh.n temple at Aiholc (Fig. i5.23).The
western India and the Deccan and that the style sinplc plan(Fig.zu.rr), consisting ofthc dctachcd
was chosen since the plain extedors right help Nandi pavilion, a small porch, wrde nnndapa
deter the usual iconoclasticfervor of thc Muslim with four central pillars, an antechambcr, and
attackers.Templcs without figure sculpture on the shrinc itself elso suggcsts tics to earlicr
the exterior were not ncw at this timc, since a architectural nrodcs. The tectrtgriar u andapa,
popular style in the Deccan and portions of drc with fat cxtcrior walls,and the treatmcntof the
south was characterizedby pilastcrcd walls or extcrior of tl.rcsirrinewall, rclievcd only by trvo
othcr simple exteriors. The Hemadpatti styie, projectionson cachside,is alsounusualcomparcd
r h e n .s l r o u l dn o r b c v i c u c d r s r o t : r l l yj r r r r o v a r i v c . to templcs of a comparably latc date in otircr
but rather a rcvival or increasedpopularity of parts of South Asia.
and vadation on earlicr architcicturaltypes.

THE KAKATiyAs or HaNallroNol aNo WinaNcar

(ca. Mrl-ErrvrNTH CENTURy ro ca. r3:5)

Profiting from thc wcaknessof both thc latcr crn India, with tl.reir charactcristically slelclcr
C e l r r l y , " o f K a l y e n i. r r r dr l r e C o l . , s .t h r K . , k a - fiqure typc traccrblc fronr thc period of the
tiyas rosc to prominence in thc clcvcnth century. Satevahana:urd Iksvaku clynasticsthrougl.rthe arr
Their cnpire, rvith its capitalsin Andhra Pr:rdcsh, of the Pallavas,Colas. ud othcrs, are hiehly
first at Hanamkonda ancl llter ar Waratrgal, visiblc in drc art of the Kakatiy:is,indicatingtJLc
n b o t t rs i x k i l o r f l c t c r . . r w i l y . . l r \ g r c i c \ r e x - pcrsistcncc of a strouglocaltraclition.In addition,
tendcd as {ir south as I(anciprrram, thc old similariticsto othcr late Hindu stvlcs of rhc
Pallava capital. Tltn, r'hilc thc Yadavasgainccl Deccannray alsobc sccn,perhrpsrcflectingthc
the northcrn part of the later Calukya lancls, political ties of thc Kakatiyas r,vith other Dcccan
the K-katiy:rs were the inhcrirors of the eastern ruling fanilies sr-rchas the Later Calukyas of
rcalms. Horvevcr, during the time of Sultan Kalyani, whosc hcgcmony hacl rcached into
Ghiyas-ud-DinTughluq (r. r3zo z5), thc Kaka- the Andhra Praclcshrcgion. In contrast to rnosr
t r 1 , L sJ. i L c r r . , n y o t l r c r H i n t l r r d 1 n l t i c , . w c r c othcr Indic art schools,a surprisingly largc
forced to submit to thc Mus]irn rulers. This numbcr of Kakatiyanronlrnlcntscrn bc rclcrred
casternDeccan dynasty, holvcver, has lcft anple to by specificclatcsby inscriptionalcvidcnce.
remains of architcctLlrc, sculpturc, and cvcn Bccauscof this, and the frct tlut rclatively fcu,
son-rcpainting, enabling us to reconstruct rrany of them havc bccl lully studiccl, Kakatiya
ofthe najor artisticdcvclopmcntsofthis period. tcrrplcs xrc ripe candidatcsfor future study, as
Ties to thc artistic sty)esofthc castcoastofsouth- it is cxpcctcd that they could providc a very
 550 IATER SCHOOTS OF THE DTCCAN AND THI SOUTH
z.z.rz. Detached na4lapa, "Tho'tsand-Pillarcd" tcrlplc, from
north. Hanarnkonda, Andhra Pradesh, India. Kakatiya period,
reign ofRudra I. Buik in r162.
well documented sequenccof Dcccan buildings
prirnarily of the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
the greatestperiod of building .rcriviry.
In general,Kakatiya templesare eithcr single-
'1
shrine or rriple-slrrinc(rrilrira) in plrn. hc
so-callcd Thousand-Pillarcd tcn.rpic at Hanam-
konda, (Figs. zz.rz-t6), the carly Kakatiya
capital, displays thc til<uta format. Built in
116z by King Rudra I of the Kakatiya family,
the tcmple was dcdicatcd to three dcities:
Rudre{vara (Siva), Vasudevara (Visnu), and
;-
Sri Surya-Devara(Surya).Js known from rn
inscriptiona on a pillar at the modestly sized
east gate of the large, walled compound that
enclosesthe temple. The two rnajor structuresof
tlre temple, a detachedma4/apa and the tcmple
propcr, arc conncctcd by a rclatively narrow
platform that has a rcpresentationof a reclining
Narrdi of cnormous size on it (Fig. zztz).
T h e n , r m eT h o u ' . r n d - P i l h r c .t lc n r p l ci s . r n r i s -
non.rer,for thc ten.rpleproper does not have this
nrany pillars at all and the detachedna4/apa has
only around three hundred. The exterior walls
of thc dcraclredttnndapa(fig. z.z.r:) .rnd the
main tenrple proper (Fig. zz.t3) 'uc cxquisitely
carved with intricate moldings and projections
;
=
on both thc plinth and walls. While not devoid
of figurative sculpturc, the main motifs consist
of .rrchirecruralforms including miniature
tcrnple spires.suggesringsinrilaririesto many
other Deccan styles. Unfortunately, the super-
structuresover all three shrinesarc missing and
their original appetrance is not known, It is in
the intcrior, however, that the carvrngs arc
richcst, for there, virtually every stone surface
has been carvcd and polished to creatc highly
intricate and rcfincd pattems. A view into the
central man/apaofthe main temple, from which
the tbrec shrincs radiate, fiom the entrance
porch (Fig. zz.14) shows the ornateness of
thc carvings. In particular, the pillar designs,
typical of nrany Deccan subsrylcs.are .rn irn-
portant elemcnt. Likc many temples of the vari-
ous northern stylcs, and those following the
tradition of thc Early Western Calukyrs in the
Deccan, the ceilings arc also ciaborately carved
in prinarily gcon.rctricand foliatc pattcms (Fig.
zz.r5). Sone ofthe most beautifulcarvrngsarc
those of the entrancewaysto the tlrrce shrincs
(Fig. zz.r6), crch of which hasan outcr pilastcrcd
portico lcading to its own rnteciramberarrdthen
the door to thc shrine itself. Ample )ight is
 rATER DECCAN SCHOOTS I51

.-,-

22.13. Mein structure, "Thousand-Pillared" temple, from west.

Hanamko4da, Andhra Pradesh, India. Kakadya period, reign of
Rudra I. Built in 1162.

conslst

:J many
::: suPer-
Erling and
r. It is in 22.14. View into certral ma4lapa, 'Jrain
structure, "Thousand-Pillared" ternple,
from entrance porch, Hanamkonda,
i: surface Andhra Pradesh, India. Kakatiya period,
:: highly rcign of Rudra I. Built in r16z.
' -nto the
:3 lvhich
: a rance
:::ness of
: Jesigns,
.ii: an l1l1-
:- :he vari-
:-..rng the
; in the
.', carved

c::.rngs ale zz.r5. Carved ceiling, certral mapdapa,

main temple, "Thousand-Pillared"
:ilastered
-:nd temple. Hanamkonda, Andhra Pradesh,
then India. Kekatiya period, reign of Rudra
I. Built in 1162.
 552 LA'TEII.SCHOOLSOF THT DECCAN AND THE SOUTH
typical of Kakatiya structures, the Ramappa
temple is a single-shrine temple within a large,
walled enclosurethat also contains a number of
smaller structures.(Fig- zz.q). The temple faces
east and consists of a pillared ma4dapa with
large projecting porcheson three sides,an ante-
chamber, and the shrine proper, all of which
rest upon a large plinth that repeatsthe roughly
cruciform shapeof the combined sectionsof the
temple. From the exterior, the porches and
ua4lapa appert sharply angular with their pro-
jections and fat roof, in contrast with the uimaxa
with its brick tower on the west. Like other
Deccan examples,the tower revealsties to both
northem and southem forms, having the tiered
arrangelnent of southem towers but the com-
plexity, detail, and overall shape of northem
lihharus.
One of the most notable Gatures of this
temple is the quality of the carvings on the
exterior and interior of the monument, partic-
I ularly those on the porches and under the roof.
Ultimately a continuation of the Early Western ---- 1
22.16. Entrance to one of the shrines, main temple, Calukya practice of using bracket {igures, the r*+"r:
"Thousand-Pillared" temple. Hanamko4{a, Andhra
Pradesh, India. Kakatiya period, reign of Rudra I.
Pelampet temple bears a series of delicately cE t*
Built in r 162. carved, finely 6nished, and highly polished :l::-- ir

brackets with rampant lion and female figures,

I many of which are nearly life+ize (Fig. zz.r8).
By this tir.ne,the motif of the beautiful woman
admitted into the central mat.tdapaof the temple had been codified into the so-called.AlasaKanye rtg
by porches at the junctures between the three or "Indolent Maiden" type. The Silpa Prakaid, saaeEs
shrhes and the entrance porch. an architectural text probably forrnulated by ECTE

At Pelampet,about sixty kilometers northeast this tirne, treatssixteen of the most inportant of fE- I

of Hanamko4da, further important remains of thesc, including types well known in earlier -IlrEIT

Kakatiya builders rnay be found. Today, Palam- artisticcontexts,such as a majdcn ;n a lora1l rere.h
pct is simply a small village, although during the or do.rrway (Fig. z.r). a girl holding a mirror, Ei}xi

ll Kakatrya period, it was a vital center of con-

siderable importance. An inscription dated in
the inage of a mother, a dancer, and a girl
playing, with a parrot (Fig. 8.28). According
-\[i
:enph
the year rri5 (Saka), equivaleni to A.D. r2r3, ro the Si1p4Prakaia, the Alasa is vital to archi- $-riDes
on a pillar at Pelampet revealsthat the city was tecture, for lvithout the image of a woman, ltrine
founded by Recerla Rudra, a general for the the temple will bear no fruit. (This concept Oae n
king, Gar.rapati(r. 1198-rz6r).5 Rudra's inscrip- does not necessarily explain the presence of ot Gar
tion also revealshis gift ofa temple at Palampet, such figures on earlier monuments.) The ex- mardio
the renowned and justly celebrated Ramappa ample from Palampet (Fig. 22.18) shows the resemb
temole (also called Rudreivara after Rudra hinr- typical vitality of the figures, each of which ures-
"]
sel{-with .an intended double play on the word is lxtraordinarily slender(following the Andhra icoos r
as the temple is dedicated to Siva as Rudra). region stylistic preference)and has very smooth sdf,er i
Often said to representthe high point ofDeccan skin, which is played off visually by the detail lier de1
architecture of this period, though it is not fully of the ornamentation and garnents. Many of e\aglP
 IATIR DECCAN SCHOOTS 55j;

-.-1"--^
: ::rnber of

i: i. rn antc-
r -.i rvhich

r- --nsof the
:::ches and
-i.;' ...-
"
:-- :le vindno
. like other
-. :i:s to both
:: :he tiered
'i: :l1c com-
:: northern

-:::. of this
::-gs on the

i:: dre roof.

r:-r Wcstern
22.17. Rlmappa temple frorn northwest. P:lxnpct,
::iIL1rcs, lne
Andhra Pradesh, India. Kakatiya period, reign of
- - , . ^t l i -
",^l-, Ga4apati. Early thirteenth centory (before Saka cra
:r polished r I3J, or ,{.D.r2r3).
:--.:1efigures,
rrq.22.r6,).
:: -.rl rvoman
-, .lsallanya the {igures are in very contorted positions,
suggesting affinities to other highJy stylized
modes currcnt in South Asia around the same
tirnc, The figures are generally accornpaniedby
:: in earlier extremely detailed floriated bowers or vrnes,
-rt t tor444 revcaling an interest in detail typical of the
Kakatiya carver.
. .; An interesting fcature of the interior of the
",1 "
temple is the presenceof benches with small
:,--,1to arcl.ri- shrinesplacedalong them at intervalsaround the
: : rvoman, perimeter of the pillared nandapa(Fig- zz-ry).
One miniature sbine contains a representation
:lesencc of of Gar.re6a,another of Durge as Mahisasura-
:i. lne ex- mardinr (Fig. zz.zo). ln style, thesefigures bear
.hows thc resemblanceto the carvings of the bracket fig-
:-- of rvhich ures, although as is generally true in the caseof
: -e Andhra icons rather than subsidiary figures, they are
_,r:\ SIllOOth zz.r8. Fernalebrackct figure, Raruapparernple.Palam-
stifer in appearance.In contrastwith many ear-
patJ Ardhra Pradesh,India. Kakatrya pcriod, reign of
". ine oetatl lier depictions of Durga Mahisesuramardini,this Ge4apati. Early thirteenth centrry (bcfore Saka era
:.. Many of example shows the bull asa very minor element rr3j, or ,\.D r2r3).
JJ4 TATTR SCHOOTSOF THE DICCAN AND THE SOUTH

ofthe overallr
dominates the,
arch behind k
a numberof I{
it is decorate

Upon the co
Kalya4i, their
duee portions
be ruled by th
realm, which
Kakatiyas; aD
were claimed
Dorasamudra
family had be
prior to the fz
imperial indel
rr9z, when
22.19. Inte or, 1rdl4ap4,ftorn south, Rama?patemple. PalanpEt,
Andhra Pradesh, India. Katatiya period, reign of Ganapati. Early claimed hims
thirteenth century (beforeSakaera rr3J, or A.D. r2r3). own era of d
on rrgo ifftea
Geological
ruled by the 1
plateau, Yet
Hoysalas are
growth of D(
northem and
highly distin
Deccal templ
multiple shrir
three, four, ar
temples use a
a feature fou.n
krrorvn ass'el
expected whe
is knonn thr,
eramples, no
used to de6r
Hovsala teml
-.he fint bein
I-ater Caluli
EOte ornate !
ire "ornate s
22.20. Du:rgz Mahigasuramardiniin srnall shrine in 22.2r. Ceilirg, nafdap|, R m ppa temple. PalampEt, -.\eir simpler
ma4lapa,P(lnzppa temple.Pelampet,Andhra Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, India. Ktkatlya period, reign of
even a major:
India. Ktkatiya period, ,reign of Ga4apati. Early Ge4epeti. Eerly fhirteenth century (before Saka era
r13J, or A.D. r2r 3). Hc-rrr-erer.sin
thirteenth century (beforeSakaera rr35, or A.D. t2r3).

ofthe overall design,while the victorious Durga
dominatesthe composition. The angular,pointed
arch behind her head is a form which apoearsin
a number of Kakatiyasculptures, althoughofren
it is decoratedrather than plain. The rich carving
T H E H o y S A L A So r S o u r r r r r w K A R N A T A K A ( c a . r o o 6 r o r 3 4 6 )
Upon the collapse of the Later Calukyas of
I Kalyani, their empire was essentiallysplit into
three portions: the northern part, which came to
be ruled by the YadavasofDevagiri; the eastern
realm, which came under the control of the
Kekatiyas; and the southern territories, which
were claimed by the Hoysalas, who ruled from
Dorasamudra (modern Halebid). The Hoysala
Family had been prominent for some rime even
prior to the fall of the Later Calukyas, but their
imperial independence v/as not proclaimed until
rr9z, when Ballafa II (r. ca. tt73-rzzo) pro-
claimed himself emperor and commenced his
own era of dating (which was based,however,
on rrgo insteadof rrgz).
Geologically, the southem Kar4ataka region
ruled by the Hoysalasis not part of the Deccan
plateau. Yet the art styles fostered under the
Hoysalas are most properly viewed as an out-
groy/th of Deccan styles,showing a mixture of
northem and southern elements, while beine
highly disincrive as well. Like many orhei
Deccan temples, Hoysala structures often have
multiple shrines; exarnples are known with two,
three, four, and even five shrines. Many Hoysala
temples use a stellateplan for rhe uimana, again
a feature found in other Deccan art schools.and
known aswell in northem India. But, asmay be
expected when describing an art tradition that
is known through a large number of surviving
examples,no single set of characteristicsmay be
used to define all Hoysala works. In general,
Hoysala temples rnay be classedinto two rypes,
the first being a rather logical development of
Later Calukya forms, the second, a much
more ornare style. Although Hoysafa temples of
the "ornate style" are much better known than
rple. P:lampEt, their simpler relatives, these do not comprise
:od, reign of
rore Saka era
even a majority of extant Hoysala monuments.
However, since the style seemsoriginal to the
IATER DTCCANSCHOOTS 5J5
is also seen in the ceiling of the ma4dapa(Fig.
22.2r), The "lantern roof" convention is well
known in northern-style architecture from an
early date, though the richness of the carving
typifies the later style.
Hoysalas,and was not apparently used by other
dynasties,it may be considered, properly, the
"Hoysafa sryle."
An interesting Gature of the individual
carvings on many Hoysala temples is the fact
that many of them are signed works by specific
altists. Although this phenomenon of signing
works of art occurs in other Indic art schooll
nowhere does it appear with such regularity
or with so much seeming pride on the part of
the artist as in the Hoysala tradition. Some
altists are known to have worked on several
Hoysala ternples.Uftimately, it may be posible
to closely.study the sculptural styles as artists
progressedtrom monument to monument. on
the basis of a purely stylistic analysis, it has
proven impossible thus far to distinguish the
work of one anist from that of anolher. Is-
sentially, here, and in other Indic art schools,
craftsmen, though perhaps proud of their own
achievements,worked in what rnust be called a
collective rather than individual style, although
differences in skill and expression undoubtedly
occurred.
The ancestralhome of the Hovsalas was at
Sosdvir,where Sala.the first chieFrain oIthe Iine,
is reputed to have killed a tiger, using only a
dagger, to protect an ascetic (perhaps a
Jain).
Supposedly, the ascetic shouted "Poy, Salar'
(Srrike.Sala),henceproviding rhe nameHoysala
(Poysala) of the lineage. A number of early
Hoysala artistic remains are found at Sosavir,
However, it was not until the reign of the king
Bittideva (ca. rro8-42), better known by his
Vaisqavite religious name, Visr.ruvardhana,that
Hoysala art, religion, and history become un-
derstood. Inscriptional recordsclearly show that
Visquvardhana, his wiG, ofiicers, and ministers
generously patronized the construction of tem-
ples and other structures.Of the eighty or ninety
J.i6 LATERSCHOOISOF THE DECCANAND THE SOUTH

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:J:5_ :: , _

(.) io

[D3 zz.zz. PTan of Laklmidcvi templc.

Dod4a Gaddavalli, Karn.laka, India.
Hoysala period (Later Calukya styie),
Dedicated in
rcign of Vi;r.r.uvardhana.
III3.

_
a:r:i:::

extant Hoysah temPles in Karnagaka, several Gaddavalli, a monLunent of Visltuvardhana's

irnportant oneshave beenidentified asbelonging
to the reign of Vis4uvardhana on the basis of
inscriptional and stylistic evidence.
An example of a Later Calukya style Hoysala
temple is the Lak;midevi temple at Do4da
reign dating from rrr3 accordingto inscriptional
evidence.oIt is a cruciform, quadruple-sluine
temple (Fig. zz.zz) consisting of a pillared
tna4fapa shted by the four separateshrines,
each of which also has an antechar.nber.En-

22.23. \Vesr side of LaksDdcvi temple ffom northwest. Dodda
Caddav;l!i,Karlalrka. Indir. Hoy"rla periud(LJrerCatukla
reign of Visnuvardhana.Dedicaredin rrrr.
trancesare placed on the east and west sidesof
the ten.rplebetween the nq(dapa ^1ad, the north-
em shrine. The temple is enclosed in a rec-
tangular conpound and there are subsidiary
shrincsiu each of the four corncrs, as well as a
smrll rcrnplededic.rtedro Blrair:rvr.a rerrifying
erpect ol Siv.r. to rhc norrheasroF thc rnain
structure. Within the main shrines of the
templc are images of Laksn.rideviin the cast; a
linga calIed,Bhiitanrtha on the wesr; Kah, a
fierce iakti of Siva, in the north; the south was
probably originally dedicated to Visnu (since
!:. India.
Garuda appearson thc pedestal, although the
ir: srvle),
:r.r.ed in irnrge has bcen lost). As is cltar.rcreri.ricin
Later Calukya inspired tcmplcs, the Laksmidevi
temple doesnot have an encloscdcircumambula-
tory Passageway.
In contrast to Hoysala temples of the ornatc
!irnuvardhana's style, the Laksnidevi temple lacks thc sculpted
: :o inscriPtional friezes and figurative carvings so characteristic
: -:rdruple-shrine of those rtonun-reqts.Instead, the treatraent of
: of a Pillared the bnrc. w.rli. .'nd .upcrsrrucrure(Fig. z.z.:j)
:::lrate shdnes, may be compared to Later Calukya suucrures,
-::chillnDct. !n- 'Lrchu' rhc Dodde Br.appa tenrple(Fig. z-2.7).
LATER DECCAN SCHOOLS 5J7
"ryie).
Both structures are highty embellished with
numerous projections and moldings; however,
the_ decoration consists primarily of purely
architcctural designs,not the figurative r.u\,tur.,
found ubiquitously in the Hoysala ornate style.
Since this temple was created only four years
prior to the highly ornate Ke6ava temple at
Belnr (Figs. zz.z4-3t), it is evident rhat this is
not due to an "earlier" stylistic mode; rather,
this temple shorvsa clcar associationwith othcr
Deccan schools, especially those creatcd under
the Yadavas and Later Calukyas, indicating the
Dcccan/Calukyan heritage of Hoysala art. The
superstructures consist of dirninishing tiers
capped by a iikhara and,kalaia and are basedon
southern forns. While the temple lacks the
sculptnral decoration of tlte dnanq seenin the
ornate-style Hoysala tcn.rples, its individual
sculptures,such as the duarap1lasto the shrines,
rcvcal thc same love of omamentanon scen
throughout Hoysala lvorks.
Perhaps thc nost il'nportAtlt monumcnt of
Visquvardhana's reign is thc Ke(ava (or Ccma
Kc(ava) templc at Belur, an cxample of the