452 LATER NORTHIRN SCHOOTS
an underlying uniry and commonality, distinc- An examination of some of the more important
tive characteristicsare visible from clan to clan.
Tun Gun; ana -P RArrH IRAS oF KANAUJ lc^.73o-ro27)
Vincent Smith has stated that all "authors who
treat of Indian architecture notice, and are em-
barassedby the fact, that each style when it
first comes to our knowledge is full-grown and
comolete. . . . The extensive destruction of
monuments, especially those built of
"nciint
brick, no doubt supplies a partial, though not
adequate,explanation."l This truism, applicable
throughout ancient India, is especiallyrelevant
to a discussion of the art of the Gurjara-Prati-
heras,for our knowledge ofthe architectureand
sculpture in the regions of their control from
about jJo to ZJo, in the period prior to their
ascent,is piecemeal, making it seem as if their
art arosefuil-blown. However, an exarnination
of Gurjara-Pratiharastylistic characteristics re-
vealswhat must have been a number of stylistic
sources. These include the Gupta idioms of
northern India, the post-Gupta y/estem Indian
trends that fourished under the Maitraka and
other d)'nasties, and the strong influence of the
full-bodied, lieshy forrns seen in the art of the
Vakagakasand other western Deccan families.
Thus, while the art of the Gurjara-Pratiharasis
properly viewed as part of the main continuum
of developments in northern krdian art, not
every step of this development is known.
The origin and homeland of the Gurjara-
Pratiharasand even the meaning of their name
have long been debated by scholars. The first
king, Nagabhata I, establishedsupremacy over
the Gurjaras of Nendipuri and the Pratiharasof
Jodhpur (hencethe hyphenated name of the line)
and successfullyresistedinvasionsby Arabs who
came to India primarily for trade purposes.His
rule, approximately from 73o to 756, laid the
foundation for the rise of the great Rajput clans,
but also saw the seeds of destruction being
planted, for tle retreat of the Arabs was only
temporary, and two and a half centuries later,
the Muslim conquestsof westem and northern
India led to the submision of the Rajput rulers.
The Gurjara-Pratiheraswere not alone among
I
I
art stylesprovides ample evidenceof this.
the Indian dynasties trying to gain control of
northem India, for by the time of Vatsaraja,
Nagabhaga'ssuccessor,a triangle between the
Gurjara-Pratiharasin the west, the Ragtrak[tas
of the Deccan, and the Palas of the east had
emerged, each struggling for hegemony over
vast territories and for control of the wealthy
and famous ciry of Kanauj.
Kanaui. which had been built into a beautiful
and renowned city by Harqa in the seventh cen-
tury, was strategically important becauseof its
location along the major trade routes of the
Ganges.It soon became an active center of the
arts where Sanskrit poetry, architecture, sculp-
ture, and probably painting fourished. Yet, in
spite of the known glory of Kanauj, little
remains tq testify to its former splendor. Cun-
ningham noted that most of the many Hindu
temples of ancient days (and possibly some of
the Buddhist monasteries noticed by Hsiian-
tsang) had been dismantled for later reuse in
the buildins of Muslim monuments.2 There is t-fa
no doubt tlat the reconstruction of the history rg.
of the art of Kanauj would be an important step tr rrJ
in tracing the post-Gupta trends that led to pcisJ
the final realizations of Hindu architecture in lrb
north India. Inscriptions left by the Gurjara- Thc r
Pratiharasprovide extensiveevidenceof patron- trw.G
age and building by the rulers and their sub- s-c* rc
jectss but the remains are scant testimony to the :o-r)- !
epigraphic evidence. In spite of this, it is pos- rrom eb
sible to establish a stylistic continuum-from S€ r'itst
the eighth to tenth cenftries for the regions that Elents I
formed the heartland of their empire, namely, t _','Lr (
parts of modern Rajasthan and Gujarat, Uttar v-fir,t
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,and other regions- rormded
for sculpture,aswell asfor architecture.. spherica
The far reaching effectsof the Deccan styles details <
of the Vakatakas, Kalacuris, and other ruling gfearer
families on the develoomcnt of the art of north- a more
ern India have been vastly underestimated: the greater
credit is often Eiven to Sarnath and the late tle higl
fifth-century style th"t developed there. By the G*j*
 THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CrANS 45jl
xore lmpottant
. of this.

rin control of
r of Vatsaraja,
: bctween the
ta t(a st raKlltas
, ,h. e"rt h"d
:gemony over
': the wealthy .t:

aro a beautiful
a seve[th cen-
-.ecauscof its
routes of the
center of the
--^,,.--
"^..1-

i.hcd. Yet, in
Kanauj, little
uo.r. Female figurc, uppcr fragmcnt. From Gwelior, zo.z.Marriage ofSive and Parvati (Kalyanasundaramiir-
:-endor. Cun- Madhya Pradesh,India. Ca. sevenchcentury. Bcige ti). From Kalna, Bharatpur, Rtjasthtn, India. Probably
jr..aDy rllnqu sandsronc.H: 5r crn. National Muscurn,New Delhi. Gurjara-Pratihara period. Ca. eighth cenrury. Beige
siblv some of sardstone.H: 9J cl1l. National Museurn, New Delhi.
: by Hsiian-
l;ier reuse in
1ti,. I nere ls late fifth century, the full-bodied, l1eshyforms of A rcprerenration of rhe Marriagc oF Siva
-.: rhc history western Deccan figure sculpture had reachedas of about thc cighth century is a more complcte
:llPortant step far north as Begh in rhc Gw-lior region and example of this stylistic stagc (Fig. 2o.2). The
s rhar led to persistedin the art of that area for severalcen- figures maintain the fleshy, heavy quality, along
:chitccture in turies. with an emphasison claboration and detailing.
::Ic- Clrrjara- The surviving upper poltion ofa female figure With complex hairdos and jewelry and sharply
fiom Gwalior provides such an cxample of a carvcd facial featurcs, as well as numcrous
:: their sub- work revealing the heritage of Dcccan art (Fig. s r r b s i d i : r cr yl c n r c n t i' n t h e c o m p o s i r i o nr.n o v e -
20.r). Although thc carving probably dates ment away from Gupta and Gupta-relatcdstylcs
i--:s.it is pos- from about thc scvcnth century, that is, prior to i : c v i d c n t . r l t J r o u grllrr cg c l r l y . u a y i r r gp o : r n r c s
i-: -ru n-i-fro m the advent of thc Gurjara-Pratiharas,it docu- arc still rcniniscent of carlier idioms. Clouds
nents an irnportant sourcc for the iater art isolatc thc headsof the figurcs from the clustcrs
-..- -.,..^t,,
styles. Clear ties to thc Vakagaka and post- of attendent bcings above in a nlanncr sinilar
Vakataka art of the Deccan arc sccn in the to that seen in sculpture of the Early Western
:ar reglons rounded forms of the body, the heavy, hcmi- Calukyas.
i,:rc, ' spherical brcasts pushed closc togcther, and A latcr stagc, perhapsof the tenth century, is
D:ccan styles details of thc hair style and ornamcntation. A seenin another rcpresentationof the Marriagc
orher ruling greater crispnessto Gatures of the face, creating o f S i v a . 6 o m E t a hi n U t r a r P r . , d e s(hF i g . : o . 3 ) .
::t of north- a more linear and sharply dcfined effect, and the Although clcarly the descendeirtof the preced-
.rurated: the greater elaboration of jewelry arc a prelude to ing femalc type and still full-bodied and fcshy,
.rd the late the highly ornate forms to be crcatcd under the Pdrvati now standsrather stiffiy and lessgracc-
Gr.rrjara-Pratiharas and othcr Jaterdynasties. fully. She is more amply bedeckedwitb.jcwclry
454 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS

zo.j. Marriage of Sivaand Parvati (Kalytna- and heI

sundaramiirti). From Etah, Uttar Pradesh, more c
India. Probably Gurjara-Pratiharaperiod. Ca.
been t
tenrh century. Beige sandstone.Ht 77.5 cm.
Bharat Kalt Bhavan, Vartlrasi. igure
:rands
POSrur
!'Pl'osit
t-anue!
o\-eT)o
Jepicte
reliei-. r
.h. n.
conuol
lltr|s sE
of an
iefiura
codilc
dme - l
rhirys
redect
dl.cipli
As<
eishth
i:r his
mon$r
image.
Gupta
er thar
deraes
aPtlear
lfts n
butor t
Pratih:
didcul
to rie
temPt(
and di
.r-hole
rbld."
iaces.l
the hi1
arTav I
rJ-reper
other i
rng th
vet all
earlier
2o.4. Vi94u Viavarupa. From Kenauj, Utta! Pradesh,
India. Probably Gurjara-Pratihtrepe od. Ca. eighth or (Fig.t
early ninth century. Stone. Kanauj Museurn, Kanauj. &om t

E:: Xalyana- and her facial Gatures are hardencd, with even
lc:: Pradesh, more crisply delincaredforms. Siva, roo. has
c::riod. Ca.
. ;: i7.s cIlJ.,
been transformed fiom the gently swaying
figure in the preceding exarnple and now
stands in an angular tribhalga (thrice-bent)
posture with his legs turned awkwardly in the
opposite direction from his head. His facial
features are hardened, and his jewelry is more
overpowering and more precisely and crisply
depicted. A greater senseof order pervadesdre
relief, which basalsobecome more elaborate,for
the figures are arranged in strict registerswith
controlled vertical and horizontal placement,
This strictness,which parallelsthe development
of an increasingly rigid organization of archi-
tectural forms, undoubtedly reflectsthe growing
codification of many aspectsof society at the
time. Tle systematizationand categorizationof
things and division into strict spheresmay also
refect developing theories in mathematics, a
discipline for which India is renowned.
A sculpture from Kanauj,. probably of the
eighth or early ninth century, showing Vi94u
in his Vi6varnpa maniGstation (Fig. zo.a) de-
monstratesa very dif,erent stylistic idiom. The
image, in this case,bearsclear afirities to typical
Gupta and post-Gupta trendsofnorth India, rath-
er than to those ofthe Deccan,asseenin the slen-
dernessof the figure and the very fluid and soft
appearing facial Gatures, especially the mouth.
This srylisticstrand was anorlrer major conrri-
butor to the synthesisthat became the Gurjara-
Pratihara style and its regional variations. As
difrcult as it is to give form.to the formless (or
to the omniformed), the Kanauj sculptor has at-
tempted to show both the conceptualunification
and diversification of the form in which "The
whole world there united, / And divided many-
fold."a The main figure has eight arms and.four
faces.His body is adorned with jewels befitting
the highest god or king and his hands hold an
array of weapons. Surrounding him and filling
the perimeter ofthe sculpture slab are numerous
otherfigures, bothdivineanddemonrc,represenr-
ing the multiplicity of things in the universe,
yet all part of a single whole. In contrast to the
earlicr depiction of this subject from Samalaji
(Fig. rr.r5), Vignu appearsto be more isolated
from the myriad rhat surrounds him. Instead of
--
THT ART OF THE REJPUT CLANS 45J
1o.5.A king and his consort.At HargatMAla temple.
Ab.neri, Rajasthan,
India.ProbablyGurjara-pratihera
pedod.Ca.eighthcentury.
appe.aring to emanate from Vis4u, as they do in
the Samalejiimage, the figures above are neatly
arranged in rows and are individually reduced,
ashad beenthe subsidiaryelementsin the Marri-
age ofSiva from Etah (Fig. zo.3)
The village of Abaneri in Rajasthan has
yielded a number of spectacularand quite un-
usual sculptures of about the eighth century.
Although the temple is quite ruined, a number
of exquisite sculptures adorn the plinth of the
Ilerset MatA rcmple. The subject matter of these
reliefs is usually consideredto be secular.Each
carving is ser into a niche flanled by pilasters
decorated with foliate motiG and capped by
repeatirrg cafldraiala arches, and shows figures,
probably representing a king, his principal
consort. and various artendants(Fig. zo.5). ln
rhis case a bare-topped and bejeweled male
figure wearing a skirtlike cloth around his
hips and having an elaborate curled coiffure
sitsir lalifisana, his right hand holding a now-
damaged object and his left tickling a com-
panion under the chin. A smaller Gmale
perches atop his right leg, while two others
attend the scene. The delicacy of carving and
depth of expressionare comparable to any of
the finest works from the entire spectrum of
Indic art. The {igures are rounded in form, yet
'-
456 LArER |\ORTHERNSCIIOOLS

20.6. Sdrya teolplc (Tenlple 7), ftorr1 norlhq"cst. Ositir, Rtjasthan,

lndia. Gurjara Pratihera pcriod. Ca. nrid-eighth century

l l l i l L-L
r I ttl--!
;

rii

2o.7. Plal ofSurva te,nplc (Tcmple 7). Ositir, Rtjasth,n,

Indir. Gurjara-Pratiharapcriod. Ca. rnid-cighthccntury.
 THI ART OF THX R,dJPUTCTANS 4J7
their facial features,hands, and fcet are carved
with extreme daintiness.The round stool pro-
vides volume to the composition and increases
the senseofreality.
Architecture ofthis period may also be studied
in Rejasthan,at Osiai, now a small village not
far from Jodhpur, which apparcnrlywai con-
trolled by the Gurjara-Pratiharasand possibly a
minor ruling family known asrhe Abhirasin the
eighth and ninth centuries.Although largely in
ruins, about sixteen remaining temples testify
that it was once a flourishing cultural center. An
inscription in a Jain temple at Osiafi gives evi-
dence of arristic activity during the time of
Vatsaraja of the Gurjara-Pratiharas,who ruled
it,t in the last decadesof the eighth century. How-
ever, the actual patrons of the temples are un-
known, Stylistic comparisons to other nore
securelydated monuments indicate a forescence
at the site in the middle to late eighth and ninth
centudes.s
A Surya temple, called number seven, ar
Osiafi, probably daring from the mid-eighth
century, is a modest-sizedstructure consistinqof 2o.8.North sid,eof rimAfla,SCryatenple (Temple7).
a shrine, manlapa, and porch (Figs. 2o.6, zo-.7). Osian, Rajasrhan,India. Gurjara-pratihara period.
Originally, four subsidiaryshrinesconnectedby Ca. mid-eighthcentury.
a cloister (.iala)that served also as a compound
wall rendered it a p aicayatane strvcture, although
these have vanished alrnost withour a rrace. the Gupta sculptural scheme,seen at Deogarh,
The cloister is an important elemedt, for it anti- the increasedcomplication and introduction of
cipates the later western Indian Jain temples in secondary elements efectively de-emphasizes
which the central structure is surrounded by a any one element, Thus, the relieG on the three
cloister. Although the temple consistsstill ofthe sides do not dominate the decorative scheme, as
shrine and porch areas, as had typical Gupta had the single relielS at Deogarh. A rvestward-
monuments, the whole is now much more facing temple, this monument would seem to
elaboratein decoration and is more readily corn- have been circumambulated in a counterclock-
pared to nearly contempolary-onum.nts els.- wise direction, as ar rhe Deogarh temple, if
where in nonhern tndia. the order of the exterior oi"h" ."ulptu.",
Sincethere is evidenceofreconstruction ofthe rnay be used asa determinant. Ganeia,the over-
temple after its original period of construcrion comer of obstaclesinvoked at the beginning
(the iikhara, for example, may be a product of of worship, appearsin the principal niihe on
the tenth century), the original monument rs the sourh; Surya. the main deity of rhe
best studied in the I owet half of the dmaxa. temple, appears in rhe principal niche on
The exterior wall of the vimana is a delicate the east (rear); Durga, as Mahigasuramardini,
balance between decorative moldinqs, foliate is placed in the principal niche on the north
motifs, and modesrly sizedniches, each contain- (Fig. zo.8). representariveof religious victory.
ing the figure of a deiry. The central niche on that is, the a$ainment of the goal of worship.
-deities
each side is slighdy larger than the others and Subsidiary niches with other compleie
is more prominent (Fig. zo.8). In contrast to the pantheon presented on this temple. The
I58 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS

;,.. ,
2o.9. Hari-Hara renlple (TerDple r), from west. Osian, Rejasthan,
India. Gurjara-Pratiharapcriod. Ca. mid-eighth century.

lr':. : -,*

q
!- ,1

zo.ro. V,mana dr4lzr (Trivikrama), south side, Hari- 2o.rr. Hari-Hara, on east side of Hari-Hara temple
Hara tenple (Tcmplc r). OsiaR,Rajasthan,India. Gur- (Temple z). Osian, Rtjasrh.n, India. Gurjara-Pradhara
jara-Pratihtra pcriod. Ca. mid-eighth century- period. Ca. mid-to-late eighth century.
 THE ART OF THE RAJPUTCTANS 4J9

image of Durge reveals thc heavy and full on artistic schools in regions where Gurjara-
forms of the body, the large round breasts Pratihara political swav was felt, even if the
pressedclosely together, and the lines denoting art itself riay not hav; been specifically linled
the fesh around the ribs characteristicofGurjara- to the Guiara-Pratiharas. In the caseof artistic
Pratihara representations.The increasedactivity cenJersthat already had longstanding traditions,
of the figure predicts the style to be popularized the effect took the form of a new overlay,
in the following centudes,and marks a departure ratJrcr than complete change.
from the repose and calm of Gupta-period Such was the case in the Buddhist art of
works. Samath where the srylistic impact may be seen
A more complete version of a plfrcaIatutta in a stelewith representationsof the eight major
remple of approximateiy the same date, that events of the Buddha's life (Fig. zo.rz). Usually
is, the -iddli of the eighth century. is the dated to the Gupta period, this sculpture,upon
Hari-Hara temple, called number one, at Osiafi close exarnination, reveals ties to the Gurjara-
(Fig. zo.9). The temple and its four subsidiary Pratihara style of the eighth century, although
shrines (the northwest one is now destroyed) the new sryle was only grafted onto an existing
stand atop a terrace that unifres the separate tradition of long-standing repute. The organiza-
elements. The central shrine faces west, as do tion of the relief, with its paired scenesplaced
the two back comer shrines, but the two at the in two vertical lines, reveals the tendency to
west or front side of the tenace (jqgatT) face each organize and compartmentalize that is char-
other. The sculptures that adorn the temple acteristicofthe architecturaland sculpturaltrends
reveal the consistently high qualiry of expresion of post-Gupta times and contrastsstrongly with
and execution seenat AbSneri, Osiai, and other
Guriara-Pratihara-periodsites. The main niche
on ihe south side of the principal structure
shows Visnu's fifth al)aftr, Vanana Frivikrama),
the dwarf who tricked rhe asurusinto granting
him as much of the universe as he could cover
in three sreps.and then grew to gigantic size
to cover it all (Fig. zo.ro). The conical crown
and curled hair exhibit a debt to frfth- and sixth-
century forrns, but the vitality and energy of
the image reflectthe developedGurjara-Pratihara
idiom. A particularly fine representation of
Hari-Hara, the unified form of Siva and Visr}u,
from another Hari-Hara temple at the site,
called number tri/o, further exemplifies the
style, for even this standing, frontal icon of the
god has an innate livelinessand senseof anirna-
tion (Fig. zo.rr). Clearly a syncretic god, Hari-
Hara's imoortance at Osi5fi mav be related to
a soecificiult orevalent at the site.
The ninth tenth centuries saw the dis-
"nd
semination of the Gurjara-Pratiharastyle com-
plex throughout much of northem India, as
well as a marked change in the sculptural style
itsele for the softnessand animation previously 2o.r2. Eisht Events from Life of Sakyanuni Buddha'
seenin the figures gave way to a harder, stiffer From Srmath, Uttar Pradesh,India Probably Gurjara-
Hara temple form. Although the tradition grew up primarily Prariheraperiod Ca. eighth century Beige sandstone'
.:n-Pradhara
in western and northem India, it had impact H: 96.J cm. S,rnath Site Museun' S:mtth'
460 LA'IEI. NORTHERN SCHOOTS
20.rt.Vajrasattva. FrolnSernath,
ProbablyGurjara-Pratihara period.Ca. cighrhccntury. pcriod style. Yet it still rerainsson.Lethingof the
Beige sandstonc. lI: r32 clr1.Sarn,th Site Museur,
a Guptarenditionofthc samesubject(Fig. ro.zr),
in which , rnore free-forn Jrrirngemcnti. vi5i-
ble. It aiso contrastswith the typical Pala-period
examples in which a large central Buddha
generally dor.ninatcsthe other scenes(Fig. r8.9).
C r r r j . r r . r - P r " t i l r r rs. tr y l i s t i c c l r J r J c t e r i ' t i c s. r e
especiallyvisible in the trcatrrent of the figurcs
and facial features, particularly
high-ridged eycbrows typical of the developing
Rajput forms.
Another sculpture fiom about the san.rc
further demonrtrrte. Iarer Buddhist inrrgery
Sarnad.r (Fig. zo.r3).The subjectofthis sculpture
i s { j j 1 1 . 1 s 1 v 1w. h o . y r n b o l i z e i h e p r . r c t i t i . , r r e r entation of r Bncldha tn rlharnacakran {rd
as thc undilfcrcntiatcd state of the Univers:rl
(!nnyata)-He is identifred by thc lajrn he holds
in his right l.Landand thc rcr.nainsof a gha4fi
-fhe
(bcll) in hil lc{t. uajta is a symbol o{ !ffiyofi
itself as wcll as the perr.r.nnentnature of the
undift-crcntiatedreality, while the ghaq1a,wrth
its transicntsound,syn-tbolizes the irnpcrmancncc
of cxistcnce. Although gencraily classifiedas a
Buddha, Vajmsattva embodics principles that
rcach far beyond tl.re idca of the enlightcncd
Sakyomuni, for the ornan.rcntshe wears, includ-
ing his crorvn, earrings, necklace, anklcts and
b r a c e l c r ,r.r r r r l c t . .r n J g i r J l e . i g n i f y t h c p c r -
{ectiorls (pafi tifis) necessaryfor thc :rttarnment
of nirva4a.His crown, the most claborateofthese
iconographic synbols, contains sr.nall imagcs
of four of the five jiza Buddhas (the fiftl.Lbeing
ir.nplicd at the rear of thc crown) and is, in fact,
t natldalao{ tlte fivejiras. In thc caseof Vajrasat-
tva, the five figurcs in his crown are 11ot t]rc
sourcesftotrr which he erranates, as is usually
thc n.rcaning of figures in tl.Lehead-clrcsscs in
Buclclhist iconographics. On the contrary,
thcsejr'rias and thc Buddha-r'ealn.rsover which
they preside arc considered to bc inhcrent in
Vajrasattva, and arc tl-re lnlnifcstations of the
natr-rrc of lis knowlcdge. Stylistically, this
figure again shows the crystallization of form,
especially visible in thc fcatures of the face,
Urtrr Pradcsh, India. which chrractcrizes the latc Gurjara-Pratihera-
softnessof carlier Sarnath carvings. The orna-
mcntsanLljcwelsnow sta11d in bold reliefagainst
the llcsh, and are quitc plastically carvecl. Pos-
sibly, this sculpturewas intended to be con-
pleted rvith plaster ancl paintcd as suggested
by the unfinisired charactcr of the l.nlo alrd
backgrorrncl.
Conflict lvith thc Pala kings of Magadl.Laand
Bcngal scerlsto l.ravcextendedGurjara-Pratihara
inllncnce to thc castcrn portions of the South
Asian subcontincnt, and in return broLrght Pala
notablc in thc ch:rracteristics into thc art at sonlc siteswithin tlle
fold of the Gurjara-Pratiherapolitical sphcrc. A
l c r vr c u l p r u r clso l n d - l S a r n e t hp r t s c n ta n i n t e r -
datc esting probiem regarding thc rclationship of the
.rr sculptural traditions at Sarnadl to contenPo-
raneous ones of Bihar. Onc of theur is a repres-
.
(Fig. zo.14).6Thc stylisticfeaturcsof this stele,
ancl othcrs of the group, distinguish them
froru other sculpturcs found at Sarnatir, for
rvhilc thcy arc carved out of the Chun-r sand-
 THE ART OF THE REJPUT CLANS 461

:raages

. .- f^^,

:i: rot the

:: usually
:i6se5 rI1
r .oouary,
| ,:;:r which
i :::erent in
n::' of the
E::;-il,r', this
i:: of form, zo.r4. Buddha. From Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh,India. 2o.rj. Buddha.FromBiherSharifvicinity,Bihar,India.
ci :he face, Probably late Gurjara-Pratihlra period. Ca. early ele- Gurjara-Pratiharaperiod, fourth year of reign of Ma-
r:-Pratihara- venth centffy. Beige sandstone.H: rr4.5 cn1. Samath h e n d r a p a( lcaa . . 1 . o . 8 9 4B) l. a c ks t o n eH. : 6 7 . J c m .
Sire Museum, Se reth. NtlandaSiteMuseum,Nalandt.
r::ng of the
i The orna-
re,:efagainst
an'ed. Pos- stone typical of the region, they relate in sryle while there, carved these images in his usual
rc be com- to the black stone carvings of Bihar dating manner, but in the local material.T
u suggested from the Pala period. An examination of the Concomitantly, incontrovertible evidence of
r lalo and Buddha in dhormacakra mudra lllastrates the Gurjara-Pratiharaimpact on the art of the Pala
similarities to images from Bihar, which include regions is known, for Mahendrapala, the
L-radha and the basic format of the stele, the treatment of the Gurjara-Pratihera king who ruled fron about
r;-Pratihera throne, the 0oriated motif on the crossbarsof 89o to 9o8, left a number of inscriptional records
i the South the throne back, and the decorated rim of the that signify his prominence in Bihar and north-
rr.-rght -Pala halo. The position and rendering of the ridya- ern Bengal. Severalsculpturesfound within the
: ;rithin the dharasat the top of the stele are so similar to Pala-conrrolled areasof Bihdr bear inscriptions
a, sphere.A examples from Bihar that they suggest that dated in Mahendrapala'sreign, signifying that at
!a an lnler- they were carved following the same icono- least temporary inroadswere made by that king.
n irip of the graphic texts or drawings. Since the Samath Each of theseimagesis Buddhist, suggestingdrat
conten1Po- examples are unusual among the Samath remains the popular religion of the region prevailed,
in their similarity to Pela sculpture, particularly as occurred at Samath, but that a new ruler was
c;pra nudra to works of the reign of King Mahipala I acknowledged. One example, which was found
rr rhis stele, (late tenth-early eleventh century) it is unlikely near Bihar Sharif and is dated in the fourth
r-uish them that a whole wave of Pela infuence was felt year of Mahendrapala'sreign, about 894, shows
arnatlt, tol at that site. Rather, it has been sulgested that a a seated Buddha in dhatmacakramudra (Fig-
bunar sand- Pala sculptor may have visited Sarnath and, zo.i5). The format is virtually identical to that
462 LATEI.NORTI{ERNSCHOOLS
of many contenporary imagcs from Bihar;
however, the deeply incised, thick lines of thc
thronc and halo seen particularly charactcristic
of all of the known Mairendrapala-periodpieces
from tlc easternrcgion.
In spite of Mahendrapala'sapparent political
succcsses in thc cast,thc strength ofthe Pratiheras
apparcntly began to w.ne during the reign of
his succcssor,Mrhipala, wl-ro rvas twicc deleatcd
by thc por.verful Rastraklta kings Indra III ancl
Krsna III. At the same timc that thc Gurjara-
Pratihara lorces were dwindiing, othcr RajPut
clanswere growing more powerful. An inscrip-
tion datcd to 954 crcdits the Candellasrvith thc
defeatof the Gurjara-Pratiheras.8 However, scve-
ral other Rajput families appareutly contlnucd to
TnE Hlrsavas (on Karacunrs) or TRIPURi
Onc of the dynestics that c.ru1e into powcr
upon tlle weakcning of the Gurjara-Pratiharas
was that ofthe HaihayasofTripuri, who catne to
rule thc eastemPottiou of north-ccntral India.
Their land, usually called the Cedi country, was
contiguorls rvith portions of Bih-r ltnd Oissl
and it is not surprising that the art produced
d t r r i n g t h e i r ; , c r i o do f r L t l c' e { c c t . r * o c i a t i o n s
both r,vith thc Gr,rrjera-Prltihera art of the
central ancl '"vesternrcgiotts ofnorth lndia, anci,
to sorne exterlt, thc art ofthe east. Tccluicrlly,
thc Haihryas forln one of thc tlany branches
of the Kalacuri faurily r,vho ruled portions of
north Indix anci the Deccan at virrious Periods.
AlthouglL Haihaya-periodmonunents have bccn
.locumentcd ancl describcd, rvork toward
rclating thc remains to contetnPorary nonu-
nlents in other parrs of Sor-rthAsia and tolvard
understandingthc rvorks in the contcxt of their
tine has only rccently begun. However, a brief
look at sone of the rnajor architectural types
sheds extrcn.rcly inportant light on Haihaya
ties rvith other art styles of India, as rvell as a
pxrticular Saivite dcveloprnent and the untsual
architcctural n-rodescrcated for its practiccsand
ritual neecls.
T h i s S a i v i t e ' r c t . t h e M . r t t a - l n , y u r . ro r
"Drunken Pcacock" clan, is known from about
half a dozen inscriptions, three of which were
acknowledge the Gurjara-Pratihara domrnance,
rvhile n.raintaining indepcndent rulers in their
own tcrritories. Among thosewho assertedthcir
indcpcndencearound this tin.rewere the Caha-
manas and the Guhilas. Ncwly arising clans,
such as the Haihayas of north-ccntral India,
the Parameras of Malwe, and the Calukyas
( 5 o l x n k i . )o f C t r j . r r a rr.l . " g a i n c dp r o t n i n c n c e .
By about thc mid-tenth ccntury, the Gurjara-
Pratiharas s,cre wcakcned, controlling only
Kanauj and its environs, but little else.Thc line
continued in this dcbilitated statc until thc
ilvasions of Mahmnd of Ghazni, which began
in roor; the last Gurjara-Pratihara rulcr for
s'hich we have records rulcd at least until
I
1421.
.l
--o{
found in the Cecli country.e It was apparently a
introduceclinto thc region by YuvarajaclcvaI (ca-
9r5 45),king of tirc Haihayas,when hc importcd
;r M:itta-nnyaux Saivite asccticnamed Prabha-
iEl
va6iva. Yuvarajadeva I's chief queen, Nohala,
probably bclonged to thc family of a snall - :lm
dy,r"sty, nnrn"d Calukya, whose capital, called
:@
Matta-mayura, was centeredin the Guna district -i
of Madhyl Pradcsh and rvho rverc the earliest
known patrous of the scct. Within two gcnera-
tions, as knol'n frorn inscriptions, at least two
more such in-rportationsoccurred, ancl ascctics
lvere given land ancl rnonasterics,ieaclingto thc
establishncnt of a con.rtrttnity belonging to
dris clan. A lineage for these ascetics,baseclon
a teachcr-disciplebasis,sincethey werc celibate,
has bccn establisheclfrom epigraphic eviclcnce.
Onc ir-Lscriptiorrrevcals thlt the Matta-naydra
ascctic, Prabodha6iva,hacl a monastcry t?/drrd)
collstrLrcted,along with a tank and a weil, in
the Kalacuri year 724, equivalentto 972 10 Since
thc inscription was built into a wall of a tt.ton-
astery at Canclrehe, it nay be :rssumedthat
tlris is thc natha btik by Prabodha6iva (Fig.
zo.r6). Furthcr, thc inscriptiotr mcntions that
this strLlcture was built near a house of gods
(templc) built by Prabodha6iva'sspiritual pre-
c e p t ; r ; r h i \ i r g c n e r . l l y . r s s u m reoJb e r h cn e r r b y
S i u , , e - p l . 1 F i g . .: o . r s . 2 0 . r 9 ) A l l o \ \ i n g f o r
 TI{E ART OF TITT REJPUT CLANS 46J'
3 dofiunance,
ulers in their
r assertedtheir
ere the Caha-
arising clans,
central India,
&e Calukyas
prominence.
the Gurjara-
rolling only
else.The line
iG urtil the
which began
ira ruler for
rt least undl

20.16. Plan of Saivite monastery. Candrehe, Madhya

0 10 20 30 40
Pradesh,India. Haihaya period. Kalacuri year 724
r apparently
\ .D.972).
ajadevaI (ca-
Lheimported
ned Prabha-
-q, Nohala, a one generadondifrerencein date, this temple remains single (although said to be married
of a small could have been construct€d about twenty to to the "army of the gods" or, altematively, to
rpital, called f,wenty-fiveyearsearlier, about 9Jo. Kaumeri, the Virgin). One of his names, Skanda,
Gu:radistrict Since the Matta-may[ras are known only reGrs to the spurt of semen that in loga must
: the earliest from a handful of inscriptions,it is difficult to rise throush the inner channels of the subde
two genera- specifr how their beliefs and practicesdiffered body to the mouth offire, where it is consurned,
at least two from those of other Saivite sects.A clue to symbolizing the mastery over the sensesof the
arld ascetics of the Matta-mayuras
the characteristics apPears yogin- When mind control is not attained,
ading to the in the Candrehe inscription, which compares Skanda is not bom, but through the achievement
elonging to Prabodhaiivato Kumdra (Karttikeya)and says and the "birth'' of Skanda,the yopir "becomes"
cs, based-on that his "one hand was versedin pouring liba- (iva, by inference, in .epe"ting Sita's act of
rere celibate, tions on high tongues of fire (asKumera's one the creation of Kumara. This goal, to "become"
dc evidence. handwasversedin pacifyinghisfiercepeacock)" Siu", *", the aim oF Matta--mayura practices.
atta-may[ra and that he had "always abjured the company Their name, "Drunlcen Peacock," may refer to
ery (matha) of women."1lThe notion of Kumdra'speacock the sexual excitement that is totally under con-
I a well, in (nayarc), alladedto in the inscription and per- trol and should not be taken as an indication of
gqz.Lo Since hapsalsoin the Matta-mayuraname as a symbol sexual licentiousness. The absence of sexually
I of a mon- of passioncontrolledby Kumara,seemscentlal explicit sculptures on the monuments of the
sumed that to the Matta-mayuraideals.Kumara, the son Matta-mayiiras at Candrehe seems to be a
haSiva (Fig. of Siva, was, according to some traditions, further indication of the essential beliefs of the
:ntions tlut conceivedwithout female particiPation,since sect.
ose of gods Siva'sfiery seedcould not be bome by any The monastery, now ruined and best studied
iritual pre- woman. Kumdra'savoidanceof contamination by its plan, is a square structure measuring a1l-
e the nearby from women, even in his lack ofa mother, con- proximately eighteen meters on each side (Fig.
llowing for tinued throushout his life: he is chasteand zo.16)-It consistedofa central pillared courtyard
 404 LA'IER NORTHERN SCHOOIS
2o.I?. Stone doorwav of northem entrrnce to Saivite
monastery. Candrehe, Madhya Pradesh, India. Haihaya
period. Kalacuri year 724 (,t.o. 972),
surrounded by a numberofchambersofvarying
sizesand shapes,apparently designedfor dif-
ferent purposes,such as meditation or worship.
Some of the chambersopen directly into the
pillared courtyard, but others are more remote
and accessibleonly through corridors or other
rooms. A badly damagedsecondstory of the
building, which may not have covered the
entire lower level, may have been used by
the asceticsfor living purposes.The plan relates for their austere practices. The decoration of
strongly to BudAlist vihara known in free-
at
standingstructures Buddhisrmonasticinstitu-
tions as well as in cave architecture.However,
since so Gw Hindu monasteriessuryive from
ancientIndia, it is difficult to determinewhether
the Hindu form is indebted to that of the
Buddhists,or whether parallel developments, exhibit a wide range of stylistic proclivities
partly relatedto similarneedsamongall monastic absorbed from the Deccan, north-central and
institutions,account for the points of com-
oarison.It is likelv that Hindusbuilt rumerous difficult to tie these monuments soecificallv to
ieligious retreats or monasteriesover the cen-
turies, though apparently stone was rarely used that can be clearly associatedwith the Haihayas,
and therefore few have survived. The exterio!
and interior of the mathaare very plain. Sculp-
tural decoratibn is confined to a Gw of the
doorways, which are modestly carved (Fig.
eo.r7). The sirnplicity, which is in general
uncharacteristicof post-Gupta-period art of the
north, undoubtedly reflected the asceticway of
Iife aspired to by rhe Marra-mayEras.
The nearby Siva temple is also of interest
becauseof its unusual form (Figs. zo.r8, zo.r9),
for its shrine is circular both inside and out, as
is the entire lihhdra. Further, in contrast to
most other contemDoraneous northern art
styles, it is nearly devoid of {igural sculpture.
Its decoration consistsprimarily of mouldings
and other architectural embellishments. The
monument stands atop a rectangular platform,
although this may be partially the product of
later reconstructions.Facing west and consisting
of a maq/dpa, mahama4(apa,anturala (artecham-
ber), and gafthagrha, its elements are clearly
discemibleon the interior but are perceivedonly
as a rectangular shape appended to a circular
form on the exterior, although the temple parts
are differentiated by the roofs on the exterior.
Only one other specimen of a temple with a
circular shrine, both inside and out, has been
found, and this was near Gurgi at Masaun. The
site of Gurgi is also linked to the Matta-may[ra
sect on the basisof inscriptional evidence. The
circular form is frequently associatedwitt the
concept of the female, as in /ogirt ternples,
one of which is found at Bherashet and is tied
to rhe Haihayas,t2 and it i" posilble'thatfor the
Matta-mayuras this form representedthe notion
of sexuality symbolically, as would be fitting
the exterior of the nagara-style iikharc consists
of candruialasof nearly identical size creating a
texture on the round surface,wbile, below, the
wall bears simple, undecorated pilasterlike
projections.
Other templesfound within the Cedi territory
to some extent eastern India, although it is
rhe Haihayas.Some of rhem, including ones
 THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CTANS 46J

ts
!
l'

I
2o.r8. Plan of Siva tcnplc. Candrchc, Mrdhya Prsdesh, India.
i:-
Haihaya period. Ca. mid-tenth ccntury.

^: -:i:italn-

r : :learly

: - :rrcular

_-:::.ierior.
: : .lith a
i: - ,i been

The
"':::-:1.
- - . : - - . ' .T h e
-'.: '.'.idr the
:iirlPlcs,
: ..--:is tied
:.--: ior the
: ::.- notion
-. 6rtino
: :,iion of
: : _.: consists
: ::il!lng a
. -_:-orv,the
::-:rsterlike

: Jclivities
:,-:ir:rl and
:-:3h it is
-.-r-- lt., .^
--:rng oncs
2o.r9. Siva temple frolr southeast. Candrehc, Madhya Pradesh,
India. Haihaya period. Ca. mid-tcnth ccntury.
466 LATE? NORTHERN SCHOOLS
are ichlrr decorated with sculpture. A monu- numerous
^"nt^l tirorlg from Gurgi tbat-must havs once Candella p
adorned a Siva temple and is now set up at ments of t
Rewa suggests something of the sculptural their own
forms of approxirnately the tenth century (Fig. provide s
zo.zo). Its two upright jambs and three lintels contemPol
are richly carved (although some porrions are presenceir
covered by the modern wall into which it has the Cande
been placed) with female figures, deities, and conquest
architectural and foliate motifs comParable in Pressmg
style to late Gurjara-Pratihara monuments and forces.
the art of their successols. Perhaps
line is the
at the sit
eighry te
struction i
five survi
homogen
of a con
creatols o
most of
'lora4a. From Gurgi, Madhya Pradesh,India. and.srylis
zo.zo.
Haihaya period, Ca. tenth century. Now at Mrhareja's are Saivit
Palace,Rewa. link then
temples
througho
T n s C a l . I p r r r , a s o F B u N D E L K H A ND It is ge
temple a
Originally feudatoriesof the Gurjara-Pratiheras, The size of the-Candellarealm was never really temPle, (
the Candella family rose to power through the great; the main sites and capitals were con- (Figs.zo.
familiar sequence of events reenacted intrumer- centrated within a small area and included evidence
able times in ancient India; originally owing Khajuraho (ancient Khajjuravahaka), where the
their allegiance to the once stronger line, they most sisnificant architectural remains are lo-
capitalized on the weakening of the Gurjara- cated; Kalaijara, one of the most impregnable
Pratiharas and, ceasing to acknowledge r the ancientfortressesoflndia at times under Candella
latter's sovereignty, establishedtheir own prin- control; and Mahoba and Ajaygarh, two other
cipaliry, in this case,around the site of Khaju- fortresses.
'Within
raho, in the region known as Bundelkhand. the Candellacapitals,culture flourished
Eventually, as befits the pattem, tlrc Can- as the kings patronized poets and dramatists,
dellas were themselves overcome in a similar not the least of whom was Kggra Mi6ra, the
manner. Like many other lndic dynasties-in spite celebrated author of the Prabodhacanhodaya.
of the realities of their rise to power, the Can- This drama. Derformed before the Candella
dellas possesseda traditional account of their king Kirtivarman, celebrated a then-recent
origin, one version ofwhich claims descentfrom military victory over the Kalacuris. Civil works,
the moon, Candra, henceproviding the narne of including the excavation of tanks, and the
their dynasty.l3 Their greatestperiod of ascend- building of dams, fortresses,and palaces,were '*.!:.ta
anry occurred in the tenth and eleventh centuries, commissionedby the Candella kings, suggesting
although Candella rulers may be traced uP to a full treasury providing plentiful employment
rj4o, goveming portions oftheir former empire. for skilled craftsmen in the kinedom. Further,
 THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS 467
:ie. A monu- numerous tcmples werc erccted during the
'ist have once
Candellaperiod. Theseworks and other achieve-
Li\\'se[ up at ments of the Candellas are known both from
ie sculptural their own inscriptions, over sixty-five of wbich
century (Fig. provide such information, as well as from
i rlrree lintels contcnporary Muslin chroniclers, whose very
: Portrons are presencein India at that time is a reminder that
s'hich it has the Candellasruled on the brink of the Muslim
,. deities, and conquest of northern hrdia, and faced the
on.rparablein pressing problem of repelling the Muslim
)auments and forces,
Perhapsthe greatesttestimony to the Candella
line is the beauty of numerous temples erected
at the sitc of Khajuraho. Traditionally, over
eighty templcs arc ascribcd to Candella con-
struction at the site,although only about twcnty-
five survive today. They representa strikingly
homogeneousgroup and seemto be the product
of a concerted and sustained ellort by their
creatorsover a pcriod of tirne. Bccauseof this,
most of the temples sharc ccriain conceptual
:::lesh, Iudia. and,stylistic featurcs,rcgardlcssof whcther they
i .:: .\hhir:ja's are Saivite,Vai;navite, or Jain. Thcir stylesboth
linl< them togethcr and distinguish them fiom
temples of the northerrr type at other sites
throughout South Asia.
It is gcnerally assumcdthat thc carliest cxtant Skel.h F a. Nol To S..tc
temple at Khajuraho is thc Caunsat l,oglai
, .-. ,^"lt-.
templc, or, thc tcmplc of thc sixty-four /ogirij
2o.2r. Plan of Caunla! /ogi"t tcrrple. Khxjuraho, Ma-
s ala con- (Figs.zo.zt, zo.zz), although no incontrovcrtiblc dhya Pradcsh,India. Candcliaperiod. Ca. ninth ccrtury
c: :rcludcd evidence verifiesits presumedninth-century datc.
r -l.rc the
:---. arc lo-
::::regnable
rcerCandella
:. two other

-:.. flourished

: ,\liira, the
::::androdaya,
-,. Candella
:hen-recent
C:r'il works,
i:. and the
':.-rces,were
!. jrlggcsting
zo.zz.Vicwlooking southinsidecourtyard ofCaunsar/oJi,?ttemple.
:::ployment Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh,India. Candella period. Ca. ninth
century or Jater.
466 LATER.NORTHXRN SCHOOLS
The Gatures often said to suggest an early con-
struction date include its stark simplicity (it
was nearly totally devoid of sculptures save for
the imases once contained in the niches around
its peririeter); the use of granite as a building
rnaterial (sandstone was the prevalent medium
of the Candella ternples and presumably repre-
sentsa later feature); as well as the use of large,
boulderlike blocks of masonry, roughly cut
and boldly articulated, again a feature generally
associatedwith formative stagesof stone archi-
tecture in Sorrth Asia. Yet becauseofthe unusual
purpose and character of this temple, which
not-on1y distinguishes it fron other temples at
Khajuraho but places it among only a handful
of simrlar temples in other Parts of South Asia,
it does not seemjustifiable to base arguments
for its date on what might otherwise be ac-
ceotable criteria. Its exceptional form and
soicial subject matter, ho;ever, makes it a
dttittg b"giottittg for a discussion of Candella
art, regardless of its probabledate.
The temple is built on a rocky promontory
about seven meters above a plain. In contrast
to the usually circular form ol yogini temples,
this structure consists of a large, rectangular
open courtyard surrounded by a cloister of
cells, sixty-four of which measure only about
a meter in height and depth. Another cell,
larger than the others and located direcdy
opposite the main entrance to the complex,
which ir on the north, may have enshined the
main image of the temple. Each cell is like a
miniature temple, having a simplified tower
o{ the nagara style (Fig. zo.zz). Each would
have housed a sculptural representation of a
yogint, only three of which have survived to
modern times. Although many other archi-
tectural examples in India are characterizedby
an enclosure o{ cells, yogint temples are unusual
in that the perimeter,rather than a Prominent
central shrine, receives the greatest emphasis.
It is posible that this relates to the Gminine
corcept that yogint temples portray, in which
the idea ofthe enclosurerather than the enclosed,
expressiveof the female as opposed to the male
reproductive organs, is stressed.
The purpose and meaning of the yogint
temple is related ro Hindtr Tantric practices.
which must have been prevalent in the region,
as manifested in the sculptural programs of
the majority of the Khajuraho temples. The
particular type of Tantrism may have been
related to Kaula or Kapalika practices.In partic-
ular, the Kapalikas are associated with yogixts
and various sexual practices in which the female
was given great importance as the "seat" of
the Self, and thereby the realization of Self was
located in the yoni , or vulva.14 While the
ultimate aim of the Kapalika was to transcend
the sensual, the participation in rituals in which
sexual relations with women were a ma1or
asDect must have led to the downfall of many
a would-be holy man.
The theorv behind Tantric practices, both
Buddhisr anj Hindu, often included not only
the enioyment of women, but also the drinling
of *ine, the eating of fesh, human sacrifice,
and the use of the hurnan skull as a drinling
vessel. These five practices cornprise the pafrea
makaras, the so-called "frve n's," for their
Sanskrit names all begin with the letter m. In
short, t.uttrirs often made use of things that
were generally prohibited to the "right hand,"
or customary leligious practices. The Tantric
(or "left-hand") way was believed to be the fast
method of achieving the religious goal, but
certainly, it was the lesssecure, For the temP-
tations of the senses,which were to be over-
cone through indulgence, frequently further "charmir
ensnaredthe practirionersinto participationin nsals th
the physical world. tt is not surprising that descripti
Tantric practiceshave been looked down upon remple ir
by nonpractirionersjn South Asian sociery at srith cor
every period, forcing Tantric followers to har-ehac
pursuesecletismand esoterism. builiing
Typical of the developcdphaseof architecture tur,Ier :
at Khajuraho, and an exarnple which may be enr.hrile
used to define rnany of the major characteristics of Vi5nt
of the Candella style, is the LaklmaDa temPle fts origir
(Fig. zo.z3). Not only is this buil.ling one_ofthe bur it b
best-oreservedmonuments at the site, but its rie ruler
d"t.'-"y b" fixed by an inscription which was bapala a
found at the base of the ternple. This epigraph, Pradlnr'
dated in the year rorr of the Vikrama era, or ot'rainei
a.o. 954,was left by Dhairga, the son ofYa(ovar- rePrese!
man, the seventh Candella king. It revealsthat cas hart
Yaiovarman, alias Lakqavarman, erected a srnce ra
 THE ART OF THE R-T.JPUTCLANS 469
in the region,
programs of
temples. The
ay have been
tices. kr partic-
I wtth yogixts
rich the female
the "seat" of
on of Self was
u While the
s to transcend
Ltualsin which
rere a major
'nfall of many

'ractices, both
rded not only
o the drinking
moan sacrifice,
as a drinking
ix the pafica
5" for their
€ letter /r. Iq
'f tbings that
"right hand,"
l -[e I antnc
zo.z3. Lak;rnaga templc from east. Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh,
I ro be the fast India. Candellaperiod, reign ofYaSovannan(Laksavarman).Com-
rus goal, but pleted by Vikrarna era rorr (A.D.9J4).
For the temp-
e to be over-
rently further "charming splendidhome of [Vishnu] . . . which more, its style is in perGct harmony with the
rnicipation in rivals tbe peaks of the mountain of snow,"15 a Candella craftsmanship characteristic of the
urprising that descriotion that mav refer to the Laksmana temple. The image relerred to in the inscriprion
d down upon temple irself. Thus, Y"iou"rrn"n, who is credired may have been lost or stolen some time after
ian society at with consolidaringLhe Candellaempire. must having been enshrined, but it must have been
iollowers to have had a firm hand in establishingthe Candella reblaced within a short period becauseof the
building tradidon ar Khajuraho.The inscription style of the presentimage.
)farchitccture further reveals that the main image originally The history of the transferral of ownership
;hich may be enshrined within the temple, a representation of an icon such as this sheds light on several
characteristics of Viflu Caturmurti, had an interesting history. important issues-first, the idea of "booty" or
$rala temPle Its original owner was the king of Tibet (Bhota), rather, the acquisition of a valued object of one
ing one of the but it had passedthrough the hands of Sahi, king by another as an element of war in ancienr
: site, but its the ruler of Kira (the Kangra region), to Heram- India, and second,the docurnentation of direct
cn rvhich was bapala and then to bis son, Devapala, perhapsa transmissionof artistic influence, including both
this epigraph, Pradhara ruler, fron whom Yaiovarman iconographic and srylistic modes. Indeed, if the
krama era, or obtained it. Although the image now enshrined term "Bhota" in the inscription can refer to
n ofYaiovar- T representsthis form of Vi5qu (Fig. zo.z9), it that portion of Ka(mir that has generally been
lr revealsthat can hardly be rhe one implied in rhe inscriprion part ofthe cultural sphereofTibet, it is possible
l erected a since it is of stone rather than metal. Further- to suggest that the great popularity of Viqru
470 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOIS

Fo--, -f-,------ --- lo

ct 9
zo.z4. Plarr of Laksmaqa temple. Khajureho, Madhya Pradesh,
India. Candellaperiod, reign of YaSovarrnan(Lakpavarman).Corn-
pleted by Vikrama era rorr (e.o. 954).

Caturmufti in Kairnir (Figs. r7.r7, r7.rg) h^d
direct bearing on the construction of the
Lakgmana temple at Khajuraho.
Although it was apparently finished by os+,
the date of Dhairga'sinscription, it is not known
how long the temple took to construct. The
traditionally held view that over eighty temples
were built at Khajuraho during the approxi-
mately r5o-year period of Candella rule there
suggeststhat on an average a temple would
have been built approximately every two years.
A large and ambitious project, such as the
Laksma4a temple, would certainly have taken
longer, but still, it rnay be assumedthat work
proceeded at a rapid pace with great numbers
of workmen carrying out the tasks. Since the
style of this and other Candella temples is the
direct descendantof the styles of the Gurjara-
Pratiharas,it is possiblethat craftsmen formerly
employed by the earlier rulers now turned to
the Candella patrons. Although the names qf
some architects are known, and some mason
marks appear on stonesof the temples, little is
known about the individuals who actually did
the work.
Typical of the Candella style, the Laksrnar.ra
temple restsatop a plinth, to which the devotee
gains accesson the east(Figs.zo.z3, 2c.24).'tlis
feature may be contrasted with the temples of
Orissa, which generally have an enclosing wall
but not a plinth. The Laksmanatemple is of the
saxdhara type,having an enclosed circumambu-
latory passagearound the shrine, and it is of the
lofrcayatundvariety due to the presenceof the
four subsidiary shrines at the corners of the
plinth. As had been seenat the Hari-Hara temple
called number one at Osiafi (Fig. zo.9), the two
front shrines face each other rather than the
direction faced by the rrain temple. Each of
these four virtually identical shrineshas a small
garbhdgrhatopped by a !:ikhara preceded by a
small flat-rooftd pillared porch. Each would
470 LAIEII NORTHERN SCHOOLS
.?,10
0 r
20.24. Plan of Laknn:nr
India. Candclla pcriod, rcign ofYe(ovarnrarr (Laksavarrran). Com-
pletcd by Vikratra era rorr (A.D.9J4).
Caturnlrirti in Ka{mir (Figs. i7.r7, r7.r9) hxd
direct bearing on the construction of the
Laksmana tenple xt Kha.juraho.
Akhough it was apparently finishcd by os+,
the datc ofDhanga's inscription, it is not known
how long the tcmple took to construct. The
traditionally held vicw that over eighty templcs
werc built at Khajureho during the approxi-
mately 1Jo-year period of Candella rule therc
suggeststhat ou an averagc a temple would
have been built approxirnately every trvo ycars.
A largc and ambitious project, such as the
Laksmana templc, would certainly have taken
longcr, but still, it may bc assurneclthat work
procccded at a rapid pace rvith grcar numbers
of workmcn carrying out the tasks. Sincc thc
stylc of this ancl other Candella tcr.nplcsis the
direct dcsccndantof thc stylcs of the Gurj:rra-
Pratiheras,it is posiblc that craftsmen formerly
cmploycd by the earlier rulers now tumed to
thc Candella patrons. Although thc names of
",
5 10
tcrnplc. KhajLu:rho, Madhya Pradesh,
some architects are known, and sorne mason
marks appear on stonesof the temples, little is
known about the individuals rvho actually did
the work.
Typical of the Candella style, the Laksmana
ten.rplerestsatop a plinth, to which the devotce
gains accesson the east(Figs.zo.z3, zo.z4). This
Gature may be contrasted with the ternples of
Orissa, which gcnerally have an cnclosing wall
but not a plinth. Thc Laksmanatcmple is of the
sandharatype, having an enclosedcircumambu-
latory prssagearound the slrrine, and it is of the
paicayatuflavaricty due to the prcsenceof the
four subsidiary shrines at thc corners of the
plinth. As had been seenat the Had-Hara ternple
callcd nulnbcr one at Osian (Fig. zo.9), thc two
front shrines face each other rather than thc
clircction faccd by the rnain ternple. Iach of
thcsc four virtuaily identical shrineshas a small
(lllara prcccded by a
.garbhagrhatopped by a
snall flat-rooGd pillared porch. Each would
 THE ART OF THT RAJPUT CLANS
47'

zo.z5. Lakgma4atenple from north. Khajuraho, Madhya pradesh,

India. Candellaperiod, reign ofyaiovarman (Laksavarman).Com_
pleted by Vikrama era torr (a.o. 954).

50me mason have beendedicatedto a specificdeity, posibly rivaled the peaks of snow. The roof! over the
rples, litde is *uee forms of Vis4u and one ,ep.esentationof *ree ma4/apasare pyramidal in form, rather
actually did S[rya, as suggestedby the central figures carved than domical, in contrast to later examoles. and
in the lintels over each doorway. each is crowned by a bell-shaped *errlber. A
re Lak;ma4.a Examination.of the profile of the temple vase (kalaia) tops the bell-shaped form over
r the devotee (Frg. as well as its plan (Fig. zo.z4) the mahama4dapd.The iikhari of the shrine
,zo.z5)
:o.24). This reveals its main components placed on an axii area is rounded in outline as is normal in the
e temples of from east ro west: thi fust poih (ardhamaxdapa), norrhernIndianstyle,althoughit is more poinred
rclosing wall the second, larger porch i*ot1$pQ, th. ft1;h;- than Orissanrypis, and islanked by smaller
:ple is of the ma1lapa (great hall), and the vinara, with rts replicas of itself, creating clust..ed .ffecr.
ircumambu- characteristic likhara. Thae elements are clearly "
Again, this Gature may be contrasted with the
rd it is of the distinguishable by their separate rooG, each flagara-styletemples of Orissa, which typically
sence of the successively higher from the eastern to the have simple, rather than chstercd, lil<haii.
lels of the western end of the temple, culminating in the Within, the separareelementsare distinguish-
'Hara temple Iugh iikhara o-rer drc garbhagrha.The eFect of able as rhe devoree moves lrom rhe sialler
r.9), the two these rising roofs may be a metaphor for rhe porches to the wider ones, and then into the
.er than the distant peaks of a mountain range, a frequent antechamber of the shrine (anarala) and, the
rle. Each of and deliberate allusion in Hindi temple art. shrine portion itself,with its circumambuJarory
; has a small In rhis case-it would be a particularly apt com- passageand thc garbhagrha-porches projecting
-eded by a parison, since Dhanga's inscription stares that from the sidesof the mahama4d.dpo th" ,id.i
Each would his father had built an abode for Visnu which and rear of the circumambulatory"nJ p"rr"g.*"y
472 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOTS

t\
!r (
lI

temple Khajuri-
zo.z6.Sculptedintcrior of mahanandapa,Ltkgurana
ho, Madhya Pradcsh,India Crndclla period, reign of Yaiovarman
(Lakgavarman). Completedby Vikrama era rorr (.r'p. 954).

permit subdued light to enter the tenPle,
partially illurninating the ornately sculpted
intcriors. Placed high above the eye lcvel of
thc devotcc, the porches and their rvindows do
not allow the worshiper to glance outward
and be distracted during devotions, but nerely
permit light to cnter. I hc trseof pillen in thc
aswclJasclrclavi:]rJ
int.rio. oithe ,r,rlattandapa y around the tops of the pillars are numerous
sculpted interiors distinguish the Kbajuraho
temples fron their 0orthern-style countelParts
in 6rissa. A view into thc nahana4Qapo(Ftg.
zo.z6) shows the four pillus that circumscribe
a square within this hall, above u'hich is a
deliiately carved square ceiling coft-er. Thcse
pillars were not merely dccorativc, for aldrough
tlrc size of the nahaua4dapais rather modest
(nonc at Klrajuraho is larger than about scven
meters sqlrarc),it was neccssaryto reinforcc the
weight of the roofs and towers above through
the useofpillars. Four stonc bearns,placedabove
the piliars as they might have bcen in wooden
a.chite.t,,re, support the ceiling. Clustered
sculpturcs,primarily consistingof fcmale figures
in a variety of poscsand activitics. The ceiling
panelsare carved separatelyin such a way that
i.rh.n each was put into its proper place, the
whole intcrlocked so that each course suPPorted
the onc above.
Entrance to the circumambulatory Passage
 THE ART oF THE RAJPUT 0LANS 42,1

zo.z7. Circumambulatory passageto left of shrine, Laksmana

temple. Khajurtho, Madhya Pradesh,India. Candellaperiod, reign
of Yaiovarman (Laksavarman).Completed by Vikrama era rorr
(4.D.9J4).

her modest that surrounds the shrine is gained from the the front or east, a lion's face on the south, a
bout seven mahamatl/apa.Some light enters this narrow boar's face on the north, and a demon's face
:injbrce the passagewayfrom the windows, illuminatine the on the west or rear, and is iconographically
\-€ through arriculated wall of the exterior of rhe shrine comparable to KaSmiri interpretations. The
lacedabove to the devotee's right, rather than the path image is of the sthanaka(stan&ng) type and
rn il'ooden irself (Fig. zo.z7). The shrine is enrered rhr;ush shows the god in a frontal and unbending pose,
Clustered a heavily decorareddoorway (Fig. zo.z8), a carved so that he stands nearly free of the
numerous descendant of the Gupta schemes seen in both sculpture slab and tJre numerous subsidiary
cale figures Buddhist and Hindu art, although by now figures who attend him and amplify the iconog-
fhe ceiling much more elaborate and complicated. A raphic program. A pointed, rayed halo of a
a way that "moonstone'' and high threshholJ mark the type popular in a number of Rajput styles is
llace, the transition into the ga hagTha,creating both a carved behind his head.
: supported physical and psychological demarcation for Although the image in the shrine represents
the visitor. Within, the representationof Visnu the final religious expressionof the Laksmar.ra
rl Caturmurri (Fig. zo.z9) has a human Faceon temple, the devoree has encountered a barrage
Passage
174 LAIEIi NORTHIRN SCHOOIS

r.:

\\
r!l

2.r.28.Elrtrarrcerc shriuc, L:rk!rna+r t€nrplc. Khrjuraho, Madhya

Pradcsh,Indir. Candella pcriod, rcigtr oi Yr(,ov.rrnan (Laksar':rr-
rran). Courpletcdby Vikrarl1lcrr rorr (A.D 9r,{)
 TI{I ART OF l'I]E RAJPUT CTANS .I7J

l7s
.ii

t-
, 11.,t
, , ,)41

2 0 . 2 9 . V i s n u C : r t L r n l l a u t li n s l r r i ; r co l L e k s r r r a n at c r u p l e . K h a j L r r a h o ,
l r 4 a d h - v al ' r : r d c s h , I n d i r . C l l d e l l . r p e r i o d , r e i g n o f Y a i o v a r m : n
( L a k s a v 3 r n l t L DC ) .o u 4 r l c t c d b v V i k r a r n r c r a r o r r ( ^ . D . 9 i 4 ) .
 476 IATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

,*i,g LI

I
L
:'.::

2o.Jo. Sculpture on cxterior of Laksruana tel)lple. Khajureho,

Madhya Pradesh,India. Candclla period, reigrr of Ya(ovarnan
(Laksavarman).Compietedb,vVikrama cra rorr (a.o.954).

of sculptcd fonns from his arrival at the tcmple
t o t h e f i n r l v i c w o f r l r e e n s l r r i n e gd o d . F o r i n
contrastto templcs ofthe Gupta period, Candella
templesarc lavishly sculptedboth insidc and out.
A panoran-raunfurls before the viewcr at the
first circumarnbulation of the temple around
the exterior of thc plinth, where scenesof daily
life, war, and lovc arc portrayed. Representative
of the external world, the worid of form (rapa),
somc of the scenesmay depict actual historical
cvcnts of the Candella period. Another realm
greets the devotee upon climbing up onto the
pltnth (jagatt), whcre an array of figures adorns
the exterior of the templc (Fig. zo.3o). Thc
schemeis highly ordcrcd according to vertical
and horizontal divisions, with sculptcd ground
lincs dcfining the positions of the individual
{igures. Whilc it is morc claborate than post-
Gupta and Gurjara-Pratibara cxamples, it is
cssentially the samc in chxracter. The guarried
blocks of stone seem to blend into onc another,
and the sculpted forms blur their joints so that,
in contrast to the Caunsat 7ogfui tcmplc, the
structural units of the building are barely visible
in the finished product. Major icons are placcd
in nicheslocateddirectly under cachporch ofthe
temple, punctuating the ardhamanlapa,ma1j|apa,
mahamatllapa,and the sides of the shrine and
emphasizing each elemcnt of thc whole as the
devotee circumarnbulates the ternple. (In this
case, a clockwise direction is indicated by the
placenent of Gal.reiaon the south and Durga
on the north.) Thc very active poses of the
ligures on the cxterior ofthe ten.Lple(Figs.zo.3o,
zo.3r, 2c.32) provide a feeling of movement
and change, although controlled by the rigidity
 TI{E ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS 477

zo.3r. Sculptureof woman removing thom, onexterior temple.Kha-

20.32,Mithutld,on exteriorof Lak;mar.ra
of Lak;ma4a temple. Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, juraho,MadhyaPradesh, India.Candellaperiod,reign
India. Candella period, reign of Yaiovarman (Lak;a- of Yalovarman(Lakgavarman). Completedby Vikra-
varman). Completed by Vikrarna era rorr (e.o. 954). ma eraIorr (4.D.9J4J.

of the architectural scheme. The figures are whom Vidyadhara came into coniict in rorg and
carvedvery three-dimensionally and are almost ro22, the line was weakened,
freed from their backgrounds.Deep shadows The Khandariya Mahadeva ternple shares a
and bright sur6ces from the sunlight infuse high plinth with two other temples, a much
rErples, it is the forms with vitality. These celestialbeings, ruined and heavily restored small shrine popular-
The quarried including beautiful women (Fig. zo.3r) and ly called the Mahadeva temple and the so-called
one another, nithnas (Fig. 2c.32), wirh their facesin rap- Devi Jagadambatemple, which originally may
joints so that, ture, suggestthe unificatioawith the divine to have been dedicatedto Visnu. It is possiblethat
remp.le, the be experiencedby the worshiper. this temple group rePresentsa syncretisticideal,
barely visible The largest and most ambitious Candella perhaps not ualike that of the Lak;mana temple
os are placed templeat Khajurahois the Kha4{ariya Mahadeva with its main structure and four subsidiary
r porch ofthe (Fig.2o.33).It may havebeenerectedby Vidya- buildings. although in this case.it is not so
,Pd, nwl!44p4, dhara, who ruled from around rorT to roz9, readily idenrified. That the Saivite aspecr is
e shdne and and was, according to the Muslim cbronicler, emphasized would be indicated by the fact that
rqhole as the Ibn ul-Atlur. the most oowerfirl hrdic ruler of the Khaqrdariya Mahadeva temple is the largest
rple. (In this his time.16Stylistic analysissupports a date of and most imposing ofthe three.
cated by the the first quarter of the eleventhcentury for the The emphasis on height and verticality sug.
r and Durga creationof the structure,which may thus repre- gested by the steep plinth, staircases, and tall
poses of the sent one of the last major achievementsof the likharus seen in the temples of Khajuraho is
: fFigs.20.3o, Candellas.For after Vidyadhara,whose rule nowhere more perfect\ portrayed than in the
f movement was threatenedby other Rajput clansaswell as Khapdariya Mahadeva temple, whose jlAhara
; rhe rigidity theMuslims,especially Mahmodof Ghazni,with rises over thirty meters above the level of the
IATER NORTHERN SCHOOLS

20.33. Kha4deriya Mahedcva tenplc from south. Khejurtho,

Madhya Pradcsh,India. Candcllepcriod, probably reign of Vidya-
dhara.Ca. first cluarterelevcnth cc11tury.

E
I
tr l
tfr'
I
rrl
rtl
I
flE

l I
20.34.Plan of Khandariya Mahedevarcmplc. Khajuraho, Madhya
Pradesh,India. Candella pcriod, probably reign of Vidy.dhara.
Ca. firs! quarter eleventhccDtury.
 THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS 479
jagati. lts profile epitomizes the symbol of the
temple as mountain. lts plan. in comparisonto
that of the Lakgma4a temple, shows a greater
senseof mass,and in relationship to the overall
size, less spacein the interior, with the thicker
walls providing a greater equalization between
mass and void (Fig. zo.3a). Like the Lak5ma4a,
the Khandariya Mahadeva is cruciform in plan,
the porches of the mahamar,t(apa and shrine areas
creating a double transePt effect,
Over six hundred sculptureson the exterior
and rwo hundred on the interior adorn the
structure, and, indeed, the carved pantheon that
inhabits the walls of the monument represents
the culmination of a trend in Hindu temPle art
tbat is traceablefrom the Gupta period. Sculpture
now dominates the architectural form, so that
even though the carvings are strictly relegatedto
precise locations on the monument, the effect of
ihe sculpture is more overwhelming than that
of the architectural forms themselves.Posed in
accentuated postures, twisting and turning in
2o.3j. Sculptues or exterior of Khaqderiya Mehadeva space, these {igures (Fig. 2o.3J) embody the
tenple. Khajureho, Madhya Pradesh,India- Candella
period, probably reign of Vidyadhara. Ca. first quarter
movement and dynamism merely hinted at in
elevelth centarY. the repose and introspection of Gupta-period
carvings. The hardening of facial features,
elaboration of detailing of jewelry and head-
dresses,and deeper carving than was visible in
Gurjara-Pratihara monuments here reachesits
final form. As in the caseof many other temples
at Khajuraho, amorous couPles and sexually
explicit figures adorn the structure (Fig. 20.36).
Many of the {igures, which are in generalelon-
gated and stylized,are said to representra1,i&as,
Gmale oersonilicationsof the notion of human
love. Voluptuous women, however, had been
parr of the decoration of religious structures
for centuries, and it is unclear which represent
nayikas and which embody other symbolic
meanings. Often, drey are shown in very
dynamic posesand seem to be actually rnoving,
sincetheir bodies are arranged as if in a cubistic
sequenceof time and space.The sharply carved
features of the faces and the heavy shadows
caused by the deeply carved forms emphasize
the dynamism the viewer perceives while
20.36. Sculpture of anorous couple, on cxtcrior of viewing the temple. Created at a time ofintense,
Kha4dariya Mahadeva temple. Khajuraho, Madhya
ambitious building activity throughout the
Pradesh, India. Candella period, probably reign of
Vidyadhara. Ca. Iirst quarter cleverlthcentury. Indic regions, the Kha4{ariya Mahadeva temple
4EO TATIR NORTHERNSCHOOLS
is approxiruately contclnporary to othcr major
rronuments such as thc Rejlrajc6vara templc at
Tanjore (Figs. 2r.21 26l,Pl. 33), the Lingarnja
templc at Bhubaneivrra(Figs.r9.23-2J),and tl.Lc
Sul tcn.rpleat Modhera (Figs.2o.44 48). Likc
r l r c r r . i r r c p r e . e r r r sh c c ] i n r . , xo f ; n i n r p o n . r n r
regional variant of Hinclu architecturc.
While Kh.rjuraho is indeed tl.rcshow place of
Candella art, thc hill lortresscsconttolled by thc
Candcilashavc also yiclded significant rematns,
At Mahoba, important evidenceof thc late sur-
vival of Budclhisr.nin the region is found in se-
vcral stray images.That thcrc r,vasno lossin vital-
ity fion thc art tradition is seen in a scuipturc
of SirhhanedaAvalokiteivara that is gcnerally
dated on drc basis of thc paleography of its
donative inscription to tlrc elcvcnth or twelfth
century (Fig. 2o.37). Thc rc),txed rajalila (royi-
easc)pose and gentlc countenanceof the figure
suggest ties to carlicr Budclhist traditions, al-
tirougl.r thc claboration of cletail in the lotus
pedestal, lion, and back-slab inclicatc its late
drte.
Candella art, onc of the best known of thc
Rajput idioms, rypifies many of the northern
Indic developmcnts during this pcriod. Thc art
20.j7. SirilhanedaAvalokite(vara.From Mahoba, Uttar is markccl by an incrcasing colnplexity of form
Pradcsh,Indie. Candellapcriod. Ca. clcvcnth or rwelfth and iconography as wcll as an ambitiousnessof
century.Bcigc sndslore. H:8r.4 cnr. StatcMuselnn, schcruethat representsthc colmination of trends
Lucknow. t ] r , Lltr . , db e e nd c v c l " p i n gl o r c c n t r r r i e . .

THE PARAMIRAs ()F MiLw-A

Tl.re Paranfras of Mtlwa srrpposecllyoriginated
in the rcgion arotlnd Mourrt Abu in Rrjasthan.
For a while, tirey werc vassalsof the R-strakutas
of the Dcccan, but cveutr-rallythey frced thcm-
selvesfrom Rastrakaitrcontrol and cxme to rulc
much of thc westen Part ofnorth-central India.
A number of templcs of the Paraurdra period
are found throughout this rcgion, cxtcncling
into Rajasthanand thc northern Deccan. While
ccrtain local or rcgional chxractcrrstlcs are
evident in monun-rcntsthroughotlt thc Par.nlara
lands, a number of fcatures uray be consiclered
typical of this dynasty's art, nany of whicl.r arc
prescnt in the wcll-preservcd telDplc of Nila-
kanthaat Udaypur (Udayapura)(Fig. 2o.38).
Oftcn called the Udaye(vara temple aftcr its
founcler, Udayaditya Paramtra, for whora the
town is also named, inscriptional cvidencc in-
clicatcsthat this Saivite templc was begun in
Vikran-ras,rnt,afrrr6, equivalcntto A.D. roJ9,
ancl that tl-re flagsta$ rvas crected in Vikrama
sothratr137,or a.o. ro8o.1? Thus,the tenPlc was
corlstructcd over :r period of solnc twcnty-one
years. Thc stmcture is oriented to thc cast and
is containcd rvithin a rectangular courtyard en-
closcclby a lorv u,all, the outer facc of u'hicl.ris
carvcd. A line of stone seatsoncc ratr llong the
inncr face of tl,c wall, each of rvhich had a back
rest. The n1:rir temple is prccededby a dctached
squarehall (posibly originaily a dancc pavilion
 THE ART OF THE RAJPUTCLANS 487

..:hcr nujor
--.-,..-l-^.

--1-18). Like
:- inportant
::.
- , ^ 1 " - ^^ r
. . 1 , - Jh . r t . .
:.ri remains.
:le late sur-
:::rnd in se-
,..ssin vital-

:. gcnerally
-::ht of its
: ,.r twelfth
j.:14 (royar-

i:itions, al-
: rhe lotus
::: its late

:-.il of the
:a northern
::. The art
::.. of form
20.38. Nilakantha (tldayeivara) templc from
:-iusnessof south. Udaypurr Madhya Pradesh, lndia.
' of trends Paranfra pcriod, reign of Udayadirya
Paramdra.Vikranaera rrr6-37 (A.D.rojg-8o).

:-.'aftcr its
-.-.':rom the ,:.
ar, ,J
. i:ence in- it
(c
I legun ln
i.D. roJ9,
: \ lKlana
-,.-.,-l-,-,^-

:-!:i1t,v-onc
a-_)
1:'CJSIaDd
:::r'rrd en-
frl

r: -lr'hichis
zo.j9. Plan of Nilaka4lha (Udayelvara)
tenple. Udaypur, Madhya Pradcsh,
,.: a back India. Paraneraperiod, reign of Udaya-
.. -::cached dityr Paramara. Vikrama era rr16-
., :':r'ilion j7 (A.D.roJg-8o).
462 TATtrRNORTHERNSCHOOLS

rtJ l t.)

i'1;;*

zo.4o. Sculpture on exterior of Nrlaka4lha (Udayelvara) templc.

Udaypur, Madhya Pradcsh,L1dia.Per:trlaraperiod, reign ofUdaya-
dilya Parrnrara.Vikranla era II16 37 (^.D. roJg-so).

or Nandi shrine) and was once surroundcd by
eight separatesnaller shrines,only six of which
rcmain. Characteristic of t]re Paranera stylc,
the ter:rple proper consistsof a urain hall having
three entrance porches projecting out lrom it,
each of which r.nay be cntcrcd, and the shrine
areaitself (Fig. 2o.39).
The tnary!apa rs crowned by a pyramidal, tiered
roof wl.rile the shrine is toppcd by a likhara o{ a
variant form of thc northern stylc, having a
taperedshape.Typical of Paramaranonunents,
thc likhara bears four spines dccorated with
candraialas,c.catilg an almost tcxturcd surface,
and a distinctive grouping of minietttrc likluras
in the interspaccsof thc spincs,all of wlrich are
containcd rvithin thc gcneral contour of the
ilklara itscll Also, at thc basc of cach of thc
spincs is a prolninant sculpturcd medallion
vu'itlrina larsc candraialtiar.d sculpturcsbeneath
it. Thc sanctunr,althoughsquarcon the interior,
is stellateanclcirculxron the exterior.
Unlikc many othcr variants of dre Rajput
stylc, this Paramaranlonunlent doesnot have an
encloseclambulatory surrounding the sanctLlm.
The intcrior of the tenple is claborately carvcd,
renriniscentof thc Khajurahotcmples,aspillars,
rvaiis, and ccilings did not cscapcthc scr.rlptor's
tool. Thc sculpturalstyle, as seenin a scricso[
lenralc figurcs atlorning rhe ternple, rccalls thc
figurcs rt Khajuraho.although thcy appearlcss
 THE ART OF THE RAJPUTCLANS 48J
angular and are not so umaturally posed (Fig.
zo.4o).
The Paramera sculptural style, while having
regionalvariations,may also bc seenin a repre-
sentation of Sarasvati dated in the Vikrama
year ro9r, equivalent to e.o. ro34 (Fig. zo.4i).le
Strong ties to western Indian styles, especially
Gujarati modes of the Gurjara-Pratiharaand later
periods, are visible in this example, which was
executedduring the reign of King Bhoja, a king
of the Paramara line. These include the slender,
tubular legs, the accentuatedpose, the sbarply
defined facial features with the straight nose,
curved lips, and fattened eyes, as well as the
particular form of the drapery, jewelry, and
hairstyle.

2o.4r. Sarasvati.From Dhtr, Madhya Pradesh,India.

Paremaraperiod, reign of Bhoja. Dated Vikrama era
IogI (r..D. ro34). White marble. H: r29.J cm. Bdtish
Museum, London.

T H E S o L A i r K r so F G u J A R A T( c A .9 J ot o r 3 o 4 [ 9 6 t - n a 4 ? ] )

Another Rajput clan to surface at the time of
the weakening of the Gurjara-Pratiheraswas the
Solanki line, sonetimes called the Calukyas of
Gujarat, who came to power in the last ha]f of
the tenth century. In their own inscriptions, this
family referred to themselrresas Calukyas, but
nrour of the in order to avoid confusion between this fardly
: each of the and the Early Western Calukyas of Badaml the
:'l medallion Calukyas of Kalyani, and the Eastern Calukyas
tures beneath of Vengi, the name Solanki will be uscd here.
1 the interior, Abundant factual material is available for the
t, study of the Solankisdue to numerousinscrip-
I rhe Rajput tions and precise accountsabout them given in
s not have an Jain chronicles. Thus, there is ample evidence
the sanctum. of Solanki patronage of religious establishments,
:arely carved, construction of temples, and building of tlieir
ies. as pillars, capital cities. And yet, the regions of western
rLe sculptor's India that they ruled, especiallyGujarat, once ex-
in a sericsof traordinarily wealt\ duc to the mrncrous ports
e. rccalls the and vigorous foreign tradc, have suffered from
. appear lcss the damageof wars and various kinds ofdestruc-
tion. Many of their structures wcre dismantled
by Muslims and Hindus for reuse in other
buildings. Others have collapseddue to internal
weaknessesor techdcal imperfections in the
buildings thcmselves.Furthernore, many of the
tenples of Gujaret were made of whitc rnarble,
w h i c h c o u l d b c c a l c i n e di n r o l i r n c .a c c o u n r i n g
for the probablc fatc of son.reofthe most luxuri-
ant stmcturesofancicnt India.
StrLrcttrcs br.rilt under the Solankiscontinued
trcnds that had been developing for several
centuries throughout much of South Asia,
including incrcased sculptural decoration of
tenlples, grcatcr sizc and cornplexity in plan and
fornr of thc telnples.taller ji raras,growing
stylization of figtres including attenuation and
a[gularity of forms, more variety in figural
pose, and, of course, thc ever more complicated
iconographic schemcsthat wcrc in large part the
basis for tl.rc other developments. Specifically,
however, the temples reflect certain local and

E-- m
464 LA'tEIl. NORTHERN SCHOOLS
regrmrl ,
20.42. Elevation drawing of Nilakagha
Mahadeva temple. Sanak, Gujarat, India' segen I
Solaiki period. Ca. late tenth century' al€ .sr-
.r^<sii.i i
Gu-iad4l
l-oc-
a:s-lJo
hrlrp"+
E a grEl
Se eadr I
de \ili
a rdl-g
ro dm
2o-+j).)
&te rq
J.o.d .So
erigoor
Horesq
creared ir
iarer SoL
:qle are r
tDdtlE- R
r-. hsi*
U*.nS rer
gc.rnrur
L:rirr I
=:aclo5.
r..--..;4s
=ilE):

o-T.T
a\E oi
rfie -.rr
ecea :et
,,o:-_i::.r
--,-(aa'!5 r
J : par:
--!E=?.sL=-

G:i."L
:"--::s .-
3a=FC. ci
+ s.-L
;-.;a-* i
=<iN-
i:::r:e ia
:L_r5'rc
:rr,ectior

==: c: '
20.43.Plan of Nilakaqlha MahadevetemPle. Snnak, Gujarat,India
:ai-:;i
Solaiki period. Ca. late tenth cenlury.

regional developments characteristic of north-
westem India. Therefore, although the temples
are essentiallyof the nagarcsryle, they may be
classi{iedby the subrype Leti (i.e., from Lata, or
Gujarat).1e
Located in the SarasvatiValley within about
a z5-kilometer radius of Papan (ancient Ar.ra-
bilapataka), the ancient home of the Solairlis,
is a group of small temples,believed to represent
the early phaseofthe Solanki style. One oithese,
the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple at Sunak, is
a well-preserved specimen and rnay be used
to demonstrate the early sryle (Figs. 20.42,
20.43). No epigraphic information confirns a
dare for this temple, although an inscription
dated equivalent to A.D. rogr seemsto refer to its
existence and thus provides a terminus date.20
However, judging from its style, it was probably
created in the late tenth century. Relative to
later Solaril<itemples, its sirnplicity and small
scaleare notable; yet compared to earlier monu-
ments, such as those of the Gurjara-Pratiharas,
the lavishly carved interior and exterior decora-
tions reveal ties with other works of this ap-
proximate date such as the lakgrnana temple at
Khajurdho, although its scale is much lcss
grandiose. The temple consists of a porch, a
ma4dapa,and a sfuine (which does not have an
enclosed circumambulatory passage).Like its
counterpartsin severalother northem styles,the
roofs of the porch and nanlapa re pyramidal
while the jillara is of r,hecirrsicredu"ri.ry. An
open feeling is provided in the porch and
mandapaby the arrangenent of pillars at the
cornersrarher th-rn the ccnrer.crcaringa sense
of a pavilion rather than enclosed roorn. This
contrasts,for example,with dre effect at a typical
Candella temple at Khajuraho. EiEht of the
piJlars of rhe mandapadirecrly srrpporr rhc
'l
domed ceiling above. he dome, distintive of
the Solafrki sryle, rests on an octagon and
ascendsin concentric circles using the corbel
method. While the interior of ihe shrine is
square in plan, the exterior seemsto be almost
rounded in form bccause of the nun.rber of
projections. Thc vitality visible in the plan of
the temple. both in rhe nandapain irs arrrnge-
ment of pillars and the shapeof the shrine, is a
prelude to the nagnificent shapesof various
rHx ART OF TI{r RaJPUTCLANS 4gJ
temple elementsfound in later Solanki works.
Not far from Patan was rhe once-flourishing
city of Modhera where a temple, dedicated to
Surya, the sun god, is representative of the
eleventh-century Solafrki style, although on a
grander scalethan is typical (Figs. 2o.44,2o.45)-
An inscription in the back wall of the shrine
dated in the Vikrama era to83, equivalent to
A.D. 1026,indicates tlrat the temple was already
dedicatedby that date. On this basis,the tenple
is thought to have been built during the reign
of Bhima I (rozz-63). The temple complex con-
sisting of several units is positioned facing due
east so that at the equinoxes, the sun shines
directly into the shrine. On the east is a large
kx7/a, or reservoir, with flights of stairsleading
down to it, that occupiesa dominant placein thi
overall scheme (Figs. 2o.44, 2o.45). Numerous
small shrinesare placed at intervals on the steps
leading down to the tank. Although many
Hindu temples have tanks excavarcdin associa-
tion with them, this ranks among the grandest
in all of South Asia. A decoratedtora4aIocated
at the western end of the &a4la serves as a
transition between the tank and the temple
proper (Fig. 20.46, right).
Thc temple consistsof three elements, each
of which has a name distinctivc of the archi-
tectural lomenclaturc used for this regiou of
ancient India: the porch (sabha na4dapa, or
raiga mandapa),which is an open, cruciform
pillared hall placed along the axis of the rcst
of tlrc templc but is separatefiom it (Fig.2c..46)l
the assembly hall (gadha uadap.ii and finally
the shrine(gafihagyia) itself with its surroturding
circunrambtrlatory passagc.Thc sabhatnndapa
has four entrances,cach having an ornamcntal
cuspedarchway, somc ofwhich spring from the
opcn nouths of nakaras. An almost stcllate
shapeis suggestedby the plan of the hall due to
the numerous recesscsof the walls. Inside, the
cxquisirccrrving of rhepillars.cu'pcd archwrys.
and ceiling givc a feeling ofaidness and lightness
not sccn so cxtensively in the temples of other
regional stylcs (Fig. zo.a7). Possibly, the long-
standing woodcarving traditioll of Gujarat, still
famous today, was a model for the hvish sculp-
tured work found in typical Solairki monu-
ments that distinguishcs them fiom those of
486 IATER NoRTHERN scHoors

2o.4j. Vicw of Sun tcrnple fron

east. Modhcra, Grdar;t, India.
Solanki period. Dedicated before
Vikrana era ro83 (A.D.1026).

oa aa
aa aa

sso,,2qa
5 t0 15 30 45 60
Mr'

2o.44.Plan ofSun ternple.Modhera, Gujarar,India. Solankipedod.

Dedicatedbefore Vikrana era ro83 (A.D.1026).
 =. ,
,=:,.:
=,
E

THI ART OF THE RAJPUT CTANS 487

!:r tcmple from )
. GLr.juat, India.
llrdicatcd before
:: \,D, 1026).

)=

20.46- Sabhana1lapa of Sun temple, fron southeast.Modhera,

Gujarat, India. Solanki period. Dedi.rred bef're Vikr,rrrraerr
ro8j (a.D.1026).
465 TAT.ERNoRTHEnN scHools

20.47. Intedor of sabhana4lapa

of Sun tenple. Modherr, Gujarit,
India. Solanki period. Dedicrted --: -._l
before Vikrama era ro83 (A.D.
1026).
:-: {
:--
:- .

20-48. Deteil of carving, interior

of salfid na1/apa, Sun rerlple.
Modhcra, Gujar.t, India. Solanki
pcriod. Dedicatedbeforc Vikrama
era ro83(A-D.r026).
 THE ART OF THE RAJPUTCrANS 469

i .:-::: nat1/apa other schools of Indic architecture. Hardly a rebuilt during the eleventh century by Bhima I
t.:,:::. Gujartt, surfaceis left uncarved as figures, foliate motifs, and then again by Kumarapala in the twelfth
E: : Dedicated and architectural devicesabound (Fig. zo.a8). century. Supposedly, Bhima II also added a
-. irE3 (A.D. The assemblyhall and shrine form an integral maqlapato the temple. Literary and archaeologi-
unit. Measuring just over three meters square cal evidence suggeststhat when complete the
inside, the shrine is small, especially in com- complex consisted of the main temple, a tora4a,
parison to the overall grand scaleof the temple a kitchen, and a theaterhall and was surrounded
scheme. ln contrast to the rest of the temple, by a number ofother nearby temples.The main
which is lavishly carved, the interior walls of object ofworship, a llrg,z,was partially destroyed
the shrine are olain. A basement cell beneath by Mahmud of Ghazni (perhapsin an attempr
the main shrine may have been used for storage to find the treasure buried beneath it) and was
of treasure, a practice cornmon in the temples removed to his capital at Ghazni where it was
of western India. It may be suggested,in fact, set up at the entranceto a mosoueso that Muslim
that the Muslim destruction of Hindu temples devolees could tranple upon- it as a reminder
was not always for iconoclastic purpor.r. Por- of rhe idol worship they abhorred. Ahhough
sibly, and very probably, raiders were seeking the much destroyed temple is difl-rcult to study
the treasureso often housed in the temple. Not except as a pastiche of various periods and
only would the treasurebe desirablefor its own styles, the plan (Fig. 2o.49), which is itself the
value, but its loss could help to undermine the product of several building periods, reveals a
economicbasisof a ruling dynasty.
Considerable damage has been sustained by
the temple, including the loss of the roof over
the sabhamapfupa, damage to the entranceway
of the shrine, and the loss of the superstructure
over the shrine area, Yet, its grandeur is still
visible. The exterior surfaces of the temple,
strictly divided horizontally into basement,wall,
and superstructure,with the numerous elabora-
tions to the plan that provide almost rounded
contours to the exterior of the buildings, speak
of the increasing elaboration of Solairki archi-
recture,
Although very damaged, the Somanatha
temple at Palan cannot be eliminated from a
study of Solairki architecture (Fig. 2o.49). Not
less than three temples, each built on the ruins
of the former, occupy the site and testify that
after each destruction(the most famous of which
was by Mahmud of Ghazni in roz5), the sacred
temple was restoredand rebuilt; thus, its history
is a virtual recapitulation of the history of tbis
period and the religious and political problems
that plagued western krdia during this time.
Eventually, the temple was converted into a
mosque. Although it has a legendary origin
as a sacred pilgrimage site, t}te temple as we
know it (dedicated to a form of Siva known
as "Moon Lord" or Soma Natha) was built 2o.49,Plan ofSomanatha temple. Palan, Gujarar,India.
in the first half of the tenth centurv. but was First half of tenth century, with severallaier rebuildings.
490 LATERNORTHERNSCHOOLS
:}*1
|'.",...
'l '.-
TI
t
2o.Jo.Vic!'v'ofJain tcrnples,nrainlv Luna Vasahl,frollr northwesl.
Mount Abt, Rtjasrh,r, India. Solanki pcriod erd later' Elcventh
ccntury and later.
forn that n.ray be seen as a logical outgrowth
of that of thc Nilakantha Mahadeva ternple at
Sunak. Especially inPortant is the elaboration
of the exterior wall of the tcmple and the in-
crcasednumber of pillars cncircling the central
space of thc mandapa strpportitte thc ceiling
above and forming a dynan.ric pattern within
the hali itsell
Among the n-rostnotablc monuments of the
Solanki period are the Jain temples on Mount
Abrr in ie;asthan (Fig. zo.5o). Although Abu,
named aftcr the sacrcd mountain in the Sirohi
district, had bccn famous for centuries,it carlc
into special prominence under the Paramala
suzcrains of the Solankis. Inscriptional and
archacologicalcvidence testifiesthat it was holy
both to S"i-ritesand Jains from an early period,
but since Mahavira himself is supposcdto have
visited thc site, it has been especialiysacredto
the Jains as a titha, ot place of pilgrirnage. Its
sacredcharacteris further suggestedby the fact
that thc so-calledAgni-lel1,r(frre-pit clan)Rajputs
claim to have originated there.
As a ternple city, it ranks among the finest
onesof the Jains.Built over a period of tinc, it
was added to. rcfurbished, and elaboratedupon,
rcfecting the sustained patronage of wcalthy
Jains whose rcligion dictated that they acquire
thcir mcansthrough peaceableocctlpations,such
as banking and tracling, rather than through the
spoils of war. The irrportant ports of western
India, at which cloth (particularly Gujarati
cotton), ivory, and other items wcre traded with
thc Arab and European worlds, enabled this
region to become pcrhaps the wealthiest in all
of India during this pcriod. As a conscquence,
 THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS

I 1.0

t0

:.:1age. Its 2o.Jr. Plan ofJain temples:A) Vimala's temple;3) Tejpala'stemple

:', the Act (Lltra Vasahi);C) Adinirha temple. Moun( Abn. Rrjasrhrn. lndia.
= Rajputs Solanki period and later. Eleventh century and later.

almost no expense was spared in the production
of images and shrines for the religion. The
white marble temples, generally stark and plain
on the exterior but intricately carved inside,
demonstrate that the Indic artists and their
patrons had not lost their zeal for sculpture in
spite of the fact that their energies were now
diverted fiom primarily rock-cut monuments
to stluctural temples.
Apparently, Jains played an important role in
:': in all Solanki society, even from the time of the
founder of the dynasty, Miilaraja. Thus, it is
not surprisingthat during the reign of Bhrma I
his minister, Vmala, built a masnificenr tem-
ple at Dilwara (Delvada, Ciry oi Temples) on
Abu, anddedicated it to Adinatha(\.;abhanatha),
the first Jain tirthaibara(Fig.zo.5ra).(A second
temple at Mount Abu is also dedicatedto
Adinatha pig. zo.5rcl.) Supposedly,Vimala
built the templeout of his desireto atonefor
the sins of kllling (hirnsa),wbich he had com-
mitted in carrying out the dutiesof statecraft.
Jain legend recordsthat Vimala, who had no
male heirs, propitiated the goddessAmbila,
492 LATER NORTHERN SCHOOIS

requesting two things: a male heir and help

in erecting the temple at Abu to atone for his
sin. Ambika replied that while his merit was
great, it was not so great that he could have
both wishes and, when forced to choose one,
Vimala decided to erect the temple. Vimala's
structurewas completed in ro88 of the Vikrama
era, or ro3z,zr and was built almost entirely out
of black marble apparently available locally on
the mountain top.22According to Jain tradition,
the temple cost Vimala a total of r8J,3oo,ooo
rupees, including the price of purchasing the
land from the brahmdns-
Very little of Vimala's original temple remains
today, although a few black marble sculptures
and fragments testify to its former ex$tence.
As it stands,the temple is a product of many
peliods and is made almost entirely of white
marble, not black. Some work was apparendy
done not long after the original construction,
with most of its essentialcomponents built by
the late t ovelfth century. However, building
activity continued at Ieast into the reign of the
zo.5z. Vimala's temple, southeastcorrer of sabhamag- --J:! li
Mughal emperor Akbar in the late sixteenth
lapa. Mo:.rLt Abu, Rejasthtn, India. Solanki period- .il--Et
century, for one of his religious teachers is 'White
Ca. twelfth centurv. marble.
represented by a portrait at the temple. On the
whole, however, the temple may be considered
representative of the Solairki style. The plain
exteriors of Virnala's temple and the other of the temple, while the interiors could be *&'
Dilwara monuments belie the exuavasanr made aslavishly asdesiredand thus be preserved *q
interiors and contrast strongly wirh so m-any Fronr the Muslim iconoclasticenersies. rJd! /
other temples of this period whose exteriors Vimalas temple is essenrially rictangular in ql-
were lavishly decorated with figures and other olan and is oriented on an east-westaxis with -i-
sculptural ornamentation. It is possible that ihe main temple facing east. The temple is -!atl
when the temple was rebuilt after the partial boundedby a rectangularcloisterhaving a row E3a
destruction that orobablv occurred when Ala- of double pillars on the east, north, and south b&{i
ud-Din Khilji invaded jalor fort near Ab[ in sides, a single row on the west, and fifry-two ac!
r3rr, the superstructureswele not recotxtructed cells (deva-kulika)containing representationsof fur
to their full original height, nor were other seecedJain tithaikoras. This arrangemenr, in rirr rr
aspects of the exterior decoration redone so which the main temple is surrounded by a ooqE
extravagantly. It may also be suggested that
these features of the exterior might never have
cloister, has been seen in other temple styles,
but the emphasison the pillars, here almost a
+
EGd
been as grand as those of other contemporary forest of pillars, createsa totally different effect
styles. The constant threat of invasion by the and characterizesthe style. Outside the cloister
ryr_
ga Iill
Muslims during this transitional phaseof South walls, a number of other halls and structures I :E -'!c
Asian history. especiallyin this westernregion. were added in later periods. a:ci
which suffered first when invaders arrived, may The first of three nandapas,the sabhamandapa, ?CZ:z]r
have led to a style in which the exterior of a on the east, is the largest, but its form and the :=E!er
religious structure did not advertise the wealth carvings, especially of its magnificent domed 33eC

2o.j3. Interior, xdlid-chok|, Vi,mal^'s temple. Mount
Abu, Rajasthtn, Irdia. Solanki period. Ca. late eleventh
ceiling, may belong to the mid-twelfth century,
when repairs were carried out at the temple (Fig.
2o.j2). Almost every section of the ceiling and
:::gular in wall surfacesas well as the pillars is carved into
: :\is with intricate pattems. The sabharua4lapa and the next
mot.t/apa,the rava-chokr(nine-compartmenthall;
:g a row Fig. 2o.53), arc distinguished from the main
.:.-Csouth body of the temple by their open form, as they
E::rry-rwo are unwalled. These two pillared halls precedea
!5t-,:=rionsof tlird na4lapa that does not have pillars, but
E-::'rent' ln that is uni{ied with the sbrine area. This unit
r.::d by a comprises the central core, which is virtually
e.: e styles, ubiquitous in Hindu temple architecture after
E:- almosta the Cupta period. though sometimesits sim-
E:::nt effect oliciw seemsobscured becauseof the addition
lr : -.- cloister of piil"r"d halls and other architectural units.
[: laructules The original image of the shrine has been re-
placed by a later sculpture. However, the ap-
n: : tanlapa, pearanceof this figure may be inferred from the
tl: :.---and the reDresentationsof I i haikarasin the srnallshrines
Ec=-: domed inlhe cloister ofthe temple. These figures, such
THE ART OF THB RAJPUT CLANS 493
2c.54. Tt/thaihau in shrine on florth side of cloister,
Vimala's temple.Mount Abu, Rajasthan,India. Solaiki
oeriod. Ca. twelfch centurv. White marble.
as the one illustrated (Fig. 2o.54), epitomize the
fully developedJain sculpture style of western
India in which the forms of the body are ab-
stracted to almost pure geometric equivalents.
The torso, for example, takes the shape of a
triangle; the arms and legs are taperedcylinders;
and the head is a slightly squared sphere. The
surfacesof the body arc smooth. serving as r
physicalsyrnbol of the spiritual perfection ofthe
tifihaikff a-'fhe style of subsidiaryfi guresadorn-
ing rhe remple reflecrsthat of the major icons,
although unlike the shrineimages,othersmaking
up the elaboratedecorativeschemeofthe temPle
are generally very animated in their poses. A
representationof a female musician on a pillar
capital in the sabhana1lapa twists in space so
that her body seemsto revolve around a spiral
axis fiom her grounded foot to her turned head
(Fig. 2o.55).Her limbs are rodlike cylinders, and
the parts of her body are juxtaposed in an an-
gular, geometric fashion.
+94 LATrR NORTHERNSCHoOIS

after whom the temple is oftcn cailed Lnqa

Vasahi.Jain tradition holds that the cost of this
nonument was r2J,3oo,ooorupees,slightly less
than that of Vimala's templc. Thc later struc-
ture is built to approxinDtcly thc same scale
as Vimala's temple and, likc thc post-Vimala
phase of that temple, is also rnade of finely
wrouglrt whitc marble. Permission to build
the tenple had been granted by the Solanki
king Bhirna II as well as thc Param-ra rulcr
of Abu, Somasirhha. Like Vimala's temple,
this structure is more fabr.rlous inside than
out-its halls, pillars, and shrincs being lavishly
c r r v e , l o f t l r e b e . , r r t i f uwl h i t c s t o n e .
In plan, Tcjpala\ temple is a virtual duplicate
of the csscntialGaturesof Virnala's temple (Fig.
zo.5rb), although it is oriented to tl.re west,
not the east. Certain portions of thc tcmple
were rcpaired iIr r3zr aftcr thc Muslim destruc-
tions of 13r r to both this and Vimala's tem-
ple, but the interior spcaks of the finest of
Solanki n-ronuments.A view of thc intcrior
2o.Jj. Fclrralonrusicianin sabhanld\ddld,Vilnlele's
shows thc intricacy of carving for which the
temple.Mount Abrr,RrjrsthaD,India. Sotankipcriod.
Ca. twelfthcentury.Whirc marble. Mount Abu ternples rre famous, which has led
to thc often repcatedsuggestionthat the artisans
were paid according to how much stonc thcy
removed so that they were encouragcdto dceply
The fiuition of the Solar'Lkistyle, manifested undercut their forns and thus create thc
in the thirtecnth centlrry, nuy also bc sccn at charactcristiclacelikc appcarancc(Fig. 2o.56).
Mount Abh in another Jain monur.ncnt. The E v e L yc c i l i n g i s c a r v c d i n . r u n i q u r p . r t t e r n .
temple of Tejpala, dcdicated to Ner.ninatha,the including foliate and geomctric motifs, figurative
twenty-secondJainfirflraiLarc, is clearly rnodeled sculpture,and invariably a ccr-rtralpcndcnt n-racle
aftcr Vir.nala's temple, perhaps rvith the aim of a singlc piece of stonc carved in an intricate
of outdoing its predecessor.Tcjpria, and his dcsign. As in the casc of Vimala's temple, the
brother Vastriprla, have oftcn bccn called thc cciling of thc sabha natl/apa is a vast domed
" M e d i c i ' o f l n . l i a " b c c e u ' co f t l t e i r < x r r n . i v e creatiol (Fig. 2o.57).The major symbolic n.rotif
patronagc of art and architecture in favor of in eachcrseis r sct ofsixteell femalcfigures,thc
the Jains. Thcse two wealthy laymen are nnhi-ritlyad,urs. ln Jain litcrarrrr,. cltcre are
crcdited in epigraphic and literary sources wrth s\xteei naha-ltidyaleris who personify various
the building of nunerotts Jain monr-rments, a kinds of knowledge, usually associatedwith
few of which survive, including a triple-shrined magical practices, and are invoked at certain
ternple of Vastupala at Gimxr, and Tejpala's stages of rcligious prxctice. These figures rcvcal
tenple at Mount Abar. No less than thirty the r.rrodifications in style that havc taken place
inscriptions at dre Abu temple providc inpor- ovcr thc centilries of Solanki art. The figurcs arc
tant historical information including thc datcs norc slencler and attenuatcd, and havc tubular
of consecratiotr of various portions of the lir.nbs,without joints or erticulation of fcsh or
tcmple betr,vccnrz3o ancl rz4o and after. Tejpala skin and no softncss of forr-n, contrasting with
built the tcmple for the spiritual rvelfare of his earlier styles.
wifc, Anupamadevi and their son, Latnasirhha, Thi stylc is also visiblc in the portrait sculp-
 THE ART OF THE RaJPUT CLANS 4g5

-:--d l[na
:: sI 0f this
.---hdy les
:::! struc-
:.:=e scale
::r:-Vimala
--- c-^l-.
:c build
--:: Solariki
:-ra ruler
: : remple,
:.: ie than
: lavishly

::plicate
--:'' \"6.
_-1e wesl

- :esuuc-
.: s tem-
:nest of
--: tnlel1or
--rch the
: ius led

2o,J6.Lqa Vasahl,sabhana4lapa, centerpart, from south. Mount

Abu, Rajasthen,India. Solanki period. Ca. thirteenth century.
White marble.

tures of Tejpdla and his wife Anupamadevi at
the temple (Fig. zo.5S). Hardly based on the
actual physical appearanceof the individuals,
the stylized facial Gatures,with the large wide-
open, almond shaped eyes, painted to become
-: :irtatn a focus of attention, and the typically swaying
:: :eveal poses resemble the numerous other portrayals
in sculpture at the temple. Conceived as types
rather than as individuals, the sculpted figures
in various elements of the temple, such as a
ceiling panel fiom one of the corridors (Fig.
2o.J9), became part of the patternized forms
that pervade the temple, which are expres-
sions of the highest religious goal in Indic
thought, that is, the absorption of the individual
into the entire pattem of the cosmos.In spite of
the fact that the extraordinary opulence of
such a monument almost seemsto contradict
the world-negating asceticismof the Jain reli-
gion, perhapsit portrays the multiplicity within
the Unity that underliesJain belief
In addition to religious architecture in the
Solairki period, a number of other types of
structures survive. Notable among these are
the var (wav) step-wellsthat continued a popular
tradition fiom an early period in Gujarat,
although strong Islamic influence that may date
from post-Solanki times can be seen in the
 tit. d'ii ara Tiif e!ji)ili iilnr'i:i -1.i/'

<l ?o.i?. Lii+:r V,rsrh:.-rrrlri lr'jlirr: '' i r i r i , , ,r ' r , r r ! , r i , , i . r \ L r , r , r i , ! 1 r , 1 .

il,, ,r.-ril, .fli.r , ',rr i!.
r,i..ll

-lft::11.!
ro.i!. J r ( i L i \ ' , ' , i i ' , . r i a L , r . i r \ u : r rl i ! i f : r l r r
t | i - , f i r ' 1 . . \ i o - r L r |' \ l ' L r i l i , i : i l r , i , : . l i : . . S L ' l r r i i : i i . r ' r l o r i . .-.... i
. t .:
i l . L .r l r i r t c c u r l r , r i i r t r . . \ ' l r i i , ' f r i , l f . l

':1,]]

r . , . i t . i a n r ' , ' . , r . r i r . ' . r i ; , : 1 ' .. lri ri t l r , c c r , c . , l r : . ' t i l l f r r i r l r r l L ' r . r

N r . r 1 l r t t h . r i r i r , rr : r r r i i . l i . L . 1 . r : t l r rl :rrL, t ' : ! L ' l r r r r i | r i r . L : i ' r
r l r i r t t t : r t L. r , : L r ,' . ! ! l , r r t r : 1 . r : L , r f .
 SCHOOIS
498 TATER NORTHERN

.JI'ffif;:i;#;.';:::ffilii''*il*""
i:.::."lililf

.o0

*:L:il}:il
L;:t.i' il :i,*iTi:if:
*i:';4:',*.il:*:lill
lml:ru
$;lli:#$il:l,"'r.ns''a'[es
iHil:;:i::of 'tructtrres'.alrho'rgh irs
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T:':h:"::il':il$
n'::::{::,tl'li,ffi
the M.slimpcriod(Fis'
l:.;;; in
il'ill:
r:ru'ff
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:#i:t
iin-:,il
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u:i*,'
Soiankiperiod end rePresentatiols
.^ ^.'.', Val rrl Gulrrar' lndra
"-wcll 6sn1u.rrrdr'1'rer' structure.
i:J i;:: "4;:';"''n;' 1';"'"''11'
 THE ART OF THE RAJPUT CLANS 4gg
THE GAHApvILAS or V.[RlNASi (ca. ro75 ro rzoo)

The Rajput dynasty that arose in the Varenasr

(Benares)region on the collapse of Gurjara-
Pratihera oower in northern India was that
of the Gahadvalas,whose dominions extended
throughout parts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
tittle is known about the art produccd during
their period of rule, however, since the regions
they occupied were overrun by Muslims and
the maioritv of their monuments dismantled or
dertroyed. ihe Muslim attack on the Gahadvalas
is chronicled in the Tajul-Ma'athh of flasan
Nizami, which was begun in a.o. rzo5 (4.H.
6oz) and is thus nearly contemporary with the
events it records, including the devastating
battles of rrg2 ^Dd lg3 in which the king of
Varar,rasiwas slain,much booty taken, and many
Hindu temoles destroved.
A four-ar:medimage ofVisqru Saikarpaqa,one
of the twenty-four icons of Vigr.ru, recognized
bv the oosition of the attributes held iu his
hands (Hg. zo.6z), typifies the mid-twelfth-
century style popular over much of northern zo.6z.Vi$ru Sarikarsana.Foundat Qutb Minar area,
lndia and demonstratesits clear debt to Gurjara- Delhi, India. Gahadvala period. Dated Vikrana era
r2o4 (A.p. rr4i. Black stone.H: ro3.5cm. National
?ratihara art. The inscription on the pedestal Museum,New Delhi.
gives the date Vikrama saiwat rzo4,za which
correspondsto rr47. Although the Gahadvalas
are not named in the inscription, it is likely that
they were in control ofthe region around Delhi incamations of Visnu, which by this time were
where it was found among rhe lslamicremains a standardpart ofVai5navite iconography, while
at the Qurb Miner -at the time of its creation. at the top are depictions of the nine planets
In contrast to the more feshy figures and (navagrahas).The image, highly complex in
he concePt of a animated posesof the Gurjara-Pratiharaperiod, form and symbolism, replesentsa {inal develop-
c :imple need for this {igure stands stiffy, and it is completely ment of trends that had been seen since pre-
i of severallevels, detached from the back-dab and surrounding Gupta times. Its findspot, among the ruined
r:nli among some elements, a characteristic associatedwith late Hindu templesdestroyedby Qutb-ud-Din Aibek,
lo-.in South Asia.z3 sculptures throughout the north. The stylized who usedportions of them to build his Quwwat-
tu:an,demonstrates facial featureswith the raised, ridged eyebrows ul-Islam mosque,is representativeof tJredestruc-
ures, although its show ties to Gurjara-Pratihara art, although tion of the Hindu art tradition and the transi-
Js ofconstruction, they have become abstract forms devoid of tion to the Muslim phaseof South Asian history.
$ineenth centurY, expression. A hard, linear quality, partly due Although Hinduism was certainly the domi-
siim period (Figs. to the use of the denseblack stone that enabled nant religion in northern India in the period
o: rhirty-six meters the carversto achievea high polish and exquisite just prior to Muslim dominance, Buddhism was
rrers in width, the detail, pervadesthe work, contrasting strongly still a major force and an irnportant religion,
n a circular well to the earlierperiods ofSouth Asian art in which as klown fiom inscriptions found at important
r- SculpturedPillars artists almost seemed to transform the store Buddhist sitessuch as Bodh Gaya and Sarnath.
ities decorate tue into fesh. Surrounding the rnain figure in the Inscriptions indicate that the Gahadvalaswere
torana-like arch are representations of the ten Vaisnavire,alrhoughthey. or their wives, seem
 JOO LATERNORTHERN SCHOOLS
to have provided some patronage at Buddhist
establishments,such as Sarnath. SinceVara4asi
was rhe Gahadvalacapital.it is not surprising
tbat Sernath, hardly a few kilometers away,
was brought under Gaha{vala sway, and the
art stylescurrent among the Rajputs and other
northern dvnasties infuenced the traditional
Buddhiststyles.
A fiqureofTara indicates the stylisticdevelop-
mentsthat probably occurred at Samathduring
the Gahadvala period (Fig. 2o.63). By the
eleventh century, the probable date of this
imaqe.the 6guresryle had become more angular
and"hardene-d and the iewelry and costume'
more elaborate.The figure clearly standsin the
ibhaiga,or thrice-bentPosture,with the legs,
torso, and head aligned along diferent axes'
Compared to earlier examples,the jewelry is
much more dominant in the sculPtureand serves
to createa kind of texture acrossthe smooth,
ferninine body. The crisply delineated facial
features, includingthehigh-ridgedbrow, further
't"ra this later stYle.
typifies
her" asanemanationofAmogha-
"pp."rs 20.63.Tara. From sarntth, Uttar Pradesh,India Prob-
siddhi rather-thanasthe consortof AvalokiteS- ably Gahadvelaperiod. Ca. late cleventhcentury Beige
vara, as indicatedby the representation of the sanistooe.H: r4o cnr. SarnethSite Museum, Stmath
seatediixd in her crown. . She is attended by
Marici oo her right, who is identified by the
in her headdress, Tara is clearlyidentifiedasthe
oresenceof a uaiia held in her right hand and
Baddhapraifia, or Gmalecounterpart,of Amo-
ihe alokafowei rising besideher to her left' -Sydmarsra
Tardoppositc ehasiddhi, (Green.or literally.Dark
small,portlyfigureartending
* The T are iara). Like other Buddhistimagesof this date
Mdrtcris Ekaj"1a. (krodha)lormof
"n-"ngry
presence the sculp- from northern lndia. sucha sculpturedemon-
herself. whose demonstrates
tural reoresentationof some of the esotedc stratesthat, while Hinduism was clearly the
forms oi Tantric Buddhism.With thesetwo at- predominantreligionof theperiod,Buddhism
tendantsandthe representation of Arnoghasiddhi wasstill viablein India.

M.qtu scIrrpr P AINTING

As the sculpture styles of the Rejputs grew
increasinglyitifl stylized, and rePetitive, Paint-
ing see-s io h",r. g.o*o freer, more charming,
.rr"d -or" innovative' As in the east during the
Pirla period, manuscriptsprovide the main
.our.. of ou, knowledge about painting styles
in the west, although it may be assumedthat
wall paintingswere also produced Taranarha,
the seventeenth-century Tibetan historian, men-
tions e painting schoolin rhe west,comParable
ro that oF the east. s,rpposedly founded by an
artist named Srigadhari,zs who lived around the
time of the Maitraka ascendancy. However,
oaintinq remains fiom earlier than the eleventh
i"r,ru.ri in western India have not been found,
,tumerous exampleson palm leaf from
"lthough
the t*ilfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries
indicaterhat many workshopsand stylesexisted

for the writing and illustration of religious
texts. After around r4oo, paper, largely intro-
duced by the Muslims, became increasingly
popular as a support, although palm leaf manu-
scripts continued to be produced. Virtually all
of the earlv manuscriots of westem India that
have survived belong to the Svetambara Jain
religion, probably commissioned by lay wor-
shipers in order to gain religious merit. The
study of these paintings forms a crucial link in
understanding the relationship between the art
of ancient hrdia orior to Muslim control and the
culture of the Islarnic period. Therefore, al-
though they are most often discussed in the
context of Islamic-period art of ancient India,
they are relevant here. Possibly, as iconoclastic
pressuresof the Muslims began to afect the
production of temple sculptureand architecture,
rnore paintings were produced instead, to be
given as gifts to the Jain establishmentswhere
they were kept in llbraries (bhandarc).The styles,
clearly related to sculptural modes, eventually
made their mark on the Islamic stvles oro-
duced at the Mughal and orhe. courtr, since
many of the artists who later worked for the
Muslim rulers were trained in the Jain ateliers.
Although perhaps representative of a provin-
cial sryle, rather than a major workshop, a page
-: as the from a mannscript containing the Kdlpesuba
:a Amo- and Kalakacaryakatha dated to rz78 (Vikrama
1. LrarK sdtitrqt 1335) demonstratesthe early style (P1.
c: ::is date 3r). It was found in a bhandarin Patan and nay
:: iemon- be of the Solanki period. The Kalpasutrais a
:,-':rly the Jain religious text to which the story of the
i:ddhism acarya Kalaka is often appended. The Kalaka
story (Kalakacatyakatha) was the product of a
long tradition but was probably consolidatedby
the rwelfth centrry or earlier. It is known in
several versions and was a popular subject for
Jain manuscript illumination. The horizontal
1,::lparable format of the page has been determined by the
I i:J by an palm leaf irself. Ar rhis time. rhe wrirren rext
!r irund the comprisedthe primary focu. of the manuscripr
I .Jowever, producers, and the paintings are con{ined to
| =r ileventn two small rectangleson the leaf. A hole, sur-
t :t-o found, rounded by a painted red dot, held string for
ri= Ieaf from tying leavesof the manuscript together.
a= centuries Two Jain nuns, dressedin white, are depicted
s-, .esexisted in the left illustration while two lav women.
THE ART oF THE RAJPUT cLANs 5,,
elaborately garbed in bright clothes, appear at
the right. Yet, in spite of the fact that they are
arranged in distinct painted areasseparatedby
a considerablespan oftext in between, the art-
ists have bridged this gap with the arangement
of the two groups of figures facing each other
and with poses and gesturesthat indicate a psy-
chological and conversational relationship be-
rween them. Clearly, the lay women are having
an audience with the two nuns, whose hands
depict the gesture of discowse (vitarka mudra),
while the lay women have their hands together
in the devotional afijali wudra.
Color, which has always been extremely
important in religious iconography of South
Asia, but which has generally been lost in
sculpture, is here a primary component of the
composition and may have had symbolic value.
The palette is limited to a Gw unmixed colors
as is normally the case in the Jain nanuscript
tradition, and as was seen in the Pala-Sena
school. In this case, red, yellow, green, black,
and white are used. Often, although not here,
blue is an important element in the pictorial
design and gold is used increasingly in later
centuries. The red background, a feature also
of Pala-Senamanuscripts, rnay have served a
symbolic purpose. ln later Rajput painting
styles ofthe sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies,
it servesas a symbol ofpassion. Color is applied
in a fat manner, without mixing of pigments or
shadingofany kind, and there is little suggestion
of pictorial depth. The forms of the figures and
other clements of the composition are outlined
in black: color is con{lnedto specificarea..
Probably bccausethe paintings are so small,
only about fivc centimeters in height, it was
necessaryto reduce the composition to a few
important elcments.In later paintings, cspecially
those on paper, in which the format rs not
restricted by the shape of a leaf, more detail is
introduced. Here, the figures convey the primary
meaning while other elements, such as the
stools upon which thc nuns sit or the canopy
above their heads, indicate their rant (the lay
women sit directly on the foor and have no
canopy). The facial featuresare sharply defined,
with prominent nosesand almost caricaturelike
rendering. Thc farther eye, as is typical in this
502 SCHOOTS
LATERNORTHERN
garbed irr an Inner Asian costunc comPlctc
ohaseof paintinq,is shown r, if derachedfrom
ih. f^.. i,""Ll ln cmpha'is uhich mry have i"i,h boou. Both compositions show a major
dcrived fronr the protninenceoften given to {isure at the left, and an oppcsing figure or
the evesin lain sculptttrc.(Many J'rin sculptures filur". on rlre righr' ln the Kal'ka )cene' the
,'io s*.11", Salrri balancethe larger figute of
of this p.t;od and enrtierlravc large eyes inlai'l
Kalaka; in thc Balamitra conposition, the wife
with precious stones, or palnted 1n a lnauncr
thrr insurcs grear e,nphrri, on rlretn lfig' servcsasthe solc counterbalanceto thc imposing
f i s u r e o f t l r e k i n q l h e l a c c s l.o o k i n g t o r n a r d s
2o.54].) Tl.rc tiiangular-shaped torsos of the lay
-o-.n sltow affrnities to the geomctrical Jain th"ecentcr. oI rhe comp,rsitiorr' from rhc lcFt
a n d t l r e r i g h r . c r c a t eJ s e n q e o f d y n r r n i ci n t c r -
sculpturc stYies.
action betwccn the figures and focal points in
Two illustrations in a mamrscrlpt on PaPer
the composition to which the eye of thc viewcr
from thc late fourteenth or early fifteenth cen- at the
return again and again while
tury suggestlater dcvelopments of thc painting .looking
on a lnuch
painting.'Tbc two Sehis are dcpicted
,r"diUoir-(pl. 32). Also a manuscript of the their lesscr
irn"ll"ri.al" than Kalaka, indicating
Kalnasutra lrrd Kalakacaryakatha' the selcctions wife is
rank in this contcxt, and Balamitra's
illustrated show Kalaka being visitcd by a Sehi
accorded Ies. rlr.rn I'alI oI rhc cornpo'ition'
(Saka)chief and his attendant' in one case,and a
i<ing,'Bala,ritra, conversing with his wife, in thc s u g q c . t i n ql t c , . e c o n d r r y r o l e S t r c l rp i c t o r i l l
othlr. The forrnxt of the pagcs clcarly derives a""r"1."..*Li.tt irrJic.rrcthc hicrarchyof frgLrres
in the scene and structure the viewer's inter-
f r o m t h e p a l l r l c . r f r y p c :e v c l t h c r e d d o t 5r l l r
prctation of the charactersand cvents, allow the
m r r k c d t l i e s r r i n ql r o l c ' i n t J r ep a l n rl e r F r r t r t t u -
;rtists to emphasizeaspcctsof thc story, Just
scripts ate p"intJ oo tire pages,altl.rough thcy
..ru" no pi,rpota herc 'ince PaPcrllrantr5'riPrs as in the theitcr, lishting and position on the
*ere not tieJ in that mamer. The introduction strge acceotuatethe ccntral charactersand cvents
of a foreiqn type in thc case of the S-hi chicf o["tlrc dramr. t.serrtia]st)listic ferfLrrc\'rg'rin
i. d.,e to it"rr"tiv" conccrns rathe! than foreign include the black outline to dcfinc thc forms and
thc fat usc of nrainly pure prirnary colors' and
stvlistic influcnce per se, sincc the chief plays
i-po.t"ot role in the Kalaka story, which again, the red background. Additional colors'
".r .'.i.1., th" bto-"lt.,ofthe Sahi'sboots or thc light
,uopo..dly occtrrrcd litrirtgthc Srkr pcriod' ",
H o . u e u " r .i l r e p o r r r r y " l o f r l r c S a h rc l r i e fs l r ' ' w s L l . r cs n g g c 'rt m t T i n go f c o l o r ' .u h i c h n r a yb e
,lr. ,"rii, ,.f conrrit uirh Per'ian or othcr
clear cvidcncc of some contact with Islamic
p r i n t i n q' r y l e s ., . h c i ' s l r o q n t n t \ c t l p i c r ) Islamic paitrting schools.Still schcniaticancl llat'
ihre"-,ri'.,rtet laci.rl vicrv of Per'irrr p''irrrirg' .vith the conpositions containing only r fcu'
fo. ilt contrast to the Indic preference esscntialelcments,the Picturessucccedln com-
"t"n-tplc,
fn, th" profile. In addition' hc has a rudcly com- municating complicltcd lspects of a nxrrative
olexion antl is bearded, his cyes are rollcd to wit}rin a small arca.
',rne
side in a non-Indian fashion, and l-re is

CoNcLUSIoN

little is known of thcir architccturc and art,

Thc study of the Rajput clans and their art,
except what can be gleaned from inscriptrons
esoccially in relation to thc growing Muslim 'l.ristorical
th"t talk of the citics
dorlin"tlon ofnortlrern and ccntral South Asia, "n,1 "..o,tnis
of Aimcr, Rantharnbor, and thc tcmplcs at
is still in its infant stage.Little-known dynasties
Mount H,rrsa, ancl othcrs. Thcsc "lost cities"
like thc Cahan.ranas and others not included here
rnci others of the othcr Rajput lanrilies rvould
must have played an cxtreruely irnportant role
havc forrDed in-rportaut chapters in the history
in the history and art of this periocl' Yct because
of northcrn Indian art, and lve can only suppose
.,f wi,le-scale destruction in subseclucntperiods'
 THE ART OF THE RAJ?UT CLANS SOJi

fume complete what their achievementsmight have been. It

Srw.a major is also dificult ro assesshow much, if any,
I qgure or Islamic influencewas being felt in the creation
lnng
lka scene,the of the indigenous art forms at this time. For
Eu:gerfigure of example, is the type of borrowing seenin the
ition, the wiG adaptation of the Sahi type in Jain painting
o the imposing indicative of more widespreadbonowing and
nking towards cotrtact? Is the preference for dome-type
; &om the left maxdapaceilingsalsoderivedfrom Idamic types?
dynamic inter- Can the growing mathematicizationof forms
focal points in in templearchitectureand the useofcomplicated
c ofthe viewer geometdc diagramsin sculpture be related to
looking at the conceptsderived from Islamic sources?These
ctedon a much questions cannot be answered until greater
ting their leser understandingof this rich period of South Asian
mitra's wiG is history is accomplished.
: composition, By rzo6 Qutb-ud-Din Aibek had established
Such pictorial the Delhi Sultanate,firmly fixing Islarnic rule
rc\ of figures in northern India. That the indieenoustraditions
viewer's inter- of Buddhism,Hinduism,and l-ainir- were not
ens, allow the destroyed,however, by this ind future ruling
tbe story, just lines suchasthe Mughals,is seenin a number ol
psition on the ways. Various saints'reform movementsof the
ters and events indigenousfaiths, revival movements,and new
featuresagain literature-some of the richest in South Asia-
: the forms and all date from the period after the establishment
rry' colors, and of Muslim rule in the subcontinent. While
litional colors, temple architecture and sculptural modes may
pts or the light have been less lavish, the paintjng tradition
which may be blossomed-in Jain manuscripts, ani l"ter, in 20.64. Jain sculpture of the ReleasedSpirit. From Rr-
sian or other paintingsof the Ktl+a cult asseenin the Rajput jasthnn,India. Ca. eighteenthcenfluy. Brass.H: 2j cm.
matic and flat, and Paharistyles(which are not coveredin-rhis Collection of Ajit Mookerji, New Deltu.
g only a Gw volume). In addition, metal sculpturefor temple
rceed in com- icons and portable or horne shrines continued ingenioruofall Indiccreations, sinceit represents
of a narrative to be produced, rnuch of which testifiesto the "the releasedspirit" as a totally nonmaterial
originality and growth of traditional ideas, in- being, its definition being createdby the matter
stead of stagnadon or repetition of earlier surrounding it (Fig. zo.6a). Perhapsno more
modes.A brassJain icon from Rajasthan dating perfect example than this exists to show the
from approximately rhe eighrJenth centur| ultimate religious concept of the Jains, shared
testifies to this, for it ranks among the most alsowith the Buddhistsand Hindus.

Etuae and art,

m inscriptions
; of the cities
re temples at
e "lost cities"
isrilies would
in the history
r only suppose