2J6 DYNASTIES
Ot-THt ,\,1IDr)L[
TERIOD
nanxbxd il thc Sincl is onc of tirc rllasrcrpleccs
of South Asiu mctal sculpturc. Thc lour-headcd
dcity is dcpicted r,vith trvo erurs. Although his
legs arc not llcxed arrdhc stanclsfror.Ltallyposecl,
r gc[t]cness pcrvadcs thc figure bccauscof the
slighdy clorvncasthcaclsand cyes, ancl the firll,
Ilcshy lornrs of thc body, r,hich give a softness
and rraturllnessto thc in1:rge.Thc herit:rscof
thc rvestcrntradirion in thc nortlrrvcst rcqions of
South Asia persistssrronsly in thc rrticulation
of thc folms of the torso aucl in the Iirrc lincs of
the drapcry bctwccn thc legs. In many rcspects,
this irnage lorcshaclorvsrhe stylcsthat developccl
in Kainrir fiom arouncl the scvcnth centur.y,
'Western
for thcrc the influcncc persistcd in thc
art. Sincc tlis rather llcdry. softly nodclccl figrrre
seems closer to Gupta modes than thc de-
vcloped Kaimiri sryles,an approirnate datc of
the sirth ccrtury night bc snggestecllor its
execunoll.
Thc ancicnt sitc of Vasantegadhi[ Rajasthan
lus yiclclcd ir.xcliptions of thc sevcnrh centur,,,
r h r r r , r , , t o t . n r p l , - . r r t l r c . i r c . f r r r r J r c ra. n
iruportant hoarcl of bronzc inrgcs was dis-
coveleclil the cellar of an old Jain templc therc
in thc eariy part o[ this ccntury. Two virtuai]y
idcnticel irrragesof Jir ttrthaikaras wcre among
the sculpturcsfoutd. An inscriptionon onc of
thenr. illnstlrtcd hc.rc(Fiq. rr.r9). rcvealsth:rt it
CoNcLUSIoN
Thc Gupta periocl :Lncldrc pcriod of fraguicnte-
tiorr thet follol'cd it er-coltcn lookc'clupou:rs
a rvetershedin the history of- Intlic rrt, ;iftcr
lvhich thc charactcr of thc rrt treditior.Lsis sairi
to lrrve cirengcclclreniaticalLy. This tr:rdiriorlxl
vic'n'rvorrklscclnto be sLrpporrcd b1.rncs.,.",rr,-
ing cvidcncc, for inclecd.afic'r thc "post-GLrpta"
period, South Asian er-tisticdcvclopmcntsar-c
rotablc lor rhcir highlv clistinctivcr.egionrl
styles,rvhich wcre not so:lpparerltprior to thc
G[pta pcriod. To a qrcrt crrcllr. rhc be]icf ili
rhis change of clnracter is dre rcsLrlto[ thc
i n , r c . ' ' c . rl r . i b i l i r ro f l e 3 i o n . ' ,' 1 , * r i n c r . oirrrr,
xrt cllrc to thc greatcr survivll rltc lftcr Grrptl
tinrcs,rvhcn thc uscofstonc becarnclncr-cxsulgry
prevalent. Sirnply, rvith more rvorks oi ert
ancl its .rnate rvcre both cast by a sculptor
namccl Sivanase in the year 744 (Vikrana crA),
cqulvalclttto A.D.6117.21 Both irlages are vcry
1arge,the one illustretcdreachinge total hciglrt
of r37 centirretersinclutlingthc pedcstal.
Although it is oftcn diflicult to cliscr.rss stylistic
licaturesin Jaiu inages clueto drc grc:Ltdcgrcc of
abstraction,in this case,becauscthe inregesare
of the Svctanbara(Whitc Drcscd) typ" ,r,il 1r",r.
drapery. thcy arc nore cesily rrceteclthen thc
nudc. urainlyDigambara(Sky Clad), types.The
drapcry hcre is soft and clingy, rs it sccmsmoldecl
to thc lcg, and virtually transp:uent cxcept lbr
the lolds ol the left ieg. Closc tiesin this rcpect
[o Gr]ptr traditiot arc scen.Thc increasedstilf-
ncssof the figurc, contrasted for.exarnple l,ith
thc Chausapieccs(Fia. to.4z) is an indicationof
adv rccddarc;inJain art, afterthe Guptaperiocl,
incleasccl gconctrization and abstraction be-
cor-r-res thc rule. Thc elongatcclamrs, lvhoscshapc
rcsembles nictaphorically the trunk of an cle-
p l t . . r ' rt '. , p r c . c ror nr . o f t l ' c " l r r c k 1' i g n s ' n f r l t c
-flras, lvhose rrms rcach do*,n to their knces,in
a corlcepr sinilar to that of Buddhist figtr.es.
Thc sniling facc appearsstilf radrer tnan natural
or spontancous, again characteristic of post-
Gupta Jaiu imagery, end the torso has an
:rlnrosttrialqular shape,latcr to bc complctely
gconrctrizedin rvestemlnclianJainart.
prcscrvccl, it is casierto notc rhcir nltural group-
rngs and to categodzc t]1cn1irlto clrstcrs of
stylcs. Matv stylcs th:rt secnl t(r erllergc ir!
irlly nuturc srrgcs aftcr.posr-Gupra rines, such
a\ thc tcurplc forrrs crcatedby thc E:rrl1,Wcstcrn
Calukv:rs(Chap. 15) or rhosc of rhc pelhvas
( C I r . p . r a ) . I , i u ' - r r . , \ el r . u l l o n r r . r r r r .rr . ' g < ,
rvhich par:rlle1edthc Gupte atd post-Gupta
o c r r ' ' d . .l l r . ' r l l r r l r r . c c u r r r o l o r r q - rb c r r u c , . d
cluc to the loss of such lronlllncnrs, it rr-rustbc
inlcrred that distinctive rcqional styles l,ele
alrcrcly prcsentar:lii earlier d:rtc than usually
belicvcd,althoLrghrhcir charrcter-can only bc
supposecl. Thc ernergeDcc of clistrnctrvc :ut
styleslrouncl thc scventhccntury irr legions of
South Asia u'hcrc Gupta dourin:rncc \v;rs ncver
 THX GUPTA AFTEP.MATTI2'7
f, sculPtor felt castsfurther doubt on the validiry of seeing materials continued to be used in the creation
krama era), this period as universally infuential in changing of South Asian art after this tirne, stone bccame
ies are very the characteroflndic art itselfl an increasingly popular building and carving
rotal height In spite of these limitations, it does appear material. In contrast to the comparatively timid
'.-ral, that the Gupta period and its aftermath represent use of stone up through the Gupta period, later
crss stylistic a true, natural breakpoint in the development of works are often enormous, rernarkably ambi-
at dcgrce of Indic civilization. From a religious point of tious, and technically complex achievements
rmagesare view, most ofthe surviving art of the pre-GuPta that revealtlre South Asianartisrs'virruority in
pe and have Deriodis Buddhist. while most later art is Hindu.
-Further, dealing with this material.
eJ than the although wood, brick, and other fragile
. rypes.The
emsmolded
ercePt for
r this repect
reased stiF
ample with
ndication of
upta period,
raction be-
* hoseshape
of an ele-
iens" of the
:ir knces,in
hisr figures.
*ran natural
ic of post-
no has an
completely
T.

ural group-
clustcrsof
enlcrge at
rimes, such
rh'Wcstem
:lc Pallavas
anve stages
Post-Gupta
,-r be traced
. it must be
scr-lcs werc
:han usually
:an only be
drcrive art

a i\'15 never
Cc
du
th(
int
ex

lIIj

oc
an
4f.
bt
st
P

II

lz
h
 CHAPTER TWELVE

BuddhistCaveArchitecture
(Fifth Through SeventhCenturies)

AJ A l.rTA

Concurrent with the emergence of the pro-
duction of Hindu structural temples throughout
the Gupta domains,MahayanaBuddhistsentered
into an extraordinarily activc period of cave
excavation at a number ofsites, primarily in the
western Ghat mountains of the Deccan. The
initial resurgenceof cave monastery excavations
occurred under the Vekatakas. Under their
ambitious and successfulking, Hariser.ra(r. ca.
46o-478),1 these princelings of central India
became powerful contenders in the constant
struggle for political supremacy. The king was
probably not a Buddhist, and it is not known
whether or not he actively patronized the
creation of monastic establishments,but his
minister and some of his feudatory princes
were devoted lay followers (upasakas)who
lavishly provided {or the sathgha. Haris.e4a,
having secured much of the western Dcccan,
establisheda peaceful set of conditions for a
brief but spectacularflorcscenceat the site of
Aja4ga, wherc nore than twenty cavcs, nany
of them n.njor achievenents of arclitecturc,
sculpture, and painting in their own right, wcre
cxcavatedduring the Vakagakaperiod. Drama-
tically cut into the curved mountain wall above
the Waghora River (Fig. rz.r), the cavescon-
srirutevirtrrally conrpletenronasticcnrirics.in-
cluding living quarters, dcvotional areas, and
assemblyhalls. Although the ephemeral objects
used by the monks in their daily lives are gone,
the cavesprovide important insights into Bud-
dhist theory, practicc, and religious exprcssion
i- ^-* ^f *L- ---i^l
Except for the few cavcsbelonging to an early
phase of activiry,2 all the cavcs belong to the
Vakagaka period. Walter Spink, the leading
authority on Aja4ga's later phase, argues con-
 4

rtI

a
"t
. :.t tr,;
1
1,.=i'.,, {.

a
.il
tl

..,
.r
\t

\i
 242 OF THE MIDDLEPIRIOD
DYNASTIXS
vincingly th.rr otlcr writcr5 .rre erroneottsin
their contention that suchextraordinary achieve-
mcnts must havc takcn ruany decades,if not
centuries,to producc; instcad, he suggcststhat a
brie[. intcn.c period oI lervcnr activitl corre-
spondingprimarily to thc relatively short span of
Harise4a'sreign accountedfor the production of
all thc later caves.sIn gencral, the eariiestVaka-
taka artistic activity occtrred near the center of
the site (the prc-Vakataka nuclcus) and the
latest activity took placc towarcls the two ex-
tremes(Fig. rz.z).4
Oniy trvo caityaha,llswere excavatcd during
thc Vakataka phaseat Ajanta. Sinceonc ofthcm,
Cave r9, was primarily complcted towxrd the
beginning of the Vakataka resurgcnceand the
other, Cavc 26, toward the end, they nay be
used to demonstratethe generalartistic direction
during this brief span of tine. Cave 19 is fairly
securely dated to the fint part of thc Vaketaka
florescence5 on the basisof an inscription on thc
veranda of Cave 176that rcfcrs to r gandhakuti
(fragrant hall) to thc wcst of it, which must bc
Cave 19. Thc Cave 17 inscription also refcrs to
Harige4a as tl.reruling prince, cleariy indicating
that thc cxcavationsrvere carricd out while he
was in full polver, in contrast to the inscription
in the later apsiAalcaityahall, Cavc 26, which
suggeststhat HariSe4e'sposition was consider-
ably rveekenecl.? Thc cpigraph furthcr describcs
the donor's lavish cxpenditure on Cave 17 as
"such that littlc-soulcd men [the poor?] could
not cvcrl grasp in thcir imaginations," and
indeed, this statement might be used in gcneral
to describcthc rnunificent patronagethat Ajanta
enjoyed during the lattcr halfofthe hfth ccntury.
Cave 19 consistsof a courtyxrd witlt accom-
panying cells as wcll as thc ralri,a hal1itself (Fig.
12.6, left). Its elaboratefacadc(Fig. rz.3) con-
tains a singlc entrance into thc cave, rlarked
by a pillared portico that projccts frorn the wall
of rock. The largc circular windot' abovc the
portico with its rock-cut raftcrs reve:rls the
heritage of early caityalnIls tirat had been based
on wooclen prototypes; C:ve 9 at tlis vcry sitc
must hxyc scrved as a Drodel. Howevcr, thc

< l l r . r . t .V i e u o f c : \ c s .A j r - L r ,M J h r r : { r r .l I | d r a .

ts-
 BUDDHIST CAVT ARCHITECTURN Z4J

)1
r2.2. PIar ofcaves.Ajafla, Maharisrra,
India.
 't/':

t1 it,
i{

tt !r;
t rsri;
tra
;

-1r. _ _ . _ _- . .

r:-3. FrcrcLc of Cl!c rg Aj:rnrl, \ ' 1 : r h x r i s t r t L l.n d i r ' Vlkltrkl

l,, f i'l'
".,''
 B U D D I ] J S I C A V T JA R C ] J ] , I F , CI ] U i t ] -
215
fl '-.-,.
t
' .i
I 1'

/
:

.
? 4,

4 i'i
I J.'
a
I Ji
li i
| 1.-

..;
, l,
(t
t/ rl , l c ( n r . r r r o r. ,r . , r r r r ., l r , o l , c r r r r r g .
. r i - l r i r . , , r 1 r . . _ to tllc cavc
r t , l l ^ . i ( r , . t r r r , 't l r , " r j . r p . J t I J r c . l . t . . , on thc rigirt, a l:rrgc reprcsentatron
t .\,..t. . ' r \ l \ ) . | | , r . r , iL J tl'. l l r . r. , t l r r . r r i ,
thit rhe window is in thc liorrn ir!l)If,rl r.,_
of thc lulll: ,1,,'.,, r,. r',. prul,,r.r ^r Rr,.l,JJr,trn.,.r)
fcvel;lcd
undraiala sccrt ficqucntll on C;L,pt',r lIl,,lil." n t r r c\ r ) , . r fJriq r . r .. r, f l r i . , ,r r .R " l r . r lr, l r _ . j. 2 . J ) .
re1rPles.
i.1 rl'( o f r l r . , r , , . r l i q . r , r . q r i " Jr )
[.in]c tr:rcc of thc carlicr rairyn hel1 r
facecle is . o t . r t ' . ,,rl.^rlli,Rl cr ' . 1 / h .1,1 , 1 . . .i , i . , , i r . ,oy. . , 1 , , _ . .
vlyblc ot1 tj-rc rest ol: thc cxtcrior,
horvever, Ibr , . . r r n o f l . r i 1 1 qr J , c
rts dccorated pihstcrs, corniccs- l r n r n r , co l l J . r , l . l l . . , h o , , I
and othcr 1 1 o \ ! \( c r . l i , r l u . , . \ c .r J r . r , l ,n r i r i
architcctural lcatures crcatc e kincl ol rlr" .,_..,,..
ofgrid rvithin is not ccrrain.It mry dcpictthc Ji,id.:ll,",r.l"r."nt
llurrrerous sculptures, pnrnrrily
:h:]1 ":. o1 Ironr. l_raJ,xstrirh(.1, ancJ thus tire promise of
l 3 L lti l r , ,l 3 u r e , . l ' . ' . r 1 ' . r r r c . . r p
l vl . r ,. r . r r r , . r r . r r .
llLrddhahoodto
f l , n t f l , ( . , r , , r c . lr v r n L r o r 'D. . j ; . , 1 .l ) , _Utpali.the fcual.- i,u,, ,urnJ
1 , ^ . .L , r r . r nlilte__devotce u-ho ras thc first to qrcet thc
bealtifully trcssccl, rhc fipurcs ' urggcsr the
B d , l l r rr r l , ' nJ r i . . , l .c". r r O . r . i r r r , r . 1 r (i p r ( ^ . r 1
hlghcst aclievcrlrcrlrsof fi fth_centur,v
air. B.loru. | , r u . U n. ,l r J L J L r , l . l l. r. . B , .
two paIrc]s to cach sidc of che door r , r , l l , , i , 1 , "r - . . , , , o r "
lre crcatcd p , ' r r r l r . , p r . , ' , r, c . l r . , r J , r J. r r r . r r r
by.carvecl pilastcrs, tJrc tlvo iIrrrcr corDparrltlents irt1","r",.
then a youth nerucclSumeclha,that
. , t l . I r r , or o r l c r , r r i . i . ,. . r r r i . r r r i r r g he rvoultl
c o r r r p . , , , l - , , attarn Bucldh:rhoocl
b u l l o t i l L n r L r l , L r L , J c i t .\ . " , . . i in a futurc lrtc. ln either
rJ,, ,,.r,r,rcc n.rrattve, thc undcrlyirrgntessagc
is the promisc
24t D\\Aflll\ llll \ll ,lr'l Flll '1,
"l

:i.,-

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Xl.:

. -, .i: ::{,

,,.,1*
'-'
:
':-::
t.r:
1.:a
...-.
:a
: i.'.i
':
,,

r 2 . j . N . . { d g r o . r f o , ) f r c : r d c o f C r v e 1 9 . A j r D t . , N l l h . r r a \ t r a .L l d i r '
V . r k . t , r k ; rp c r i o d . C : t . l a t c f i l i h . e r r n r r ) .

of Buddhahood, a poignant message to the
monk-worshiper whose life was devoted to
attaining that state. Irr their positions flanling the
door and facing inward, the figures seem ro
offer the samegift-the right to Buddhahood-
to the devotee entering the cave. A crown held
above the head of each of the two Buddhas
indicates their nature as manifestations of the
Universal. The figures themselves are graccfully
posed in relaxed arritudes of the type seen in
Gupta formulations of approximately the same
date at other sites.Like Buddhas at Samath and
Mathura, they wear clinging, diaphanous gar-
ments revealing the forms ofthe bodies beneath.
Huskier and fuller bodied than their north Indian
counterparts, however, these figures reflect a
westem Deccanconvention and figure type,
Next to thesecompositionsare reliefsthat also
portray comparable although not identical sub-
jects. The scene to the right of Rahula's in-
heritance shows a standing Buddha contained
within a stupa(Fig. rz.3), while that to the left
of the facade (Fig. r2.4, left) shows a similar
architecturalconstruct containing another stand-
ing Buddha, but in this case,insteadofthe round-
ed forrn of the stupa above, there is a seated
Buddha. This interchangeability or equivalency
between the Buddha and the ttru was seentn
Andhra Pradeshat Nagarjunakonda,wherepaired
caitya halls contained respectively a Buddha and
a stfipa(Fig. 9-27).W hile the two inner reliefs on
this facade offer the promise of enlightenment
or Buddhahood, the two outer panels deoict
the promise fuifilled. enrbodied in the concept
of the sfipa as a symbol o[ rhe final extincrion,
or as a Suddha fisure.
Other important reliefs on the facadeinclude
the representation of a ngat7ja accompanied
by his two ruglrt consorts (Fig. rz.5). One of
.Bll&sll Buddbabhadra, who dedicated it to the
the loveliest images at Ajanta, the central figure
implies by his regal pose the comfortable and
elegant attirude of the Ajanta patrons and
sculptors toward the stately liG. Norninally
charged with providing for the well-being of
the sathgha,and serving as an object ofdevotion
for thosein needof succor.rhe raga king seems of doing so, thus putting the date of the dedica-
spJendidlyconfidenr and capableof fulfilling
his charge. This figure, perh"p, -o.. rh"n
othersat the sire, demonstraces the closeness of
BUDDHISTCAVTARCHITTCTURT247
the Ajanta idiom to that seenat Gupta sitessuch
as Deogarh.
The inrerior of the cave (Fig. r2.6. left, tz.7)
appearslavish compared to the stark interiors of
early uitya halls. Thick pillars, closely set and
carved with vertical or diagonal futes, crowd
the interior, while above, sculpted panelsshow-
ing Buddha figures rim the hall. Rafters, still
suggestive of the structural protorypes of the
rock-cut halls, arc carved in the ceiling abovc.
The main object of veneration, the srripa,ditTers
greatly in form from those of earlier periods,
which were generally simple domes atop a
one- or two-stepped drum. Much more vertical
in appearance and with an almost spherical
d.orte, the stipa restson a base with ofret sides.
At the front, a pilastered tora4a encloses a
sculpted representationof a standing Buddha,
while the remaining surfacesof tlle stipa Me
carved into units that may have once con-
tained painted representations.Above the dome,
the harmikd contains a depiction of a seated
Buddha and above are three chattrasthat in
tum support a miniature stupa. Around, the
hall, the Buddha figures in the frieze and in
the center of the bracket capitals of the pillars
may represent some of the Buddhas of the
various buddhalokas (Buddha worlds) pre-
sumed by Mahayaniststo exist throughout the
universe (Figure rz.8). Orderly in their ar-
rangement, the figures are part of a highly dec-
orative scheme, elaborately carved with foliate
and architectural motifs. All of these were
originally fully polychromed, as was the entire
interior of the cavc.
The decoration of Cave z6 demonstratesthe
final burst of exuberance at Ajanla. An in-
scription identifies the donor of the cave as the
dcceasedBhawiraja, a minister of the Aimaka
Gudatories of the Vakalakas.r The referenceto
the A6makas in the inscription and the lack of
mention of the Vnkatakas suggeststhat while
theseambitious rivals had perhapsnor yer over-
thrown the Vakalakas, they were on ih. b.iok
tion of this cave very near to the end ofAjapgai
llorescence.eMuch larger and more e]aborate
than Cave t9, Cave z6 anticipatesthe Buddhist
248 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD
CAVE19
r'o
Fg
sErorp2p
12.6,Plansof Cavesr9 and 26. Aja4F, MaheragFa,hdia. VekeFka
period. Ca. late Iifth century.
and Hindu monuments that were created later
in westem India during the sixth century with
their colossal scale and dramatically ambitious
schemes.Spint has shown that the cave itself
was only part ofa much grander conception, for
it served as the focal point of a scheme that
included two upper wings (Cavesz5 and z7) and
two lower wings.ro
The facadeof Cave z6 hassufferedconsiderable
damage, but it is still possible to reconstruct
something of its original appearance(Fig. rz.9).
InsteadoFa portico like that ar Cave t9. a series
of stepsleadi up to a low plinth and what would
have been a covered veranda (now largely
destroycd) serving as a transition between the
courtyard preceding the cave and the caitya hall
itself (lig. 12.6, right). A can&aiala window
and rows of carved figures decoratethe facade
and are similar to those elements of Cave r9.
The interiors of the two cavesalso reveal maior
C A V E2 6
5p 6p
il,- l:
dif,erences.Scalealone createsa vastly grander
::ci- C
impression on the visito! to Cave 26 (Fig.
r2.ro). While the ffeatment of the pillars,
carved frieze, and beamed ceiling are higlrly
reminiscent of similar features in Cave rg, the
grander scale permitted even greater richness.
Carved representationsof Buddhas and bod-
hisattvas and architectural features decoratethe
stupa, rn conttast to the plain (but perhaps once
painted)surfaceso( rhe stupain Cavc t9. The
Buddha on the front of the stipa sits inptalamba-
padasana,the so-called"Europeanpose" charac-
terized by the pendent legs(Fig. rz. r r). This pose
seems to be associatedwith figures carved to-
ward the end of the Vakataka phase at Ajanta,
althoush the reasons behind the introduction
::!- l
of this-form remain unclear.ll It is possible that
i.=:
such figures are depictions of Maitreya, the
future Buddha, who is characteristicallyshown
in this pose when serving as a major icon.1z
 BUDDHISTCAVE ARCTJ]'fTCTURE249

1-! i

;:.'.

r2.7. lnterior of Cave 19.Aja4!a,

Mah.r.!!ra, India. Vakataka Pe-
riod. Cr. late fifth ccutury.

I2.8. Interior ol Cavc 19, friczc

dereil. Aj:]{rft, Mahartg!ra, India.
Vak.taka pcriod. Ca. late frfdr
2J' DYNASTIES O! THE MIDDLE PIINTOI)
r : . 9 .l . r ' J d i o l L r \ . r o . 1 1 . : ! a .l v l r _ r -
r":!-i. hrd . Vrl"1-k. p.rrod Ca. IrLe
fifth ccnturv.

',::':1f
*{Y.-',:,::.,.
t2 --'
4l
.-:-

'.,:
-,::;

t;l
,.ffi

r:..ro- Ilrtcrior oi Cilve 26.

Ajrt!., l\,hhrr.i!r:1, Lrclir. V.-
katrk:r perlod. Cl.r. late frfth
BUDDHIST CAVE ARCHITTCTURX 25I
r2.rr. Interiorof Cavc26, detaiiof rrt-
pa. Aja\r , Mxharartra,India.V.katrka
period.Ca. lateOfrhcentury.

r2.r2. lnterior of Cavc 26, frieze detail.

Ajanta, MaL,rastr., India. Vakrrxka
pcriod. Ca. late fifth ccnrury.
?52 l)YNASlll:S Ol IHll llll)l)lF Ifltl()1)

An cxrnrin;rtion ol thc friezc ebovc thc

/l ' l r . , , r c . , r c ,r . , 1 , -
I l.'.. ir. ..'1. ,o,t:r.r\
l
orilti(xl:urd rlct:ril of this.itvc :rs colnparcLl to
rhet ojl Clvc r!. A rclativc rccluction in thir i
sc:rlcc,f thc llLrrlcLh.frqurts encl tLcir rriclresal-
lottd ft,r grelLtcl mLlltiplicirv of t|c fiqurcs as
g ell rs iricrc:rsec1ornilllcutiiti(rr of thc, sur-
rolrndi.q cl.lrrcrts. I hc q,:rllsof thc lrrrbtrletorv
I .,, .. l )( l. r, ,l r' . ll( ,.r!, ,"
"'r'r,l
- p l , . l , r . r v i r l r r r r r .' . r ' u L r! . r \ ' r i \ . r . r , l r r )
ol- rr'hich probeblr- corrstitute votivc olllrinqs
| \ : ' , 1 : \ : l L ,rl , . r , ' r (l i. r:. i). tlr( r...f
inrprcrssivcsculpirrrc irr dtc yradal:sinaTatha
ts a
rcclininq ltqurc shorvurg thc llLrcldira's grcat
clccc.rsr.'
lporirir rrLna) crtcncLing fbr sevcrr rletcrs
rloug rhc lcft siclLrrvrll (Fig. r:.r4). This coiossLrs,
surrountlecLbv rrorrrncrs, hes e prolbrrncl cl1Lct
on thc visitor to thc crlvc :itrc1enticipercs thc
itr, ..;r.gl,. r..r.: r l . ' 1 . . , ' . l , , r r , r r r . . .i e. ',v ,
irchitcctuf,-r of sLlbsccluclitct:nrurics. Arrotirer
irrprc-.sivc sccrrcironl rhc ii{i oi thc Budclh:r in
I:.t1. Llcri,,r oi C.Lic ihc lrrrbuhlorr flss:lgc is e dcIiction oli the
nstrr hrdi.r. Vrkit.rL.r
trItLraL
i_itya(Fig. i:.t 5). In cotltrxst to rhc nrorc

t
1

;F
 BLl)r)HISICAVF,
ARCIIITICTURt zjji
. \rrc rhc simple conrpositionsscc11 at Crvc 19, tlis scclrc
.:..r chll- is fillcc1t.itlt nurncroussubsidi,rr-y clcteils.Marr's
::. -)irc(l to hostssorrounclthc ccntrallJLrclclhr fiqulc, rvho is,
: ]l Mlc crLriously, d.-pictcdnith his rislit Lend in lararla
a:ltcncs:ll- tulra, not the crpcctc.l hlttutisyaria.UndoLrbt-
:ljurcs es cc1l,v ruorc costlvthxn Cevc 19, Clvc 16 $'ith its
rlic srrr- ubiclLritous clrving rurd plcntitudc of rlctril is
-tl'.
Il-jUlltory ir'l , . , r i r , tr'.,1 p i ,r . . rA j . r r . . r ' l r . l , , ' .
broLrghr ro a closcduc to thc cleciininqfbrturrcs
li, rlrarly oi tlrc V:rkltekasarcl clc:irlyrrot r clirrrinutionof
,r11ir:iogs vrqor ln thc :irl.
hr: ntost Likc thc roiryaheil, tirc rrllrrjrorvas uinsfi)rrrrcd
' , ; J r , ri s a
during tfre Vlkttll,e plusc it Aj.rnt:r.In contr^sl
'.r s gre:lt
to crrly l3uclclhist lilroros,the latcr cxrmplcsclis-
. ilr nletCIS plav a ri crlth ofsculpturaierd iconicforms.Thc
. olossrts, lnost notl1blcaclditionro tbc t'iharacorccpl is
,:rii cllcct thc crc:rtior-r of shrinc :rrr.'as at thc rcar ol the
::.1festhc lilrarasthlt cor-rtlLin inrprcssivc inr;rgcsof Brrclclhe
:: .ias c1rve figurcs. Ilic incolporarionofthc RLLdrlhlshriuc
. Anothcr r r r ,' . 1 , i / . , . rla r r ' r r r . ' r r . r ^ r n' rrr, L\ , , . \ ' . , r i , . r )
-r,ldhein f - . ' , , ' . , . , . 1 , .. l ' . , . ' , . ^ . ^ ' r r o l r l .- t r r o,
:: oF the n.rctaphor ior r lluddhist paradisc irr rvhich r
'
:1C ll1()rc Brrrltllraprcrchcs th lhonn to thc rcsidcnt
boclhis:Lttv:is riho :rc in thc proccssof att:rinilg
pcrfictior md :rrc :Lu-airingrhcir ilnrl rcLirLlis.
- r / . r ' r . :. - . . , k ct h - r o r r
o[ b " , ] r i . - t r 1 r . l r r rr i, ' l ' i r . ! r l ' , i r ^ r r r ' . , r -
trinn.rentof lluddh;rhooclLrnrilall scnticr.rt bcirgs
rrc slvc.1) rn,.1proqr-cssthroLrqh thc verious
steqesof bodhislrtvlhoocl.Thc lllrarorse nrrclo-
cosnricvcrsiorro{ p:,rrdiscrvhereinthc moll,s,
as bocLhisattv:rs (u,hich thcv hrvc becorne
r l ' r ,' r r : ' t 1, 1 r, . . . , , t 1 l r ' - t l , v ' r r 1 . r . ' i . 1 . .
'l
lisrr:ninqto thc tcrciiirrqsof drc IJucldha. his
, , . , 1 tr .\ , ^,
\I II ll) l( l-li i
]
il thc vcrlrrcl:r inscription of Cevc 16, a r,/lrara,
nhich statcs thlr Vlr:rherlcvl, the muristrr oi
''lilc.
Hari-scni. rcelizirrg thet lourfr, l'eelth lnd
happincss erc tflrlsiforl . . . for thc slkc of his
firthcr end nlothcr, cilusc.l to bc rnacic this
cxccllcnt clnclling to bc occtLpicclbv drc bcst
of escctics. . . (the chvciling) rvhich is rclornc.l
lvirh l inclolvs. doors. bcaLrtilirlpictLrrc-g:Lllcrics.
, - = . . ; .' : 1 . -{.
- 1.1 !r
11cl. t l .rt
= -a t"
r:.r4. (ion,positc phoro oi lirfi,rn1,.i'd, left sidc nall,
,ntcrior, Crve 16. Aj.tItx, Nl.rh,rr\ir:r, Indir. Vrkrt.rka
r. . 1 .f . , . 1 . , r r ..,, t:-., I
254 DYNASTIES OF THI MIDDIE PERIOD

in

t0 l5

thr'c
sP,:
li-

rz.16. Plansof Cavest7, z, and

Uppcr 6. Ajant., Mah:ra:!ra,
India. Vakelaka pcriod. Ca. late
frfrh ccutury. t! ci
ic::.
\\
oi::
ledgcs, statues of the nymphs of, Indra and uihardsrs car:.rcdout in their decoration, especi- tll:-:

thc like, which is ornarnented with bcautiful ally in the painted ceilings. :.-i:

pillarsand stairs,and hasa tcrnpleofthe Buddha Even within the brief period of the Vakataka ::- a:.

inside ... frcscr.nbles]the palaces of thc lord forcscence at Ajante, the uihara underwent a
of gods flndra] and is sir.nilarto a cave in the n u n r b c r o f r r r o d i f i c r t i o n sC. r v c t ; . a p p r o x i - ::t: :

l o v c l y M n n d a r am o r r n t a i n . " l sI h e c o r n p a r i 5 o n rnatcly contemporary with Cave 19 on the basis -t::_-

of the uiharato a palace,espcciallythat oflndra, of the Cave 17 inscription and the internal r::i

which is locatedin Trayastrirh(aheaven,is indeed evidenceofstyle, is a standardMahayanavihara,

significant, for the paradisaicalrnetaphor of thc having a pillared verandaasa transition bctween

, 50
t5
r2.r7. ShrineBuddha, Cave r7. Ajanta, Meharasrra,India. Veketaka
pedod. Ca. late fifth celcury.
the exterior and the interior and a squaredcentral
spacesuuounded by cells (Fig. rz.16, top left).
The dight irregularity of the disposition of the
monks' cells seemsto reflect the cave's chrono-
logical position at rhc start of Ajanta's Vakataka
phase,as doesthe fact rhat the enshrinedBuddha
is completely detached fiom the walls so that
it could be circumambulated (Figs. rz.16, top
Ieft, n.ry).
While essentiallysimilar to Cave 17, the plan
of the later Cave 2 demonstratesthe modifica-
)n. esPecr- tions that took place during this brief but active
period (Fig. rz.16, top right). Here, the arrange-
\ aKataKa ment of the cells has become standardizedand
lenvent a the Buddha in the main shrineis now seragainst
aPProxr- the rear wall ofthat chamber,precluding circum-
D rhe basis ambulation. Growing complexity, perhaps as-
e intemal sociated with religious functions, is also seen
ma vihara, in the multiplication of cells at the front of the
l between cave where double-chambered shnne areas are
B U D D H I S T C A V E A R C H I T I , C IU R E 255
createdin place of the single cells asin Cave r7.
The culmination of these dcvelopments is
visible in the plan of the upper story of Cave 6
(Fig. iz.r6, bottom), which hasthe essentialfea-
tures of Cave 2, but the increasing ritualism in
the religion had led to the creation of shrine
areas,complete with antechamber and interior
cell, in the center of the side walls. Other cells
have also been converted into shrines,such as at
the right front and right rear of thc hall where
sculpted Buddha groups have been added to the
ceils although there is no doubling up of cells.
The increasedcomplexity of the religious mes-
sageis also visible in the main shrine of this cave
where, in addition to the central Buddha image
and his bodhisattvasand other attendants,r.pri-
sentations of the six man4i Buddhas who pre-
ceded Sakyamuni in his final incarnauon are
now placed along the side walls of the interior
of the shrine so that the devotee is virtually
256 DYNASIIIS Ol: Illll trl]llDLl PFlllon

r2.r8. (bnrfo\itc (jf shrilrc

inrclior, lcft, rcir, lrd rieht
t.rlls. Cavc 6, Llppcr lcvel.
I
Ajrnt., \'l.rhrxftrr, Lrdir. Vr-
krtrka pcriod. C:r. lrrc flfth

r t r . 1 9 . I ] r t c r i o r o l C i I l c : , L r o k r D g r o ( . r r d ] c ] i r c r r . A J x n r a .l \ 4 i r h a -
r.t!r:r, Inilir. Vrkrlrl,r period. C:r. lxrc tillh.cr)turv.
 A L J D I ) H I S T . J A V EA R C H I T E C T U R T ? . 5 7

t
ID 6 d,

'
G
Iq r\ Li
It

iI \l
t.
{i i r .l
tll
TL *. I
Yf
i
ta,
til tf :
lPt L2{
fE
'tc
,ilE
tn ,rE
Ir
ttt l
I
:

\
r .L
:a
. { .-..:-
F-
i
-.
t* t
L'l
s li t
*, .!{
,/t
'
,,1 .:. ?.i
li-l

surroLrrclcd br' 1:rrqcIJrJ.llu figur.s (Fis. r2. r 8).

r\n irrLcriorr.icl.of Cavc u (Fiq. r:.r9) sLo,,\,s
the qcncrll lppc.irilrl( of a Mehaylne r,//rrira er
A'1enta.Llvishlv c:rrvcclpili:rrs lrrcl door*,avs
.1,,,,... r1 it,r ,,' r,l r..\ ..lr . r.o-
qrrphic nrcsseqc.All rrchitccturel fi'lturcs, in-
clLrdingrr'rlls. ccilings, end pillars l',::rc fullv
p t ' r ' . . I , . r r . 1 . , , . . ' . ' . r , . . l r - . , ' . . o. r; r r . . l
lith prncls c(nrtiiirlinq rrrif/rrrancouplcs, rc-
scmblcsir iormet thosclirund orr contcrnporarv
Hirtdu tcnrplcs.cvc11to rlrc prcscrrceof rivcr:
qocl.lcsscs at t1ic.top ol clchjerub. Tirc cnshrinccl
llnrlrlh:r sits in t'airayary atil.'a snua :rric1,-lispllys
tlltannatalta nudra. 'l'hc specilic forru o1i thc
unlra hx thc tlrunrb rnd lorefrngcrof thc right
hurrrllbrrning e circlc thet.loirrsthc:litLlc frnqcr
oi rlic lelr halcl. Br. ari:rlogvwirh tmdrasof :t
slighdy latcl darc,it nuv bc susgesrcrl th;rt thc
litrl: frrrgcron thr-lcft hend poirrtingro rhc cir:clc
lbrliccl in thc riglir indicltcstlrc ibLrrth,or rnorr
csotcnc,Jcvclof thc tcacliings.llLikc othc-rtlLrrj-
clhlsfrorn AJlnla'slxrc phasc.thc ligrrrcsuggcsrs
6 tics ro Gupte nrodcsat Serlath, Merhuri, and
othcr sitcs,bLrthas rhc vc'r1'firll,rourrclcdborlv
r 2 . : o . S l r i n c ' ( J ] t r 3 r r . c . C i l l c r . A . J . r n r r .r U . r h a r a r r3r ,
t r ) c t l x .V i k a t : r k r p c r i o d . C r . l r r f t l t r h . c n r L r f \ .
|loPorrioDs t;picel of thc ccntral Indien ard
weslcnl l)cccaD1rrocles.
 PERIOI)
25E DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDIE
light in
the prcseirce and this may have becn to help rcllcct
An interestingfcaturc of Cavc z is the
sirrincs flrnking thc the din-Linteriors ln contrast to Prcdonll-
oi,.-,ltp,.t." g."o.,p' io tlLe earth tones uscd in thc wall paintings'
thc nancc of
'.""" rit aai.i tl'.i"e alo.g thc rearrvall of ,1,. ."itin*' rrc nlore briglrtly
c'-'l''rcdlhe
","i"- ^lso note pillarctl
fui-. r2 16,top right; . ; ' ; " " i . ' " J p ' r n t f o r t r t sd c p i c r c do u r h c
ccilings
the one et lefi in Fig 12 rq) The a fl:rt r'nncr' with
"n,r",r."io I r r F c ;;;' i;"q,t.tt;ly pai'ted in
' h r i r r cL r r l t c r i g S t r c ' r o f l l l e c v e b c L r ' forms thus
/fl ') ti,,t".r-aai"g .t shadins,anclthe
. . u t p , . , 'i , , , ' g . I o ' P r i r c i r ' '''r r C - H " r i L r as sill'oueites against.the back-
tri.'
. , t t i i . t t , , , , J ' 1 , " l " f t ' o r r tr i r r ' [ t 3 r t r ' s" f "00.", "f,-rr"ri lt'ragcs' rn
tirc uiound. Dircctly abovc irnportant
u-i" trltr. Thesc surall shrincsclcnrolstratc otl.rcr spccified
i"r..i*ttU".t,
u""g*,".ttr of the architcctural' sc''rlp- ",.,d "t """"itl
ttandtli' P^ttents with con-
".rt*t"r" ' l ' t ' ' ' t A 1 r r r ' r 't o r t r ' ' t' t r l y in."riortr, -""a
,",.1i . , f p ' i , i . ' ' patterns
" 'virh centric bands of foliated rnd floriated
* " . . , i , " . i ' r * a i r r r ' ' q cf' ' r l t i p o l l ' l r r o n r " r An cspccially finc cxan.rplc fron.r Cavc
t1t" nnrlls on tl-rc side i.t"a.
,h. ,"rtta o"i,t, .,,.Jit-' "t" the four corners
) r l b J c c t ' z bcers pairs of t'idyadharas:rt
, r " ' 1 . ,b | . ' r ' , 1ltr.r l r r ' r ' \ ' l r L I l r \ c lrvo(r\r'tl lc' P i ' t (Pl.
, i , r , " . o ' , , u 1 t. , . ' , , t l ' ' " c L r l p t t r lr t
l r tlti' '- r). in
p ' f r q r t r e o' r l t h c ' i ' 1 " r v t t r iit" oronr"- of rvall paintingsincludes'
.J... ,lt. ' i , , , .
' l"l lt": er :cur r tr r e - scencs of Buddhas' attcnclants'
a r r p r o . , . " '"r l. . c r ' t i .i''lr ' c d f t ' t r r ' ""iour'."i",,
',tlrd Buddhas arc repre-
rtscof the paitrtcd *'al1scre:rtes iatdka tr1cs.In gencral,
.n1liatii1,-,sionistic the shrincs'
the ."rr,la i,t ot t-t"". thJrntcchar-nbcrto
a drar-t-ratic clIect on thc hutrrl visitor to in the r.rain hall A sccne
rn .ttriL" Tutrlr. occur
shrinc, lvho fecls himself eu :rctive PartlcIPrrnt r r i t l r g r o t r p ' o f ' lcvotcc'
by the patntcd atrct ,i,ln,,tt u,''tdlr,'
thc clran:r bcing - Nportr'r,vcc1
"*lt'tc i o . . , , . . 'r n r l r . . , t t t c c l r . r t ' t b c r t o t l r c : l r r i t r ei t r C r v e
,a"fO* ' iat"' t' tr rl "r' clt rr tlt t I l l c r ' r r c l l i c l l l l l r g Ll l l c l l r
r7 1Pl.8) 'trqqc'r t ' ' t r r c l
' , r i r ' l r . ' l ' r r t c ' ' r r r ; ' l c t i t rt lgr ' divt'iorts
" . , , , t i " - . . " . . rproqran-rsancl clccor:rtiveschcmcs . r " . , r " . 1L y , i , a r ' ' ' "o ' r l r r c . 'r e s i ' r c " l i l c
i."""n.,lpttia l ' ' ' f o r r r r 'o I M ' r i -
oi thc f:rct i t t " O , , a a t t *r r r r yb c i J c r r t i f ' c
of So,.tthAsian lllonulllcnts, ro spite is shorvn preacl.ing in
,."u"t in Ar",op registcr,he
that it hnsrarcly bccn prcscrvcd' p"t"dl'", T'-ttit^; ir.r thc center' hc is
paintings' it"'ir."t"'ry
Becauseof tire prcservation.ofits ancl rvclconing
tltc J.piaol d"t.""tli"g frorn Tugita
Ai;,;'i ' u i , , , ,' i l y r r n i q t r ' ' l o c u r n e t t it t t
p i r r r i r . r e l,ii .lc.rotecs into his carth)ypirldise' Ketunati;
I ' i . t " r t o f p r , - l ' t , ' ' l i r r rl t ' d i c r r t F n o r t g l r Kctunlatl As
t[lt lhc bclo.v, hc is sccn prelching in
rcttreinsirr'rnen-vof thc cavcsto in{licltc pair-Ltings'this composi-
rt r' in nrlr".
i c u r r o q r ' r p l t t;c, r . , e r ' L r rtlf t ' r ' p r i n r i t t v ' "rl,..h"tltbtr fo"u"l than thosc of tl.rc
tt'nt"
of the ovcr:tll ,l;tr';;o""tt
,ou.r'rl*i. ami rn inteerrl prrt fri"-11ortitu lrilala sccuesof
thc mrin cave
dccoratrvc. ,tto..
,.ir.,r_r" of thc c,rvc aDd not siDrply. to thclr grcatcr
b' '1''Lcrrrco arcl, a fclturc that mty relatc
J f \ l \ ' " I P r r ' l l l l ) : ' ' r l t ) Light-
A t t . r t I b e r
l i r ' g r l r ' -' v ' r ' . ' r 1^ f r e c l ' - '.."i. .",ft"t thrn mrr'rtivc fturction
. 1 " , , , . " ' ' ' ' l
;",it;. ' t .
.,'f, ,,a ir*, , , . ' l l 1 q l t e r t ' r g t i r r \ r e? ' r r l r l r
,tr.,ltuds rvclc crlplo--vctl by thc llrtlsts' " '
t iqo"t 1 bcl\!'cll tllc ul)iT-
"n.1 inclicltilg thxt the Pxnlnngs wcrc L r , c k r r , ' L r r , '' l1 1 1 " p r r ' ' t r o r t
R"ther tlten ' ' t t e t t d r r r'rr 3 r r r e 'i t
ho'cver' rhc varicty '. ,l tr',-'',i 'iiut ',.- , n , l r h ' r o t r l r r
,lif.."t't pcriids lt'rc
lon.
"t ' ' , . * ' ' " i r ' l i ' i r ' r ' ' l ' ' t ' l ' o t t t t ' t l A r ) l l l t c r ' " t i n qt i ' t L r r ' v t ' i b l c
;i . , , i . '
b.trrtc ' ;;,.i i; othcr Paintings't Ajarlta thc is
t,r'na,t"r ' 1 , " ' q t " f ' " l l t ' l l f l ' r . ' l l ' c ' c \ i ' t ".,n"r.ut mountaru
rtt rortttrt' treatlllent of landscepc' espccially
. " i t i , , " *p ' , , , , i ' , i ' ' r r d r t r l l p r i r r r i r r g ' cubical sirapes sillrl:rr to
r e c l l t t i qrt l lc '(ntrtl forms, in crvstelline,
coLr"ri.,n, r l l ' l e \ ' c l l in
' l i ' r g ' t l r ' r l t r ' c 'trlv'vcd ;i;" t""" rpproxir'etcly contcnPorineollsly
., if ,'i ,f', r i / ' a r n c ' rnto
howcver' scefr to Plo1cct
l P l 6 ) ( o r r tr I r r r r J sculpture. Thcsc,
. , ' r ep . ' i , ' I .l i r r g r i d l i \ i ' P ' r r r c f r r \ tiran rcccdc bchind thc
ebstracr rnotifs:rs t'cll ils sorllc an1ll1ilL ;i;-tt;"tt".'.' sPaccrather
florel en.l rchtio'ship
is prob- ;t:t;t. ti,..;"] crcating :i dyna'ric
hnr-t-t^osccncs Thc stylizccl format aucl the p:rinted l'orld
i,"t..'."titlr" .'i"tt"t
"n.1
;i; ;;.fo"tttt tt' thc paradis^i''r) reelurs' L:rit1 alranqetl ctrt-
r0 Whitc is ebundurt- In contr:rst to thc molc forrlrll
t" n".attltt clivisions thc rvalls o[
"l-ri although not otr thc *'alls' oi tbe ccilings 'rnci r[tcclllnDcrs'
ir'"r.a"J d'" *trttss,
 BUDDHISTCAVEARCHITECTURE259

light in the main halls are alive with very free-flowing beautiful women, crowned and bejeweled, and
xedomi- compositignsand figures arrangedin asymme- thus representing the epitome of princely life
nintings, trical, crowded groupings.Earth tones,many of and possibly reflectingconternporary patternsof
ed. lne which were derived from local minerals found dressand life during Gupta and Vekalaka times.
: ceilings in the region around Aja+te, harmonize the However, the Buddhist messageof the story is
rr, with forms and provide the main tonality. clear, since Mahajanaka relinquishes his princely
rms thus Severalmeansof creating form seemto have liG in favor of the life of a recluse. With his
he back- beenavailableto the Ajalle artists.For example, hands in a sesture of discourse simllar to dhar-
r:rges, ln the body of the bodhisatwato the right of the macal<ramuita, he is depicted announcing his
specified entranceto the antechamberto the main shrine intention to give up his kingdom. The facial
ith con- in Cave r (?1. 9) is created primarily by the features of the figures, with the highly arched
pattems useof modulation of colors rather than through brows and elongated lotiform eyes, resembles
om Cave use of line. Highlighting of certain areas,such the treatment of the bodhisattva at the rear of
r comers as the nose or brow, helps to bring forth the the cave (P1.9) and may reflect an ideal based
form from the dim interior although light and on contemporaneous concepts of beauty. The
ludes, in shadoware not usedin what might be called a forms of the body are here outlined with a
tendants, scienti{ic manner or to elucidate three-dimen- darker chroma of the samehue as the body itself.
re fePre- sionality. That is, shadingand highlighting were The animatedpositions and stancesofthe figures
e shrines, usedat will by the artiststo enhancetheir crea- lend a liveliness to the composition, typical of
A scene tions without regard for light asa phenomenon the jatuka representationsat Ajanta in general.
devotees ofthe physicalwo d, subjectto cenainempirical Often, scenesat Ajagla take on an almost
: in Cave laws. Even the forms of the bodhisattva'sbody secularcharacter,although all may be justified as
ngement are beyondthe rulesof the materialworld, and bang part of a jata&aor other Buddhist context.
divisions. indeed,by freeing the figures from suchregula- A woman on a swing in Cave z (Pl. ir) belongs
r of Mai- tion, fie artists seemto capture the essenceof to a depiction of the Vidhurapaltlito jatuka and
aching in the Buddhist religion, with its skepticism may be identified as lrandati, the z?grr princess
rter, he is toward phenomenal existence-While clearly central to the story. Here, the highlighting
elcoming human in inspiration,the parts of the bodhi- technique used freely at Aja+te creates the
ietumati; satwa'sbody are likened to other objects;his impression of a glow over the surface of her
nati. As biow, for example, takes the shape of the skin. The narrow waists, full breasts,and hips
composi- archer'sbow, his eyesare like lotus petals,and of the women in the composition display the
e of the his torso is shapedlike that of a lion. Such same feminine ideal that is found throughout
lxUn Cave metaphorsappearin textual descriptionsand most Deliods aqd stvles of Indic art. As is true
ir greater were often ouite literallv translatedinto visual throulhout most oi the Aja41a paintings, the
n. Light- terms. Similar rnet"phois are sometimesused three-quarter facial view is preferred in this
the dark in the creationof partsof the body of Buddha composition, creating a suggestionof depth and
the Bud- {igures. volume for the forms. The brownish red back-
figures is NumerousjttoP4 t{les are represented on the ground strewn with flowers scrvesas a conven-
ible here walls of the Aja4ta cives. Some,which must tionalized landscape in this and other scenes,
qta is the have been important in the specificsectarian but, as in nost of South Asian art, the artist
Eountain beliefs of the monks in residence,are repeated depends on the {igures to tell the story, to
imilar to a number of times in the various cavesand create a senseof life, and to carry the mood;
reously in many of them treat human rather than anirnal architectural and landscape elements- are em-
oject into incarnationsof Sa&yamuniBuddha. Often, ployed only to add a setting or structure to the
rhind the severalepisodes from specificstoriesare shown, scene,not to create an ambiance or to simulate
lationship although theseare generallynot arrangedin the ohvsical world.
rld. seouence on the walls.A detailfrom the Maha- in addition to walls and ceilings, virtually
rngenent jaiaha jatahodepictedin Cave r (Pl. ro) shows eyery portion ofthe caveswas painted, including
: salls of Prince Mahajanakasurroundedby a bery of doorframes and pillars. Flat surfaces without
260 OF THE MIDDLEPERIOD
DYNAST]ES
carving were often completed in paint, which,
*h"n Iort, leadsus to forget that these portions
were important Parts of the decorative scheme'
A pillar from Cave t7 shows a pair of music-
*"iir,g d*".u., inlrabiting the square base
pl. rz). Different in treatment from the figures
alreadv discussed,these dwarves are created by
the use ofa prominent black outline that defines
the contour; and details of their forms. Such
line drawings are found throughout the Ajalte
paintings,sonretimesappearingin composirions
ihrt -rk. use of rhe shadingand highJighting
tecbniques,and thus it seemsthat such a method
.{*.
A closelv related and contemporaneousgrouP
of caves at Bagh provides further evidence of
Mahayanacave architecture.Although some
rz.zt. Plan of Czve z. Bagh, Madhya Pradcsh,India. v*elaka
period. Ca. late fifch cegtury.
was simply one o[ the rechniquesavailableto
artists to use as they chose. The skill of the
Ajanre artisr as dr"ftsman is evident in com-
oositions
' such as this.
A, rrital documents of Buddhist art, the
Aja4qa caves can hardly be overestimated. In
sho.t burst of incredible artistic activity, the
"
patrons, together with the sculptors, Painters,
and iconographers, provided a concise illustra-
tion ofthe generaltendency in Indic art towards
embellishment and elaboration of the highest
quality.
-F
tlr
"-l

arailable to than purely,coincidental since, according to the
*ill of the Daiakumaracarita (The Ten Princes) written by
nl tn com- Dandin in the seventh century, the Vekttaka
king Harigena had a son who ruled over the
br art, the Bagh region. Spink claims that this son must
dmated. Lr have ruled prior to 486,17for by that time, one
rtiviry, the Maharaja Subandhu, who is known from a
rs. painters, copperplate inscription found at Bagh,i8 was
cise illustra- ruliag the region and the Vakdfaka line had
ert towards collapsed. Spink estimatesthe period of llores-
rle highest cence at Bagh to have occurred between 47o
and a8o.
Much ruined due to water seepageand rock
falls affecting the soft, friable sandstone, the
caves preserve little of their former beauty.
In plan, Cave 2 greatly resembles Mahayana
uiharas at Ajar11a, although four central pillars
le-'-, archi- are present,undoubtedly included for structural
taities with purposesdue to the weaknessof the rock (Fig.
sruch more rz.zr). The central pillars, much more massive
12.22. lntedor of Cave 2, vierv from front Ieft corner, Bagh,
Madhya Pradesh,India. Vakegakaperiod-Ca.late {ifth century.
BUDDHISTCAVEARCHITECTURE26'
appearing than pillars at Ajalte, are treated
diferently from others in the cavc, having a
spiraled fluting and being round rather than
being square or consisting of square and round
sections(Fig. tz.zz). The spaciousantechamber
to the shrine bears sculptures of Buddhas and
bodhisattvas on the sidc and rear walls (Fig.
rz.4). ln style, these figures are part of the
broadly de{ined Gupta mode, but differ from
their Ajaqtd counterparts in their rnore slender
bodies and more attenuatedappearance.Instead,
they seem more closely allied to northern and
north-central Indian stylesof the Gupta period.
This is not surprisingconsideringBegh's location
nearerto the epicenterofthe Gupta art traditions.
, A very important characteristicof this, and
other caves at Begh, is the presenceof a stupa
rather than a Buddha image as the main object
of veneration in the shrine. This Gature has
led some scholars to conclude that the Bash
262 DYNASTIES oF TIIE MIDDTE PFRToD
-

F
:

h
I

I2.23. Shrine a!1tcchanlber, left

wall, Cxvc 2. B.gh, Madhya Pra-
dcsl,, IDdia. V.kalaka period. Ca.
lere fifth cenrury.

excavations prcdatcd thosc ei A.jrnte and tlut iogical implications,at leastby tlis date, when
they reprcsent a stage of tratrsition between thc lrorlt tudilhnt ancl sfrtpas abuncluntly survive
as part of tl-rcstandard artistic vocabulary'
usc of a srlpa antl that of a I3uddha iruagc asen
lhc u.,intinq. rl BJql). klroun todey onry
obiect of vencration. Horvever, ir is clear f'otl
rn fr rqnrcrrl.,i,l [r.'r'r lopi.'. ['c tr r grc.,t deel
inose, l;,,,.]t xs that in rhe slrrine of Cave r I
at Aianta. rvhcrc the rear of the iruagc brrotrtrs of reseltiblancc to thcir contenPorary coun-
rcrprrts xt Aj.rnta. Indced' Subrndhrls inscrip-
t stfipa, or thosc of Cavcs r9 ancl z6 't Ajxntt'
tioir foutt.l ii thc dcbris of Cave z calls thc
o.rh"r" ..1tr"r.ttr"tion of thc Bucldh'r is larr of
" rllonasteryKala-vena (Abodc of Art)' suggesting
r srtp,r, thei the sytubols rre iclcntical ancl intcr-
heve chrono- sonlcthing of thc oriqill:rlsplcndorof thc site'
charrgcablc and do not ncccssarily

KTNHEItI

thc vclrnd:r of this grcat secotrd-ccuturycaifl'a

Durins drc iate fifth ancl silth ccntLuies,xrtistlc
hrll. u'es parr of thc rcfurbishingof that cavc
activit;' xt Kanhcri lvas resumetl A t"turber of
.l,r.i,ro tL l:rtc fiftir cclltur-v' a clatc suggesrcd
,,l,ler cevcs .vcre uro.lificd rnci tr at-tyttcl ctca-
bv thc stylc of the irnagcsas nt'ell as the palco-
vationswere bcgutr,brineiug thc totel nttltrbcrof
g,"phy nf associatcclir.rscriptionrcfcrri:rg to
clves :rt the site to over one hunclreclanclmakilg "tt
onc sttch dcdic:rtion Morc thau s{lvcl1llleters
Kltheri the urost extensivecavc site ilr India'
of xrtisticactivtty in hcight, cach figure stauclsin an arch rvitl-r
It is likcly thrr the resurgeuce
initirtccldueto patronauc b1'thc TraiLutakes' ,idyarli,oro, bc:trinu garlarttls abovc' rncl erch
r,vas
of thc region upou the .li,i,l"v, ,nrn,Jn ,,utia' t1''" ecsture of gift-
who caue into control
ovcrlords' dlc VakaLekas' lr"rrurt"l o. offcring, rvl-richuuy be interprcte'd
collepscoftheir fomrer
inscription foun'1 tn front of as an invitation to enlightcnnlen!(Fig Iz z4)
", "'.opp".pi"r"clatabicto etorrld 494 suegcstsre Stylistically,thc figurcs rellcct thc urassivc'full
C".'" i
"n.i onc rt cithcr cnd of fniur of ih. A.jxlld rcPrcscntatio'sancl it is
A pair ofcolosselBuclclhas'
 BUDDHISTcAvE ARcHITrcruRE 26ji
(Fig. rz.z6). As an iconographic statement,each
marks a significant departurefrom earlierexam-
ples.
Properly speaking, the composition of the
Buddha sceneis a ua4/ala, a specific schemati-
zation through which rhe religiouspractitioncr
achievesboth undersrandingand reintegr.rrion
with the Universal. In this case, the central
,, figure demonstrates thc dharnakaya aspect of
Buddhahood, the Universal, and is perhaps
properly called Sarvavid (Universal Knowlcdge)
Vairocana. This identification does not negate
the interp.retationof this figure as the historical
Buddha Sakyamuni as well, since the two are
identical in the ultimate sense.In the four corners
ira:nber, left ofthe composition, four smaller imagesidentical
,\ladhya Pra- to that in the center represent the {ot.r jinas
a period. Ca. who, together with the central Buddha, com-
prise the five jinas of the fwe jixa (paftcajixa)
'fhese
maqr.dala. Buddhas are the personifications
ofthe knowledge (jiiaaa) essence of the Universal
rz.z4. ColossalBuddha,left end of veranda,Cave3. who emerge from the four quarters (that is, all
date, when Ktrheri, Maharattra,
India.Traikutakaperiod.Ca.late directions) to impart knowledge to the initiate.
dv survive lifth century.
They representthe so-called sanbhogakaya (BIiss
,rlrry. Body), which together with the nbnfitlal<aya
todayonly and the dhatnakaya comprise the three kayas o{
r great deal possiblethat artists who had worked at Aja4ta, the Buddhit tuikaya systern. As imparters of
rar)' coun- or their descendants, had moved to Kanheri to knowledge, they representthe teachingmodality
ru's inscrip- begin work there.
: calls the While architecturally many of the new caves
, suggesflng excavated during this phase at Kanleri are
f the site. rather plain, a number of extrenely important
imageswas produced, serving asvital documents
of developmentsin the Buddhist religion. Cave
90, a monument of perhapsthe early to middle
sixth century is a simple, single chamber with
nttry caitya only a srnall veranda, but its interior walls are
,i that cave abundantly carved with sculptures; the disor-
. suggested dered arrangement indicates that the cave's
s che paleo-
Pulpose was to serveas a place where sculptures
referring to could be donated for merit rather than as a
:\'en metefs hall for initiations or rituals. The original shrine
L arch with images are lost, but on the side walls two im-
'. and each
portant sculptures show in graphic form the
:: of gift- conplqx hierarchicaliconographic arrangements
inrerpreted that had been developing for a long time. On
Frg. rz.z4). the viewer's left wall is a Buddha scene (Fig.
r:ssive, full rz.z5), while on the dght wall is a depiction rz.z5. Buddha ma41a1a on left wzll, Cave 90. KaDleri,
-. and it is of Avalokite(vara as protector of the faithful MaheEttra, India. Ca, early-to-mid sixth ccntury.
 r)yNASrIES oI: tIiE MrDDII ?ERIOD
"64
of lluddhisD. These Rudclhrs, iD irrcr arr
dillt-rcntiatecl by spccific tnudras a:r'tl uahatas,
are Aksobhye (cest), I{rtnrs:rnbheve (south),
Anitablu (rvest),and Aruoehesi.ldhiborth),
cach shorln ltete it dharnnmkra rudra rtd
P/ 4t atl t 04pda dsd11 tl.
A l o n g e . . c 1 r- . r r ' . . r 1 . i , 1 . o f 1 l 1 . q o ; p s 5 1 1 1 , ,i 1
a rorv oflbur llucldhls, toqcthcr reprcsetrtingtht'
eight rrrarrrrsl tsLrclcllres. thc nlanaLal'a,vlo rc
cherqcclrvith thc rcsponsibilitl-of tcachiugrhc
JlLrddhisr rcligiou to the bcinqsof thc nrulchne
rvorlcl.Bc1rclt]rthe ccntrll fiqutc. rttcrrclingthe'
stelk upon l'hich his lotu\ pedc'ltrl rcsts. xrc
clc'pictionsof In.lre rntl Rr:rllnl ri'ith fi'rl:rle
consorts. :rncl /r-.qdsxnd rlglrri-r bclou-, both
groups shorvnxs csscntirllysuborclinatcs
lrr:iiDfrqlrrc. Flankitg the Ilutidha is e pair of
boclhis.rttvas.clch also heving e fi'urlle corl-
panion. Bv rhc sixth ccutury, fenrale irurgcs
had emergedrs an iruportrnt perr oli tsucldhist
Mahavtru icorroqrlphiccorrccptiolls,
ast.cll asat nulllcrousothcr sitcsin South Asia.
l r r R r ' . 1 , r ' rri .)rc ^ - \ ' - r ' r ' ' r , l c r c r ' . r. r L f i sr,h c
conceptof /rdJli-, or treuscen.lentel
rvhilc thc milc clclrotcs rrl.rayo,thc practicc
ncccssalrto lc:rclthc practirioncrto thc :rttairl-
|,r',,r '1 I".'.,
the nvo is thc Budclhistcnliqhtcnmc.nt,s1.m-
r2.26. Litany of Avalokiteiverr
.*
rs lrotcctor of thc Frithiul, right
\.l'.rll, Clave 9lr. Kirficri, Maha-
rastr:!, India. Ca. early-to-nrid
sixdr century. -tl
lr
,i I
{
-_'
i!,
';.r,f
,f .i'
x:
-7t /
rz.u7. lleven-headed Av:rlokitc(- !> a-
vara tu Crve 4r. Karircri, Ma-
, ,,'
bolizcclirr later Dud dlisnbv yuganaddh n (scxually
joirrcci) couples. Thus, rhc co:nceptof uithuta,
rvhich hrd long bccl :L nlotif in Butldhist art,
is intcgratccl into an cxpression of onc of thc
most cssr-l1tialancl ftrndanental belicfs in thc
rclision.
. 1 Thc icorr of Avalokitcivara as protcctor of
drc f.rithlirl(Fiq. rz.:6) is ofa typc that occurs
l.idcly il thc wcstcrn cavesin a similar fomrat.
Horvevcr, this vcrsion is rniclue in that it
depictsAvelokitc(r'rrx as protector lgxinst rcn
pcrils (rethcr thrn thc usual eigl.rt)encl incluclcs
rllrllrcroussubsidilrv figures. Abovc thc head
of tirc ccotr;rlfiqLrr:cis thc prinoqenenc source
of tlrc crrtirc icoq tltc dlnntakiya, in this case
of the Vairocane.attcnrlccl b,vtwo bodhisattvas. Avalo-
kitciv:rrais flnkcd bv his tu o lim:ile consorts,
Trrr (to his riglit) ud Blrrkuti (to his lcfr).Tara,
rr'hosc narle rreans "Star," and thc North Star
implicitlv, rcprcsclrtsthe fixecl point of univer-
xt Kanhcri sllitl' torvards rvlLich the rlevotee progresses,
n hilc l]lrrkr-rti'snaure," lAbr-urdaltly]Full Hall,"
rclcls to the achievementoithe fully enliglrtcnc.l
knol4cclge, nrincl. Lr this litany, Av:Llokitc(v:rla offcrs the
rlevotecpronrisc of salvatiol fron-rthe various
, , . . t \ Lr ., , , - J .,, ,1.-.i t^ ^4.t,^ aolllPo\lrloll.
/(..r. l,!
^ r r r l ,Li . , t i o ,r fr itclucling ettack bv elcphants.1ions,robbcrs,
an,:{sinrihr disrstcrs. Whilc thc lay r.u-orshiper
 BUDDHTST
cavr ancnrTlctunr 265
relokiteivara danger representinga potenrial hindranceon
rirhlill, right his path to Buddhahood.The wild elephant.for
heri, Maha-
example,would be seenas the wilJ mind in
arlr-to-mid
need of tamjng, that is, the rnental discipline
necessary to achievethe Buddhist qoal. Such
litany scenes servedasprototypesFoi examples
-rhe
in t -".r Asia, China, Japan. and
!.rn!
i[mataYan reglons.
A r.p.es"ntition of a highly unusual form of
AvalokiteSvara attending a seated Buddha in
Cave 4r indicatesadvancedand esotericBuddhist
practices at Kanheri (Fig. iz.z7). Dating frorn
approximately the late fifth or early sixth
century, the irnage shows the bodhisatwa in
an eleven-headed (ehadalanuhha\ form which,
Aralokite5- ) while found frequently in later Buddhist art
loheri, Ma- outside of South Asia as in Nepal, Tibet, China,
t Eith-early and Japan, is not kaown in the Indic realm
except at a rather late date in Kaimir and the
eastem regions. This image is thus the only
artistic documentation. for the view that this
la (sexually iconographic rype originated in India. It may
f nithuna, be inferred from art as weli as lirerature rhai
ddhist art, the eleven heads, consistinq of ren bodhisartva
ne of the might accept these perils in a literal serue and heads topped by a Buddlia head, represenrthe
bE in the invoke AvalokiteSvara for protection against the daiabhtmikas,or rhe ten st"ges of
specific *ueat, an advancedpracritioner wouJd "ihievement
ofthe bodhisattvaalong with-the final attainment
otector of understand these on a meraphorical level, each of Buddhahood.
hat occurs
hr format.
in that it AunrNcrl,to
galnst ten
Nor far from Ajante. at Aurangabad.a number thc preGrencefor placing the shrine Buddha
d includes
the head of Buddhisr caves were carved durins several againstthe rearwall of the chamberby creating
different periods. While two of these-caves(r an ambulatorypassage aroundthe entireshrini
ric source
and 3) belong to the Vakataka period and weie (Fig. rz.z8).zrThe sidewalls of the passageway
l this case
as. Avalo- excavated contemporaneously with the late open into a seriesof cellswhile the rear wall
Mahayana phase at Aja4ge, others were created containstwo subsidiaryshrines.The ground
: consorts,
leli).Tara, in the latter half of the sixrh century and thus plan suggeststhat the principal shrine had
*iorth Star lepresem a stylistic_and iconographic advance- simply been moved forward into the main
of univer- ment trom rhe earlier monumenls. Spink sug_ hall of a typical Mahayanaviharu, ahhotgh
Drogresses, gests that these caves(A,7, and,9) were carved this may not in fact be the way in which tiis
h:ll Hall," when the region had come under rhe conrrol forrn evolved. The shrinesat the rear of the
ightened of the Kalacuris, whom, he believes,were also ptadaksinapatha, as well as the primary shrine,
offers the responsible for the major Hindu excavatrons each contain a sculptureof a Buddha seated
at Jogeivari, Mandape3vara and Elephanta.z0 in pralambapadasaxa and displayingdharmacakra
le varrous
nposition, Cave 7, datin$ from around J6o, sebms to
combine the ritual need for circumambulation The cavesof the post-Vakalakaphaseshow
, robbers,
s-orshiper seenin the early Vakagakaphaseat Aja41a with an increaseduse of sculpturalpanelsto carry
 266 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDIE PTRIOD
ll
CTI
/
tT\\
-F\//- - rug<l
l I
ULLl t l l
I2.28.Planof Cave7. Auraugabad,
Maharallra,India.
Ca. mid-sixthcerltury.
out thc iconographic progran and larger, rnore
nonumental figures. The front wall leading into
the circuman-rbulatorypassagcfrom thc veranda,
for cxar.nple,bearsa sizablcpancl of a litany of
Avalokitcivara to the left of the central door
(Fig. rz.z9) and of another bodhisattva to the
right. These figures demonstrate a stylistic
departure from the earlier Vekataka style,
having a uew tautnessto the contours of their
bodics, fullcr shoulders,and sweliing hips. They
are best compared to figures such as the rirara-
palas {rorn Mandasor (Fig. rr.z), the sculptures
at Elephanta(Figs. 13.5-8) or others of thc
sixth century. The hair style of Avalokiteivara,
rvith its tendrillikc curls and ligh, piled-up
appearance, is characteristic of sixth-ccntury
convcntions, further showing departure from
Gupta and Vekttaka trends. In addition, the
treatrncnt of the lintel of the doorway with its
multitude of miniature shrines anticipates tire
architectural claboration seen in several later
north Indian regional styles.
.:
f
a-_
12.29.LilaDyof Avalokiteivarato left of ccnrraldoor
on vermda,Cave 7. Aurangabad, Mahirastra.India.
Ca. mid-sixthcentury.
Sinilar stylistic development may also be
seen in the treatment of Gmale figures, as in
the important panel to the left of the door to
the central shrine (Fig. rz.3o) or the figure
group inside the shrine, along thc left wall
(Fig. rz.3r). The voluptuous figures arc full
breasted, round hipped, and have swelling
thighs. In thc group inside thc shrine, tle figures
seemliGlike, a feeling cnhancedby the suggested
movement and animation of their poscs,which
marks a departure fion the quietude of figures
in the Gupta and Vakagakaperiods and antici-
pates the active, dynamic figures of subsequent
centuries. The elaborate coiffurcs are again
c h . r r r c t c r i s roi cI r h e ' i x r h c e n r r r r y l.r m a y b e
noted thrr rhe uidyadharas (fig. r.z.jo) are set
against clouds that are indicated by a scalloped
form that is seenwidely throughout the Deccan
in the sixth century and is especiallycharacteristic
of Early Western Calukya sculptures.In somc
respectsthe fernale figures are also very close
to lhoseseenin Early WesrerrrCalrrkyaart.
 BUDDHIST CAVE ARCHITECTURE 267

rz.3o. Female group to left of central shrine door, r2.3r. Dancerand musicians,along left wall, inside
Cave 7. Aurangabad, MaherasFa, India. Ca. mid- shrine,Cave 7. Aurangabad,Maharaggra, India. Ca.
sixth century. mid-sixth century.

The presenceof prominent Gmale imagery, kiteivara with Vajrapdd to teach bodhi. In
especially females as attendantsto bodhisattvas another sense,the central figure of Tara is not
cEnrfal door or Buddhas.demonstrates rhe growirg impor- different from a Buddha, with garland-bearing
zrrra. India.
tance of sexual symbolism in Buddhism, as- dyadharasabove and personifications ofknowl-
sociated vzith Tantric or Vajrayanic sects. The edge and compassionat her side.
group to the left of the central shrine door The spectacularfemale group consisting of a
(Fig. iz.3o) shows Tara, the principal consort dancing woman accompanied by six female
,\' also be of Avalokiteivara, accompaniedby two Gmale musicians on the left wall of the main shrine is
ures, as in reflections or aspectsof herself who are rn tum dramatic evidence for female and sexual syrn-
re door to accompanied by dwarves. The dwarf at the left bolism in Buddhism (Fig. rz.3r). The shrine
rle figure is very sirnilar to the Saivite dwarves attending is based on the type that developed in the last
left wall the Maheivara image at Elephanta(Figs. r3.5-8), phase at Ajaqrpawith the central Buddha figure
x are full reinforcing the suggestion of the approximate accompanied by sculpted depictions of the six
: swelling contemporaneousnessof the two monuments. mdruli Btddhas, but goes beyond the earlier
the figures This figure. the onJy nralein the enrire composi- formulation with the addition of this important
: suggested tion, has a hair arrangement consisting of five panel and the figures on the opposite wall
res, which topknots that represent the five llas (sound coruisting of a bodhisattva, his female com-
of figures essences)of the paficajinama4dala(the nu4d.ala panion, and a dware Ifone acceptsthe musicians
urd antici- 'in
of the five jina Buddhaq.zaIn both his maleness the group on the left wall at face value, as
iubsequent and his ascetic qualiry, he represents updya, the accompanists to the dancer, the main {igure
are again action necessaryto attain Buddhahood, and the that needs interpretation is the dancer herself
lr may be 'the
corollary of compassion (karuna)- other Bharatanatyam, the classical form of Indian
1o) are set dwarf, a female to Tara's left, persorifies prajfia dance, was in advanced stagesof development
r scalloped (wisdom), which is part ofjfiaza, the knowledge by the sixth century and already included an
he Deccan needed for Buddhahood. The irnage thus reiter- extensive vocabulary of gestures,each with a
aracteristic atesthe basic Mahayana concept, but it is one relatively explicit meaning to be interpreted by
i. In some srepfurther removed,sincerhe practitionermust the audience. According to Bharatanatyam
sery close unite Tara with AvalokiteSvara to achieve literature, the gesture made by the left hand of
I-aa. karu1r.d,and,only then can he integrate Avalo- the Aurangabad dancer is ardha pataka, "helf
266 oF THE MIDDIE PERIOD
DYNASTITS
In Dractice,sexual activities did become part of
flag," with the palm upwards, a sign that has
a Jual meaning: at one level, it rePresentstwo, the religious rituals of certain Buddhist and
both, or any sort of duality, but on another, it Hindu slcts, but thesewere kept secretand wetc
restrictcd to esotericpracticessinceit was feared
svmbolizes a long or tall, slender object that
*n.,ld b" koo*o"f.oln the context of the story that nooinitiates *ould l""k understaridingand
line beirrg portraycd in thc- dance Since the mieht misinterpret the activities as simple
orfr".tic ple"ru..se-eklng [1{5cd'jt wasrec-
se:ture is directcd toward thc genital area ir
,i.trt onc of thc pitfallsofrhe pathof
iray bc inrendedto suggcctrhe lnale merrtber og"nir.d
yT,gonoddha was to sink into a lustful quest for
nni p"rh"p, rhc sexual ,cr itselI tn light of
thl, oihe. evidence at the site, it is clear DIeasurc.
"nd
that esoteric,Tantric forns of Buddhism were It is appropriatethat rhc lemale figure is
in practiceat Aurangabadin the sixth century' d"n.ine, iin.e. in Tndicthought. dancingis one
d."u"l ,nt"g"ry. whicl, evcnru'lly culmimrcs of the irts necersaryfor the accomplishedsexual
and constitutesone asPeclof scxual
in tlre rcprcsentrtiono[ [rgures in intercourse Darmer
(vroanaddha\ was Iong rnisunderstood by schol- ior.pl"v. The full-frgrrrcdforrn' of the females
J.,'".
td"g.u"rrtion" of Btrddhist ideals ,useesi th"i, desirability.rlre inteusitl of desire
" beiirs likerrcd to the lervor with whiclr the
Howevcr, the total emotional and physical
religi"ou,qorl should bc puruued ln texts' the
involven.rento[ thc individual with the partner
during sexual activity is a rnetaPhor in Indic fe--rle prrrne., are describedas being sixtccn
u""r, oi and in the full bloom of youth'
."lieiJus tho,,q1trflor the rnysticaltrnion with "n" that the artistsattemPtcd to convey
it is cvidcn-t
rhe"Uniu"rs"l'i,1," corrrbiningof the malc and
female into a totally intcgraccdtrnity was seen such a notion in their sculptures.
to symbolize the active Path to cnlightennent'

ELLORA

The frnal phasc of development of Buddhist
."vc, in western India is seen at Ellora, a site
rrear Ajantt and Aurangabad that had already
important Hindu center in the last
b".on.ri
"n
half of the si*lh .ettt,tty. Although the specific
Dxtronaqcof the Buddhi't cavcsi' not Lnown'
,h.y tu'.r. probably ercavatcd during thc
,.vcnth .errt.,ry, rvhen the Early Wcstern
Calukvasl.nd achievcdsuprer.nacyin the Deccan
(Ch"pien r3 and i5), thouglt not nccessarily
in this region.
A numlber of the Buddhist caves at Ellora
scem to recapitulatesone of the basic architcc-
tural and iclnogropltic {ormats found at other
sites, but otheri suggest innovative and ad-
vanced Buddhist thinking. Cave 5, the earliest
Buddhist cavc at Ellora, is a large rectangular
hall, about thirty-five rnetbrs in length, with-
surrounding srrt"il c.lls; *'iir.ine in the center of
the ,."r *Jli, and two other shrine areasin the
centcrsof the side walls (Figs. tz.3z, rz'33)''fhe
expansion of the two sidc-shrine areasnuy be
seen as a furthcr developrnent of the plan of
Cevc o (trpper)rr Alante (Fig rz ro' bottom)
althoush lrerc, rhe niairr hall has becomeclon-
g"t.d.-Botlt the rectangular, axial format and
ihe addition of cross-axis shrines are features
that developcd in Hindu ntonttment' of the
preceding centttry. strch as thc Siv'r cave at
tl"oh"ntl (fig. r3.r). Thc trcrtmenrof the
pillar. with rheir cttshioncapitrls further srrg-
g c s t s. u c h a c o n n e c t i o n( c o n r p a r eI i g s l z 3 3 '
r3.3).
A kev feature in this cave (found also in a
similar c"-re at Kanheri, but preservednowhere
else in South Asia) is the double row of stone
benchesextending almost the full length of the
hall, within the rectangleofpillars Such benches
are typical of the seating pattern used in ritual
,".it"tion io later Tantrism and Zen Buddhism
outside of lndia and suggestthat benchesmade
ofepheneral uraterialsmight posibly have been
lsei it t,iharu :Lnd caitya type caves or- frce-
standing buildings for centuries, but that their
 BUDDIIIST CAVE ARCHITECTURI 269

ne Part of 1242. Pler of Cave 5. Ellora, Maharalqa.

rdhist and India. Ca. seventhcentuty. ,t/l//4,
: and were
i\.asfeafed
,rr,,
nding and
as simple
: was rec-
re path of
guest for

frgure is
ing is one
hed sexual
of sexual
he Gmales
; of desire
,. hich the
te\ts, the
ng sixteen
oi youth.
ro convgy

re plan of
i. bonom)
ome elon-
rrmat and
re features
rrs of the
'a cave at
nr of the
nher sug-
ies. r2.33,

r also in a
i nowhere
n- of stone
|grh of the
ch benches
'i in ritual
Buddhism
rchesnade
have been
r'j.,,',,l
> or free- 12.33.lnterior of Cave 5. Etlora, Maharelfra, India. Ca seventh
ihat their cenqrry.
 27O DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDTE ?ERIOD
12.34. Facadeof Cave rz ("Tin Thal"). Ellora, MaharasEa,India.
Ca. late seventh or early eighth century.
memory is preserved only in the rock-cut ex-
amples at Ellora and Kanheri.
The vast scale and ambitiousness of the later
Buddhist caves is seen in Cave r2, the so-called
Tin Thal, a three-story excavation, each floor
of which is larger than any single cave at Aja4ga.
Its plain and austerefacade(Fig. 12.34)beliesthe
richness of sculptural decoration within. This
cave complex, one of the last Buddhist excava-
tions to be carrled out at Ellora, may have been
created in the late seventh or even the early
eighth century. It is entered through a rock-cut
gateway that leads to a spacious courtyard pre-
ceding the cave (Fig. 12.35,level r).
Each floor of the cave is different in plan and
format. The first floor (Fig. 12.35,levei r) .on-
sists of a rectangular pillared hall entered on the
long side with a large pillared antechamber and
shrine extending on axis with the entrance to
the rear. Small cells are placed at the sides and
rear of the main hall. While the second story
T
l.
h-I
is essentially similar in concept (although not
in details such as the number of pillars or cells),
the cross-axisleading from the front center ofthe
cave to the shrine at tJrerear is emphasized by the
treatment of pillars and the addition of an ex-
tension of that axis towards the 6cade side of
the cave (Fig. 12.35, level z). A veranda has
also been included along the front of the cave
to provide accessfrom the staircaseat the front
left to the cenrer of the cave fo. Droper en-
rrance. The top floor (Fig. 12.35. levei j) has
pillars arranged in a transversemamer, lacks
subsidiary cells, and has a relatively snall
antechamber preceding the shrine.
The main shrine on each foor contains the
now familiar set of images: a Buddha attended
by two bodhisattvas (Avalokiteivara on his
right and Vajrapdni or Mafljuvajra, a form of
Marijuirr. a bodhisatrvawho personifieswisdom,
who carries a vajrd on a lotus, on his lefd, But
in addition, the eight bodhisanvasoften grouped
 BUDDHIST CAVT ARCHITECTURE 27'

r2.3j. Plansof first, second,and third levels, Cave 12

("Tin Thal"). Ellora, Maherrslu, India. Ca.late seventh
or early eighth centlfy.

Fo t0 btr 6p
gh not
Mo. i _- tp
r cells),
r ofthe
I by the
an ex-
side of
Lda has
he cave
e front

3) has
; lacks
small

ins the
tended
rn his
rm of
isdorn,
). But
ouped
272 DYN^STlts of THI l\lIl)DLI PFRIOD

together in a configuratioll knorvn es t]re eight- on r rrrnclr Lrtorcnt4dalic appcilrancc,arc found

bo;lhisattv. nd1lala (astabodlisattua na4lala) ;lso in othcr locatiotrsin thc cavc (Fig. 12.37).In
rppear iu tl-rc slrrincs, for.tr on cach sicleof thc thcse, thc cight bodlisettvas surround a ccntral
."ntr^l Bu.ldlt" (Fig. i2.36). Iacl.L bodhis:rtrva Buclclliaitr l nine-sqnarc cliagratn
is clcarJyidcntificd by thc rttributc hcld in his Thc prescnce ofthree storiesor lcvclsis onc of
lcft l.rencl.2a Othcr reprcscntationsof the eiqht thc rlost signifrcanrlcaturesof this cavc. While
r \t,r r r i 'cl i r l r r c , n i n ^ . b u r r ' , k i l g
L o , l l r i \ . , t t v .i d carlicr excav:rtionsin thc rvcstcrn Deccan tlight

rz-3ri. Four bodhisattvas of the drldDo-

dhisattvo naadala, secold 1cvc1, right shmrc
*'lll, Ceve 12 ("Tjn Thal"). Ellora, Ma-
htr,1tra, lndi3. Ca. latc scvcnth or ear11
eighth ccntury.

\ 2 . 3 , 7 . A s t a l ) o d h i s d t l l , an a t t r l a l a ,
ground lcvel to lcft of cntrance to
antccharnber of central shrtuc'
Cavc ru ("Tin Th:11") Ellora'
M:rh.r.s!ra, lndia. Ca lxte
scvcnth or carly cighth ccnturl.
 BUDDIIIST Cr\Vr ARCtiITECfURE z7J
..- l
hlvc hlcl rntrltipic storics, d1c.se rverc not 11cccs
- i:r sllj]v h:rnuotrizcdirto l singlc schcmc.Crvc 6
.---l
. r r \ 1 . , . r . rI ., L \ . r r | . . c o r . i , . r I \ ' , . 1 . , ' r '
crcevetionsthet erc <lilli'rcntin dltc lncl nrlv
:: iri | ' r , 1 r , , .l r r r l .r r . t r r , r . rt ' r i L v .L o r t . . . 2
ind its ncighbor, Clvc rr. xrc thc rcsult of
.-r-l.r
sintlc, unifiecl,pre-planlicclarr.llrgclncnts, pos-
rib1,vrciatc.l to Ruddhisr practiccsin wlich
' ' t r a . r .! c . r r i q r r b i , l t r r i r r . . r. ': r 'r r r i r r , t r . , r
"
jntroductory phxsc, :r nlorc aclvancccL prlcticc,
. ' , 1 t r r , l l ' . r r L \ r ' . u r t l , r - rr . f J d . o r
highiv dcvclopcdspiriturl mestcrs.Such usco[
levcls in erchitectLrre is lbuncl iri Ncpali Ilud-
d ' i r r . . , r ' .i1r ' . 1 r ' ' l ' . ' b 'Lc' rL r l ' cN c p . , lpi r ' . r' , c
t'ls blscclon ln Inclicprccedentsrlchastlus.
Thc fLrllrancc of thc icoriogrlphic floqranr
rlut is richly cxrvccloD all thrcc lcvcls of the
(:xvccin oniy be saDrplcdin l bricf survcv such
.isthis; thc conplc\ity end richrrcss is an indica-
tion ofthe latep)raseof Mahiyenx crvc xrclitcc-
r - . . ' r d , l ,' . r ' 1 . ' p r . .r ' r l r . . 1
r . . . r1 , . r u , c r r . r ' i r , q
r:.j8. Buddhr, in uppcr 1crc1,Cl.rlc r: ("Tnr Thel").
ir.Ldic Lluddhistrelision. For crrlriplc, thc uppcr- Ellor:r,I\,l:rh,rr\t Lrdir. air- lrtc
, sc!,eth or e.rrl!
\torv of Cavc 12 hs largc inragcsof DLrclclh:rs cighth ccnrurr.

:ight slrrirre
:llon, Ma-
: :it of earlt

-..

.#t
, Jl

\j &
\'
,l* :
lnl4
541
:i {
d Ft'
g-"- t--
 274 DYNASTIES OFTI{EMIDDLEPERIOD
the Buddhas literally surroundedby human-sizeand nrt'ch
along the side walls rePresenting moved through
(four cardinal directioru' larger religious inlages a' he
if;. ,"n directions
"i intermediate points)- ,o"h
i""i.i., *lit. -a ,hefour either side of the entrance to the shrne
To "".r"r.
literatureto the
.r ,JJ..J t.f.t.".e ir Buddhist
come to an antechamber are representationsof the mottu5i
uuiversaliry of BLlddhahood-who 'Buddhas
,r.39). In tontt"tt to the earlier
jrit-g abhiseka sprinkling"' or (Fig
'a."pi.r;on,'
'-J"i. ("head
on bi m'25 vat tl,.st figut"t have a stiff'
inii"i.ttl to ."onf.,1aa'o (kttowledge) "q"tl"
figure' d.v, lr,*i*"," quality characreristicof much of
O* .*"*p1. (rig. i2.38)showsa rypical thus
In tne rouno' ihi'1",., tt't"h:'ya"a sculpture at Ellora'
deeplycarvedso that it is almost
figures including reDresentinqthe crystallizationof forrn that
r"tt"t"a"a by a tableau of
Increasingly' after ch'aracterizlsnrany Post-GuPta arristic idionrs'
tliiJ,""t i-,,d uidyadharas'
used indi"",iog thai perhaps something lrad been
ifr" *i""a cavesat Aja![a, sculpturewas "nd
on the devotee who was sacrificedin ih" f"tno. to achieve gigantic scale'
,o gr"","t
"r'."r" " "ff"ci

Corct-ustolt

activity structure itself. Clearly, the developments in

With Caverz at Ellora,Buddhistartistic cavesrnust
virtual halt' Buddhisn as documented in these
in the westernDeccancarneto a rich. fostered- perlttpt
over the periodof abouttwo i"u. b..n 9y,1t
The developments lay
"**.^"ly and nttrturedby the sultaole
patronagc
Vakalaka active
tr""ar"a *a fifty years from the and context created in the monas-
of Cave lz at Ellora
,"*r*"n"" to the cre"tion "nvironmint
themselves.The tendency over ttne
was
*"r""r"pid dt"*atic' In theshrincareaalone' tedes specificity in
"od to in"lo.{" greater and greater
,h" i;;" changedfrom a simplei'rage in the and bclieG'
image .ont,nunl..,i""g BLrddhisrdoctrines
centerofa shrinelto onewherethe central les to the intcrpretation of
,fl", i"r"i"g le"r,
-"1-ou"a a ttt" .earwall of the cell' additional "nd
shrine the practitioner.
Boldh", *"r" btooght into the shrine'the s'olJhirt t itt"tfdid not die out at this tine'
for
Anar
sec-
itr"lf -", surroundedby a pradak5i4opotha' such as the eastern
became in other parts of South Asia, hisro
^finally,femaleimagery
ondaryshrinesappeared, of Bibar' a nrajor tradjtion was Just
nr-el.
pro*i*ot, and, a seriesof caveswas resion
soutetlringin thc wesr' posibly
irrr"g.a tti nt* group of bodhi- l.?i-it'n. Bt,t m.:D'
"."i."tly " lf these o"ii,t."f lftlnt, such tG rise ol: thc staunchly \1;tu
l"i,u"', *", introiuced into rhe shrine' ot"t,
"s
had a great and lasting efect
it ilinJ" nutrt"t ruII
*.r" spreadout in a linear fashion' prrcticcs witlrin the
"h"ng", significant on o",.o,irn. "nd tutu AFPI
J*f,, s" t."" ih", o" "'.' average'a Sorrrc of the rttonastcrics were
thifiy .eligion irr.'if. rr-ai
-o?in"",lott occurredabout once every still inhabited rlthot'gh new cx-
years.Respon"ibility lor rhe deci'ionto make '',nd'oub,.dly least for thc Bud-
DCJ
bcgun, at
lif-,.ft""d" .ur, h"ut resided wirh chepresid- .l""alo"t *"t. not Hl!
however'
and ir may be .ltri,tr. "fh" rock-cr'rt iradition itsclf'
i"n *orri of the nronasterics'
'rG*.r,.i soure ofthe most irnpressive
thatasonegencration became [anriliar w", h"rdly o,r.., for
n-tonunlentswerc yct to bc creatcd
*if, ,h. oI itt pttttptott' it became ofall rock-cut
rcligion'
"ro,.ri.it-, the esoteric in the serviccof tlie Hindu
oorribl" ot evendesirableto make
iJi,iot , visible in the fabric of the monastic ]!t:
-=a
_- i

:=
nd much
tbrough

he shrine
E ' aflusi
he earlier
re a sti{,
much of
)ra, thus
rm that
: idioms,
had been
rtic scale.

Detailof 13,2.

nents in
ves must
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
rps by an
: suitable
) monas- Hindu Rock-cut Architectureof the Deccan
ime was
6ciry in (Kalacuriand Early WesrernCalukya phases)
I beliefs,
adon of

dme, for
: easaern Ananda K. Coomaraswamy.the distinguished
perGctlyunderstood.However,the fact remains
ras just historianofSouth Asianart, noted that,.ofover
that many bold experirnents in rock-cut forms
possibly twelve hundred 'cave' temples in India not
were carried out by the Hindus before their
eunchly man] more than a hundred are Brahmapical,
eventualabandonment of the medrum,rangrng
while nine hundred are Buddhist and the re_
lg efect from the early Gupta excavationsat Udayigii
hin the mainder Jaina."r Although these nurnbers are
(Figs.ro.33.) to_the highly ambitioustemfles
es were appronmate, it is evident that cave architecture
created under_the Early Kalacuri and Eirly
Ie\v EX. was,especially.appropriareto the needsof the Westem Calukya dynastiesto be considerej
rc Bud- tluddhJstsaitgha,and considerablylessso to the
here, and under the pallavasand the pendvas
Hindus and Jains. The reasonsfor this are im_ (Chap.ra), and rhe Rastrakutas (Chap.rO).
pressivc
created
T H E E A R L YK e r a c u n r p r a r o o

The Early Kalacuri dynasry. which rose in

Xarly Western Calukyas of Kaqrdpka eclipsed
Maharasrraupon the collapseof the Vakataka
their power, the Kalacuris fostered rehq]ous
line, is more understood foi its place in hisiory
movemcn$, primaril y pa:iupataSalvism, r,v-hch
and for its religious developmeirt than for its
had lasting effectsin the Deican aswell as other
art. Becoming prominent around
5zo and regions of South Asia. Ahhough no inscrip_
remaining a major force in the Deccan until
tronal or other documentaryevidencehas yer
around 6oo, when the expanding dynasry ofthe
beenfound that tiesthe Kalacuristo monumental
275
276 DYNASTIES OT THE MIDDIE PERIOD

_"'{

f=-irul

o tttr

I l- r I

r3.r. Plan ofsiva cave.Elephanta,Mahlreslra, India. PossiblyKa-

lacrri oeriod. Ca. mid-sixth centurv.

architecture, it is clear that a number of major whose size, scale, and sculptural and architec- Hiicus. ll

caveswere excavatedduring the period of their tural conceptionrank it among the most impres- =arlce LaD(
control of the westem Deccan. For example, sive of South Asian art monunents. An inscribed r-irch rhis

the Buddhist caves6 and 7 at Aurangabad were stone found on the island that might have shed -ootat.
_:e east rri
probably createdduring this period (Figs. rz.z8- light on the dedication, date, and patronage of
the cave was rernoved by the Portuguese and :rlr-= the c
3r). In addition, severalBrahmanical cavesthat
reveal certain essentialsimilarities in concept, subsequentlylost. However, the cave may be ,14 ,lt *.=
plan, and style were probably excavatedduring dated on a stylistic basisfiom around J4o to JJJ.s .lrsrbers
the Kalacuri period, namely, the caves of Its plan (Fig. r3.r) revealsthe magnitude and rmple co
complication of the excavation, which measures r iee-sul
Jogeivari, Mag{apeSvara, Elephanta, and the
Dhumar Lena (Cave z9) at Xllora, whicb were nearly forty meters from north to south and iri neu. I I
-r'g rle shr
created in the order listed. of these, the great frorn east to west. In addition, there are side
cave at Elephantais the finest and may be used chapelsand courtyards, making the full scheme luLtors 1
to demonstrate the general characteristics of rather elaborate.In actuality, the main entrance
Kalacuri-period Hindu caves. to the cave is on the north, although conceptu- ol rertrer
A small island oft- the coast of Bombay, Ele- ally, it is on the east. This discrepancy may ..ail acl:n,
phanta was named in fairly recent times by the have resulted from difficulties in adjusting the :rqanric r
preconceived eastward-oriented plan to the ,.-aapa L
Portuguese because of a large, carved, stone
elephant that was once there. Although there existing peculiarities of the rock itself, a prob- :tJrlg un
are severalcaveson the island, the most notable lem of the type that may have led to the even- :'rration t
is the Great Cave (Cave r), the grandeur of tual abandonment of the rock-cut method by iLallel-er- '
 HINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTUREOF THE DXCCAN 277

r3.2. North encranceto Siva cave. Elephanta,Mahtrestra, India.

PossiblyKalacuri period. Ca. rnid-sixrh cenrury.

d architec- Hindus. If one acceptsthe eastas the main en- it was seenin nascentform in Cave 6 (upper) at
osr impres- trance (a norrnal orientation for a Saivite temple, Ajanta during the precedingcentury (Fig. rz.16,
n inscribed which this is), the organization of the scheme bottom).
: have sl-red is not at all unusual. The open courtyard on The unprepossessing exterior of the cave (Fig.
rrronageof the eastwith a side chapelto its south thus com- r3.z) scarcelypreparesthe visitor for the spacious
lguese and prisesthe conceptualentranceto the monurnent. and majesticinterior. The pillars and reliefsin the
-- *^-, L- At the west, another courtyard with subsidiary cave are gigantic in scale,but they are comfort-
)+uru ))).- chambers parallels that on the east. The main ably enough spacedto allow an airy, open fceling
:ritude and temple consistsof a large, plllated na4dapa and (Fig. 13.3). The pillars have bulbous "cushion"
h measures a free-standingsquareshrine at the west end of c^pnals (anla) of a type seen as early as the
louth and the hall. Though not defined,the spacesurround- Ajapla cavesbut mainly associated with the Early
re are side ing the shrine is meant to serve as a clrcumam- Kalacuri and Early Western Calukya excavations.
ill scheme bulatory.passageway. The north-south axis of The cubical shrine (Fig. r3.4), which conrains
lo entrance the temple, while perhapsmainly due to geologi- a lihga and a l,ozi symbolizing the ultimate
I concePru- cal rather than rcligious considenrions,is not unity, has an entrance on each of its four sides
rancy may only acknowledged but is emphasizedby three and two colossal dfirapdlas attending each of
;usting the gigantic niches along the south wall of rhe the doors. Gracefully posed and full-frgured,
m !o the tna4/apa that contain some of the most com- the forms of these attendants clearly derive
pelliug images in all of South Asia. The incor- fiom earlier styles of the western Deccan, such
) lhe even- poration of a lateral axis into the temple plan, as those of the Buddhist cavesof rhe Veketakas.
nethod by however, wr. probably not an irurovation here; Although the guardians wear elaborate crowns
 l)I\r\STIlis Of uIts r\llDDLl PfRIOI)
27E
r 3.3.btcri!' vic$ lookbil $cst'
Siva crvc. Elcph.r"r.r.lvirharaitra,
hrdir. I\rsibli' Krlacurl Pcrrod
Ca. nrid-sixth ccnturr'.

r3.4.Shrincin Sivr crvt Elcph.rn-

t:l, Mrhxr.rctr.r. lnclia PLxslbL,r''
I{rlrrLrLi pcriod. ala. nlid-slxth -
 HINDU ROCK-CUTARCETTECTURE
looking west, and jewelry, anticipating the sculptural richness
- ,MaharetFa,
of later centuries, the {igures still reflect the
acuri period.
simplicity seen throughout the Gupta and early
post-Gupta periods. A heavy lower lip and
seemingly downcast eyes characterizethe faces
ofthese and other figures at Eleplunta.
Around the perimeter ofthe cave, set in vari-
ousniches,are a number oflarge reliefsdepicting
aspectsof Saivite iconography. Undoubtedly,
a unified scheme exists, although this has yet
to be fully established. One niche shows a
representationof Lakul(a, the original teacher
of the Paiupata Saiviteswhose cult was favored
by the Early Kalacuris, and it is likely that
the key to the iconographic program is tied
to Pa6upatapractices and beliefs. Many of the
reliefs.for example.illustratethe rnonisticview
of the Pa(upatas,as given in the Liiga Puraxa,
in which seemingly disparateaspectsof creation
are viewed as uitimatJy unified in Siva. This
theme is obvious in the major sculptural group
ofthe cave, that along the south wall on an axis
with the entrance on the north. The primary
image is the famous Maheivara flanked , by
similarly sized niches with depictions of Siva
Ardhanariivara to the viewerrs left and Siva
Gaigadhara to the right (Figs. 13.5-8). Saivite
guardians accompanied by dwarves on the
pilasters separating thc three reliefs serve as
guardians for the central image, the dwarf to
the left being reminiscent of one at Aurangabad
Cave 7 of approximately the same period
(Fig. rz.3o). More than five metersin height and
set on an approximately one meter high base,
the central multiheaded image (Fig. r3.7) over-
whehns the visitor to the Elephanta cave, and
its rneaning has generated a great deal of dis-
cussionamong scholars.
Some have contendedthat although only three
facesare shown in this carving, a fourth (at the
rear) is inplied, and even a fifth (facing upwards)
might have been implicit in accordancewith the
five facesof Siva describedin a text known as
It
I -:'1 the ViS4udharmottara.Erch of the three faces
| ..':::
differs in expressionand/or ornarnentation.That
on the left showsan angry countenancecomplete
with bulging eyes and faming rnustache,and
\. those in the center and on the right are both
tranquil. However, that on the right is feminine
OF THE DTCCAN 279
(in conrrast to the other two) as deduced from
the curls of the hair and details of the jewelry
and crown. It is likely that tle three facesrepre-
senr, respectiyely,.Aghora-Bhairava (an a:rgry
form of Siva), Siva. and Uma (Parvari), Siva's
consorr.3As Siva, Aghora-Bliairava, and umd,
the three countenancesmight synbolize the
three fundamenralqualirie.(grlras)in operrcion
in the universe according to Hindu thought,
consisting of two opposing forces and their
opposition, These are sottva, the cohesiveforce
implying concentrationof energy and a coming
togelhera tamas, the opposite of sattta, whicll
is the destructive, disintegrating characteristic
that prevents concentration and is symbolic of
dissolution,nonbeing, or universality; and rajas,
which implies activity, especiallymental activity
and its rhythmic division of the continuum of
spaceand time.a Together, these constitute the
forms of power of the universal Brahman, and
it is likely that the triple image at Elephanta
representsjustsuch a notion, with J4#ra depicted
by the central face, tamasby the angry counten-
ance, and rajasby thc tranquil face at the dght.
Like the dvarupalas of the litrya shrine nearby,
the figures suggestthe softly modeled forms of
the Gupta and early post-Gupta periods while
predicting the highly omate jewelry and detail-
ing charactcristicof the ccnturies to follow.
The theme of unity that may be inferred from
the main image, since it incorporatesseemingly
disparate tendenciesinto a single form, is also
suggestedby the accompanying reliefs. Ardha-
nerisvara (Half-Female Lord), for example,
to the viewer's left of it shows the half-male
(proper right) and half-female (proper left) forrn
of Siva (Fig. 13.6) that epitomizes thc concept
of tlre unification o{ puru5a tnd praklti, the
dualistic complements present in every form of
creation, according to most schools of Hindu
thorght. Puruqa,the male half, is inactive but
is manifested throttgh prakyti, the Gmale half,
and the two are thus inseparable.The Ganga-
dharamurti panel on the opposite side of the
central image (Fig. r3.8) also suggeststhe notion
of unity since,by accepting thc Ganges(Gafrga)
River in his hair when it descendedfrom the
heavensto earth, Siva prevented the dissolution
ofthe earth that would have occurred otherwise
260 DYNA5TII-5 OI THT MIDDIL P]]NTOD
 HINDU ROCK-CUT ARCHITTCTURB OT THT DECCAN 2d]

t l . ) . \ ( u . p r u r e dp r ' c . . r n . . u r r u r l l . 5 r . r L r v c . F l c - from the force of thc fall, thts effecting a kincl

phanta,Mah.rtstra, Indla. Posibly Kahcuri pcriod. Ca. of rarification of heaven and cartl.r.This image
nlid-sixth centurv.
also takes on nrale-fenrale(purusa-prabrti)syn-
bolisrn sincethe G:rngesis personificdxs a felrule
goddess, Gailga, rvho is considered to be a
sccondarywiii of Siva.
These reliefs, brin.rming with subsidiary
figures in anin.ratcclposes, rypify post-Gupta
pcriod developnents in sculpture and fore-
shadow the exuberant carvings on temple
walls drrring subscquentcentudes.The sculpturcs
arc clearly contained rvithin their architectural
scttings and the overali effcct at Elephantais of
architcctural unity with relielis in a subsidiary
q.6. (belouleJi)Ardhxniriavara, or south wa of Siva
rolc, rather than dominating the architecture as
cavc. Elcphanta,MaharS:tm, India. Possibly Kalacuri
pcrnrd. Ca. mid-sixth century.
occursin a numbcr oflater schools.The growing
complexity ofboth form and iconography typify
I j.?. (r, /or"., rr( r) MJhe)\Jl J, un .uurh s rll
the sixth-century dcvelopments.
"fiiv, c.rr e.
Elephanta,Mahertstra, India. l,osibly Kalacuri period.
Ca. mid-sixth cenrury.

4.8. (helou rgftr) Siva as Cang,dhara, on south wall

of Siva cave. Elcphantr, Mahtrastra, India. Possibly
K , r l . r r u rpL. r i n d . C , r .r l i d - . x r h , c r r t u r y .
zS2 D\ \A. I5 ot r t M r D D II n l u o l )

Cavr. or rHr LArrY WEsrLk\ ( qr L r\As :IE

Aftcr the fi1l of thc Veketrkes, the Deccan was karLas.Under thc Early Wcstern Calukyas, rhc
diviclcd by thcir former fcuclatorics,inclucling Dcccan becanc u inrportant interface region
the Early llalacuris of Mehlrtstra and thc betwccn thc north irtld the south, sharing soine
Kadarnbasof Bxrlxvasiin thc I(arnatakasotth. of thc cultural, linguistic,end artistictraclitions
In turn, the I(acl:rmbes(rvho hacl a tcmplc builc1- of eachbut con-ringto have a distinctivc culture
ing traclition of thcir orvn) rvcr,: snpersedcdby of its orvn. llhc iirrition of'thcsc dcvcloprncnts
yet anorher polver, thc Caltrlyas of Baclami, i ' . c c r irn r l r , r r r ' ' f l r r < r D c c c . r .nl y r n . , r i c , .
rvho, likc thc Kadembas, l'crc Dravidian- L r r l y \ \ , . r , r r r C r rl v . r a r t . 1 , r t. \ r o i n r c r -
lanquasc-speaking peoplc. These Calnkyasare releted but llolrcthclcssclistinctphases:an earlier
known as thc Eerly Western C:rlukyas to rock-cutting traclition thet will bc consiclcrccl
distinguish them from othcr brancl.Lesof the here and a latcr, apparcntly nrore active, pcriod
family.' Con.ring into promincncc l'hcn thcir in rvhich [umcroLls struct[rirl stollc tcaup]cs
ruier Pr-rlakeiinI sccuredthe land eroLrnclBacltrni rl,crc built (Chap. r5). In both phases,Hindu
( . r ) . i r ' r tV b r J p r ), , r r . lI i i f r . i r r i n a . o . s 4 . 1 . nlonurllcntsprcclominatc.Ceve tcmples of thc
t l ' c " r t r u t r r \ \ ' \ c \ p . r r rc( L l b 1 , r . i . . d i r ' , , r r r . ' r r - Earlv Westeln Calukyas arc founcl et Aihole
. r r c l rrro t l r . r l . ' r r l ' , n . x r r r r ^ l r .r . l r , , l 1 c . , - . . ancl B-darm, lvhich arc approximatcly twcntv-
ftor-n about the micl-sixth centLrry to about ftvc kilomctersapart.
t l ' c r l r r ' l - ( r g l r tcLcrn t r r r r 'r.l r c f . r l 1 W , . r c r I Possiblycxcavatcclaround 55o, shortly after
Caiukyas rulcd much of thc l)ccclru, eftcr the E:rrlyWcstcrn Calukyascamc to power, rhe
which thcy n'crc superseclcdb,v thc Rastra- llavena Phaclicavc at Aihole nay bc thc carliest

t":

':::
, lrF
..i<?;;, , - ..::-. ,,-:.i.::.:._:
_*,::,-,-

\,
r3.9. Frcrdc of lliv:tn.r Ph.rdi cinc. Ajholc, Krrn.t:rkr,Indi.r. Errly
Wcsrern Calukva period. Cr. rLlcl sixdr ccnturr -
 IIINDU ROCK-CUT ARCI{ITECTIJR,EOI TIIE DECCAN
of the series.6Its complicated plan and amply
sculpted interior, however, inl&cate that ihe
llufTas, the cave did not mark the inception of an artistic
6ce region tradition but must have been based on earlier
lrrag some art forms, including the already mature schools
L saditions of Deccan cave architecture. The simple facade
Eve culture (Fig. r3.9) has two piJlarscrearing an entrance-
iElopments way that is fanled by dwarves and by a pair of
D6. guardians who are notable because of their
two inter- Scythian-type clothing. The cave consists of a
t: an earlier central hall with two.side-shrine areas and a
considered sanctuary with a, Iiiga at the rear (Fig. r3.ro).
iYe. period Originally, a wall may have screened the sanc-
ts temPles tuary and created an antechamber before the
e- Hindu shrine. The central hall is on a lower level than
ple" of the the side and rear shrines, which are accessibleby
| :t Aihole smallflights of sreps(Fig. r3.r r). Sculpruresfiil
Ns rwenty- the corners of the central hall and much of the
wall and ceiling space of the cave. One of the
forrl.r' after most important of these compositions is that
pon-er, the in the shrine at the left of the main hall con-
rte earliest taining a representationof a multiarmed (iva as
0 10
01
28?
Nataaja (Lord of the Darlce) accompanied by
larger than human-size representations of the
saptuuaftl?as (Seven Mothei$, three to Siva's
ieft and four to his right (Fig. r3.rz). It is likely
tlar this sccnespecificallydcpicts rhe dance Siva
performed after defeating the demon Andha-
kasura, for it was at that time that the saota-
flaqkas were createdto aid Siva. The striliins
treatmenrofthe garments,especially rhe striateJ
incised lines and very high headdresses, as well
as the slender bodies, distinguish these figures
from the more full-bodied sf,yle of the westem
Deccan seenunder the Vakatakasand Kalacuris.
While the dim figures and tall hats suggest
associationswith southem images, or those of
the adjacent region of Andhra Pradesh, the
sryle in fact has no apparent counterpart in
other schools of South Asian art. It is oossible
that, from its inception, Early Westem 6alukya
art combined features of other traditions yet
was marked by a great deal of individuality.
The largest,most omare. and mosr impressive
r3.ro. Plan of Revaqra Phadi cave.
Aiho-le,Kardtaka, India. Early \Vestem
Calukya period. Ca. mid-sixth century.
20 30
i0
234 D\-\A\lll: ul I Hr \rlDDl I rlqr.rl)

.-41 '

?;t=*,r";

-51
.'q
,: i t-!
-:l
. ,,.., it ..,
-l

' .-:
.:;

qaka.Indir. Early Wcsrcrn Crluk,va pcriod. Ca. mid-

T
il.r2. L)etxil of ,lalrArr ir1 N.l:rrlr_jishrille,Ravara
Phadi crvc. Arhole, Kxrntt:rk:r.lndia. Errlv Wcstcrn
C:rlukyaperiod. Cia.urid-sixth ccntury.

rl.r.l. Exterior of Cevc r. Badanli,Krrlrataka,hrdia. >

Errl) Wcstcro Crlrrk,va pcriod. Dcdicrtcd in Sakr cra
joo (A.D.578).
 HTNDU RocK-cuT ARCrJrTrcruRE oF THt DECCAN zsj
of the E.rrly Wesrcr[ Caltikya c)ic;lvatioDsrs nrcnt of thc royal inscription nexL ro a largc
Cavc 3 at Badan.ri(Figs.rj.r3 r8). Fortunatcly, sculptedrcliefshorving Veraharescuingthc crrih
tire datc of this cave is rvcll docunentccl by goddes (Fig. r3.i8) is probably no rnerccorlcr-
/& internal cvidencc.An inscription on a pilasrcr clcncc. For Veraha, thc clynastic syr.nbol that
q :i
llanking a represenrxtion of Varaha(Fig. r3.r8)
statesthat tl-LisVaisn:rvitecavc rvas decliclteclby
eppcarcdon the Early Wcstern Calukyl banner,
symbolizedthcir roic as protectorsof thc eardr
Mar\galeia, a son of Pulakciin. for thc ucrit of anrl may irdicate thet thc kings vicrvcd thcn.r-
his brother, Kirrg Kirtivarman, clurine thc year selvesasvirtual incarnetionsof Visnu hiursell
Saka5oo, cquivalcntto a.l. 578.i This ilscrip- Six pillars spacerl lcross the eicadc create
t i o n r , l i r . r o t ] r c L , r , , L l ' c r ' .vr irc r u r i o u ,. , , . r r r i . r r , , sevcnbays(Figs.t3.r3, r3.r4), an clabor.ation of
anci indeecl, Krrtivrrmrn, with thc help of his thc modcst entrance of the llavana phacli cavc.
brother Mangale(a, canle to rulc an cmpire The n.Lassivc pillars arc thc oniy dccorationon thc
coniprising most of tirc rrca that nolv forns lront of drc c:rvc exccpt lor a friczc bear.ing
Karn-cxka state,with extensionsinto Mahdtastre f c p i c t i o r ros' p . r i r . o 1 , h r r b b yd r v . L r v ei r,r . r , c ri e .
anciAndhra Pradesh.Many other Early Wcstcrn of panelsalong thc lorvcr portior. The stylc of
Caltkya monumcnts rcsLlltccl directly lrorn the dlvarves suggcsts tics to the carlier art
patronage by thc ruling family. Such patronagc traclitionsof adjaccntAn.llua, for rclated figures
distinguishcsthe art of tJris period ancl rcgion have bccn lound at Nagarjunakonda fro,rr tl.re
from that of many othcrs in ancient hrdia, Iksvaku pcriod.
since,in this casc,the use of a dynastic designa- In addition to thc exterior courtyxrd, thc cave
l i u n t ' r n o r c r l r . r l . , c h r o n o l o g i c aclo n v c n rn, c < consistsof threc major nnits, the veranda(lvhich
but suggcststhat the kings and thcir farr.rilics runs the width of thc facadc), a pillared hall
had considerablc cIi-ecton the ert. The placc- (tnandapa),and the snrall slrrinc et tirc rear (Fig.

![

h :rdia. p
I