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 CHAPTER TEN
The GuptaPeriod(Fourth to Sixth Centuries)
Under the kings of the Gupra dynasty, an
empire was formed that, with tributary stares,
dominated most of northern and north-central
India for approximately two hundred years,
fiom about a.o. 3r9, when the Gupta era was
proclaimed,l until the sixth century.The political
strength of the Guptas and the cultural flores-
cence that they apparently fostered are often
compared to aspects of the Maurya dynasty,
and, indeed, it has been suggested rhat the
Guptas consciouslylooked back to the Maurya
period for a model upon which ro base their
own empire.2 Candragupta I (ca. 3r9-335)
was probably the first to attain significant power
and fame for his line, partially achie.rred
through
a marriage alliance with the Licchavis of north-
eastern India and Nepal. Under his son and
successor, Samudragupta (ca. 1.35176), the
empire expanded to include newly conquered
teuitodes as well as numerous tributary states
in northem and norrh-cenrrallndia.
Few works of art are known that may be
positively assigned to the reigns of the early
Gupta kings. However, an unusual, larqer than
life-sizestone scuJptureo[a horse(Fig. ro.r) is
generally thought to be of this period, and, on
the teruous basisof its very weathered inscrip-
tion,3 has been said to represent a sacrificial
horse used by Sarnudragupta for one of the
aivamedhorituals he performed, an event also
commemorated in lis aluamedhacoin tvpe. The
horse is carved of beige sandston. *".
"od
found at l(iairigarh in Utrar Pradesh.very near -
che Nepal border, a region importanr to the
early Gupta and Licchavi alliance. Its sryle
rypifieswhar musr be consideredrhe rransitional
phase berween the Kugana-periodworks of the
Mathura and related schoolsand the develooed
Gupta srylesof the fifih cenrury. A sriff qualiry
pervadesthe work, and the articulation of joints
and the transidonsfrom one parr of the body
to the next seemabrupt, much like formulations
of human figures at Mathure and other related
sites during the Kulena period, and contrasting
strongly with the naturalism of animal sculpture
evidencedunder rhe Mauryas. Even rhough it
'88 DYNASTIXSOF THB MIDDTE PERIOD
ro.r. Horse. From Khairigalh, Uttar Pradesh,India.
Gupte period (reign of Samudragupta?).Ca. fourth
century. Beige sandstone.FI: about 2oo cm. SteteMu_
seurn, Lucknow.
Hlxou A n t o r r n r E A R L YG U P T AP I R I o D
The Vidi6a region was an imPortant early GuPta
art center, for in addition to the three Pieces
from Remagupta's reign, numerous other
remains have been located in the area,In partic-
ular, art seemsto have flourished there during
is entirely free-standing, the horse is properly
viewcd in pro61e.Its lack of implicit movement
in spaceor torsion relatesit to the earlier Kusa4a
formulations as well as other fourth-century
examples.
Three Jain images found at DurjanPura, near
Vidi{a in north-central India, provide further im-
portant information about art under the early
Guptas.They are datedby their inscriptionsto the
reign of a previously little known Gupta king,
Remagupta (ca. 37G38o),a and thus constitute
an important document of Gupta history as
well. All three sculptureswere nearly identical
in their original state, although each is partially
damaged. The best preserved (Fig. ro.z) shows
a central figure sitting in vajnparyahkasana with
his hands in dhyaxa nu&a, attended by nvo
caurl bearers.A halo comprised of a scalloped
flame morif around the perimeter reminiscent
of Kugana formulations of the Mathura school
and containing an open lotus blossom, appears
behind his head. The pedestalincludes a wheel
in the center and lions at the corners.In all, the
conliguration is strikingly similar to that of
Buddhist and Jain images of the Ku;ana period.
But like the preceding horse sculpture, these
late fotrrth-centuryimages representa transi- G-,::r:
tional stage bctwein the Kugaqa works of =on
Mathura and related sitesand the mature Gupta ::- I:
idiom. Abrupt, angular contours to the bodies =r-ie:
and rather squat proportions recall the Kuqa4a ieieo:
idiom and yet, a movement toward what is =::1)-
consideredthe Gupta ideal is suggestedin the :3:;V
omamentation of the halo. ;: lli
ro.2. Ttrthaikaru.From Durjanpura,Madhya Pradesh, ,i--
India. Gupta period, rcign of Rernagupta(ca. a.o- l:e ,
376-8o).Beigesandstonc. H: 66 cm. Archaeological
Museum,Vidiia.
:aa--:
the reign of Candragupta II (ca. 38o-4r5), the
successorof Ramagupta, who made imPortant ==-i:
military campaignsin the region. At Udayagiri, __ -:-
only a few kilometers from Vidi6a, twenty --l
rock-cut chambers were excavated during the
 THE GUPTA PERIoD 169
i::operly
E-:aement
ts: Kusaqa
t:-:r-ntury

fF::r. near
E:-:er im-
I -3 early
!:--s rothe
l::: king,
| -- -ritute
L.-ory as
Jr ::ntical
!::ftlally
E: ihows
E':';a rvith
li :t two
r ;:lloped
:-* :rlscent
:::' school
E_ ;PPears
b = rvheel
. L all, the ro.3. Facadeof Cave 6. Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh,India. Gupta
n ;hat of pedod. Gupta era 82 (A.D.4or).
r+ period.
t:::.. these
f .: tmnsi- Gupta period, two of which bear inscriptions
s..rks of from the reign of Candragupta II. These caves
rl::3 Gupta are yital documents since they constitute the
c: bodies earliest intact body of Hindu art in India, and
&; Ku9a4a demonstrate that by the early fifth century
i rghat is many Hindu iconographic flormulae were al-
s:i ir the ready well established.Securely dated because
an inscription on the facade mentions Candra-
gupta II and the year 8z (Gupta era), equivalent
to A.D. 4or,5 Cave 6 (Fig. ro.3) consistsof a
ly a Pradesh, small chamber orecededbv a rock-cut veranda.
az (ce. A.D. The oFcenter doo.*"y i", decorated jambs
6-reological and lintel, half-length pilastersat the sides,and
representationsof two goddessesstanding atop
makarcs above (Fig. io.a). These figures are
precursorsto the depictionsofthe river goddesses
Gairga and Yamun5, who standatop the maleara
and tortoise respectively, Here, however, the
o-4r5), the udhanas are identical, although the apparent
lnlPoftant individualiry of the two goddessesis suggested
Udayagiri, by the use of the trees above the figures, for
sa. twenty the one to the left is associatedwith a maneo ro.4. Doorway of Cave 6. Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh,
during the tree,the other with an aioka vee.Two quardian India. Gupta period. Gupta era 82 (A.D.4or).
190 DYNASTIES OF I'HE MIDDLI PERIOD

rc.S. Dt)ardpal.t to r ighr of Cavc 6 cntrancc. Uder'' ro.6. I)urg. Mahisisurarnardirrron lacadc oi Cavc 6.
agiri, Madhya Pradesh, India. Gupt:r pcriod. CLrptr Uda,r'agiri, Mrdh,ve Prrdcsh, I n d i r . G u p u p e r i o d .
rr3 32(A.D.40r). Guptxcra 32 (^.D.4c)r).

{ieurcs (draral,aias)l1ark the door, cech stxnding elcph:rnt-hcadeddcity, is carved into rhe lcli
in a slightly ilcccntllatcdposturc with the arnr ,, , , l;,..,' ' . '1. .,. - rr '1- c.r\c J'rJ It

ncarcstthc door hclcl at dre hip, the other leanins iurageof Durqa in her Mahistsuramerdiniforrn
upon lis rvcapon(Fig. ro.5). The husky boclies - r . 5 e . , r \ .r' lr' r r i o l t rl l i o . t o . ^ \ .L J ( r \ \ c (C
l ..lc.-
L r r d d i , p l ' . , r r o . lr o. t ' . , : . ' r n r c n r .t y p i f i r h c .. r . . . - J . . . . , t .. . c . , l , c C o . , ri , . .
early Gupta style end clen(rrtratc a stylistic rcprcscntatiolr of Visnu, :incl thcrc is anothcr
progressionfrom the iruagcs of the reign of inugc of this god Lrct\\'ccnDurga ancl the riglrt
Rtrnatlripta sone tl'enty-five ye:irs errlier. gLrardiu.ThLrs,in spiteof drc sp.Ltixlirnbxlince
In spite of the nuscular physiqLres relnilllscent b c r r r , c nr l r " . l i f 1 . , r h , l . f t ' J r r 3 1 ' r r h .
l- .., ,. - ,. Lt.
"[
. .tt .,' (..rnc..
oi l{us-1ra pr-ecedcnts,thc figurcs show a new
. , . , . . , . r ,. . , , , - l
snloothnessto the fonrx oi their boclies,Iorc- r 1 . , ., - . . ' . - r n . l r r t r c l t i , ,
shndou'ing the rrore graceful depictions oi drc ' y r r r r .r r i .- L
latc fifth ccrrtury. Thc claboratc coiflurcs :lre G,rnc(a,rvho is thc sonofParvati (Sive'srvife),
also cheracteristicof developeclGuptx forns, rs casily rccognizc.l by liis corpulcncy ancl
crr.iplusizirrgclclicrte iocks of heir rrrangecl in , 1 , .J1' . ' r 1 r , . . . r .l , l . , r rr, . u p o o . . dl c , rrr.rl
Iuxuriant profilsion atop the hcad. . ,.,, \,\ . . ,., l , ^ ' . | ' f f L . r r, . . . r ' s
"1.
Othcr Iisurcs sculptccLinto thc front rvalL of hcacl ancl rcplaccd it rvidr drc hc,rclof drc first
,t.- -.... .. . . . . r : . .L r d r l l l L . ., . n . 1 ': \ :.::
crciltrlrc hc happericclr.rporrll-tcr drc Lrnfortlrnate
provide perlL;rps the earliestsurvivinq exlmplc inciclenr.As the "Overconcr of Obstecles"in
of l uniliccl rconogrlphic program in Hinclu IIindLr tliousht, Ganciais jnvarieblyinvokcd ar ::ta..::tt.:.: :

rrt (Fig ro.3). A reprcsentation of Garc(il, thc the beginninq of rr'orshipto hclp thc devotee

G of Cave 6. ro.7. Vigr.ruon facadeof Cave 6. Udayagiri, Madhya
uPra period. Pradesh,India. Gupte period. Gupta era 8z (4.o. 4or).
trto the left along his spiritual path. As such, his image
;ave and an usually occurs at the entrance to a shrine or
Erdini form temple, on the side where the devotee begins
reen Ga{resa the circumambulation rite. It is likely, then,
e door is a that the worshiper at this cave was to begin his
r is another devotions at the left of the facade.
nd the right In contrast, Durga in her Mahisasuramardini
rl imbalance form symbolizesthe conceptof religiousattain-
right of the ment or victory and normally appearson the
r of Ga4eia side of a temple that the vieq/er encounters
rent itself is after worship is conplete, that is, after the
"victory" is achieved.In the MahiSasurarnardini
srva s wrte). story, an 4sut4,a type of demon, named Mahi5a
'ulency and was destroyed many times but kept reappearing
Llv acquired in new forms until he was finally defeatedby
rn bar-resa s Durga while he was a buffalo. The buffalo is a
. of the first symbol associatedwith death in Hindu thought,
unfortunate for Yama, the god of death; rides a bufalo. It
)bstacles"in may be suggested that Mahisat numerous
r invoked at incarnations symbolize the realm of sahsdra,
the devotee the cycle of rebirths from which the devotee
THE GUPTA?ERTOD 191
seeksrelease.Dtrrga's deGat of the asura, thet,
in the buffalo form, might indicate the victory
o.ver solhsaraand the defeat of death, that is,
the achievement of immortality. Her placement
opposite Gar1eia, whose worship enables the
devotee to begin this process, is therefore
fitting. Indeed, the pairing of these two deities
at rhe beginning and end of the circumam-
bulatory path in later Hindu temple architecture
is comnon. That this symbolism was apparently
already present in the earliest extant corpus of
Hindu art suggeststhat, asin the caseofBuddha
and bodhisatwa imagery, a lengthy period of
development occurred prior to its appearance
ln stone.
The Udayagiri image shows Durga in a
f,welve-armed form, indicative of the trend
toward increaseduse of multiple body parts in
representationsof divinities during this period.
In her hands she holds weapons provided by
various Hindu gods, who separatelyhad been
unable to defeat the brffalo asxra, who is shown
in this relief being upended by Durga. Her
emergence as the supr€me goddess, greater
than the sum of all the male gods whose bor-
rowed weapons she holds, pre{igures the grow-
ing emphasison female goddessesand personi-
fications that is prorninent in much of post-
Gupta arr and perhapsindicatesa continujty
with the prehistoric emphasis on the fenale.
In style, the rather stocky forms of her body
and the details of her costume agree with the
early fifth-century date provided by the inscrip-
tion placed nearly directly above her head.
The two representationsof Vipr-ru on the
facade are similar but not identical. Both stand
fiontally posed with all four arms placed in a
lowered position, as is comrnonly seenin Vi9lu
representations prior to the eighth century.
In the caseof the representationto the dght of
the door, his two rear hands are placed on the
personified Iigures of two of his attributes
(ayudhapunsa) the gada (Gadadevl) and caba
'fhe
(Cakrapurn;a) (Fig. ro.7). gada (mace)
symbolizes the power of knowledge, which
destroys all that opposes it, while the cakn
(discus) connotes the universal mind. In both
sculptures, Visnu wears a high crown and a
uanamala(garland of the forest) that reaches
 ',rIIl
1g2 DYNISTITS Ol llll)1)rl PFItI(lD

ro.S. Clclrcrrl yic11'oi- Clrc j ("Virahr c:r\'c"). Udrvagiri, ,\1:t-

d h r , . rl r . r d c s h , l n . l i : r . G u p r a p c r i o d . C r . c u r L l f l i h ( e n m r \ .

his knces, both of rvhich erc st:rnderd clctucnts is lurprcccclcrtccl il cxtant rnonurlcnts. Horv-
of Vaisnavitc icorrosrephl'. In st1.lc.drc hcrit:rgc cr.cr.tlre rcliqio,.rs
conccptsscerl u.cll clcvclopccl
oi I(Lrslrnr forrns is still prcsL'r1ti11 thc srock,v. br rhis nrrrc'lnd ir rltrst bc ,rssLrnrcrl tlut thc
muscul,rr treetnrcnt ot thc bodics. E,rch iigulc on 1..rirl ' tl '.dtrt) . 't rl,' r,l.,tr,'n.l.rl
rlr, ...'lc| -r r,ro I f ( ....ri].rr -..r..1', to thc Ganci:r antl J)urql im:tgcs clocurncrtts
in thc c,rsc of (l.rnc!1, .u1(l suqqcstivc o[ thc . r . | . . ' . " . . ' l ' l r ', , c l c . r . . ' r . L ,r . l . . , r .r r . ^ l -
latcr pr':rcricc of pllcinq lnrjor icorr on thc rlrc pr r-C,upte pcriocl.
c-\rcrior ol tc-rlplcs il nichcs. hr hfi:l rcrnplcs. ()nc of thc rllost import:lrlt c:r\,c\:1tUdayrgiri
thesc nic]res s()Llctinrcs bccrnrc nunrLrLrrc vr:r is Crr-r' 5. Its proriliirv ro Clvc- 6. rvlrich rv:is
siotrs of tltc wholc t.rnUlc. bLrr hcrc. onlr. thc c\c:r\.xte(l dLrrinq tlrc rcigr of Olnrlregupta
conccpt of thc si'peletion of cech hqurc is Il ' I r'' ( ", . rr'' ' l r ' t r ' t r . 'r i 1 ' t^ ' r
Pfcsarii. slrqqc\tiDq thlt it :rlso \r.a\ c\c]\'rtcd drlli[q thc
Thc right rv.rll ,r.ljrccrrt to thc crrvc {.icrrlt: rcigl of Cendlrquptl ll,rj is stroriq cvidcllcc
belrs l nichc llitlr im.rgcso1'thc "scvcn nrothcr\" thet C;rvc j, thc V:lrarlre c:lvc. wlis creitcd at
(rrryrtnrriafrlar). consorl of scvcr:rlprincip:rl I Iinclrr t]rc semc :Lppro,\ir)ri1tctilrc. sincc thc rhrce
gocls, u'ho hc'lpccl Sir:r (lcstro\ rriLrltiplc rcprc- sccln to f;rru .r clLrster'.Plopcrly speakltlg. tl-ris
'I
scnt.rtiolr\ of tlrc rrrrira ArrJh:rkl. hcv lrc crcxvrti(rr js rrrorc.r nichc than a cavc, lts llrain
fittiugll'locrLcJ ,rpposirc (irnc(r ibr. likc DLrrqlr fi'ltLrrc bcing i1 lilr!!e-\celc rcplcicntrti(u of
M . . i - . r . r . r' . . r . . I r ' . . . .r , 1 1 . . v r ' t r r . r r r V.rrahe.rlic boer lir ur oi-Visnu. *'idr acconlpxrly-
tliis cesc rher of spirittnl uisJorl (r,1111,a) o1'61 ing sccncs(Fig. ro.8). EvclLurllv, V:rralu clmc
ignolarce (,rlir/1,a)- thc pl:rcc'mcnt of tlicsc ro bc rvorshipc.l as ouc of thc tcn rlrljor illc:rrrl:1-
figuli's. .,'u-li]r:quiti srenderd in leter Ilirrclu :rrt. tions of Visuu. eech of uhich hlcl thc prrrposc

of carrying out the god's role as the preserverof
the universe, Here, Varaha appears in his Ng-
Varaha form, with tle body of a man but the
headofa boar. He lifts the earth (personified as
the female goddess,P4hvi) with his tusks, thus
saving her from submersion under the ocean.
The precariousnessof her position as sculpted
in rhis example reinforces the dramatic aspects
of the moment. Beneath Varaha's left foot is a
ndga whose submission to the deity is shown by
his aijali mudra,a gestureof respect.The body
of Varaha shows the same husky muscularity
that may be traced to Kuga{ra precedents of
northerl India, especiallyofthe Mathure school,
and yet correlates fairly closely with textual
sources(which may be later in date) that describe
Varaha's broad shouldersand smooth, beautiful
body. Varaha wears the uanamala cha:.acte:rLsnc
of Vispu, and a lotus appearsabove his head.
The iconographic schemeis completed on the
back and side walls of the niche, although
Varaha remains dominant due to his large size
and three-dimensionalityin relation to the others.
Water, that is, the ocean,is portrayed by a series
of wavy lines on the three walls, and the sages
who praised Varaha and acknowledged him as
the supreme deity appear in rows on the back
Dt5. How- wall. The river goddesses,Gange and Yamuna,
developed are depicted on both side walls.
ti rhat the This impressive relief may be read on a
elationship number of levels, as is generally the case in
documents religious art ofSouth Asia. In one sense,it might
patern of be taken literally as the story of the timely
rescueof the earth by Vareha. However, Varaha
Udayagiri is also the namc of a type of Vedic ritual. Thus,
rlhich was the sculptural representationmight be an allu-
mdragupta sion to the perforrlancc of thc Varaha rite as a
rnscrlPhon means of extricating the world from a "dcluge
tiuring the of iniguity"? as opposed to an actual food. The
I evidence suppiication of the earth goddess, Plthvi, to
created at Varaha upon his descentinto the ocean,as given
the three in the Vi54u Pufi4a, resentblesthc words an
zJ<ing, this individual devotee might say in worship, such
ie. its main as "elevate me now from this placc, as thou
ntation of hast upraised me in days of old,"8 further sug-
ccomPany- gesting such a parallel.
uaha came On srili anorherlevel.rhe Varaln conrposirion
or incama- may be seento have associations with the secular
he purpose realm. The Ganga and Yamuna figures on the
THE GUPTAPERIOD T9J
right wall of the niche are shown on their
respectivevehiclesagainstrepresentationsof the
two streams that meet in a confuence. It has
been suggestedethat this may be a graphic
representationof the region of Mad\ade{a, the
heatland of the rising Gupta empire, through
which the two rivers flow. In their role as pro-
tectors of their lands, symbolized by the Gaiga-
Yamuna relief, the Gupta kings are similar to
Varaha, the rescuerofthe earth, and it is possible
that such a conccpt is inherent in the popularly
shown Varaha images of thc Gupta period.
Perhaps Varaha here symbolizes Candragupta
himself.
These various interpretations of the Varaha
relief should not be viewed as contradictory
or mutually exclusive.Multiple levels are often
intended by the creators of South Asian a!t,
who use this type of allegory not only to
distinguish the exoteric from the esotcric, but
also becauseeach individual worshipcr is at his
own stageof progress toward the religious goal
and, as such, a single meaning might not be
appropriate to all. Panllel consrrucrionson
mulciplc levcls cxisr in Sanskrit lirerarrrrcand
are used in religious texts and dramas with an
identical purpose.
A one-faced liirga (ekanukhalinga)is the main
object of worship in Cave 4 at Udayagiri (Fig.
ro.9), obviously a Saivite cave, but the date of
this work is not ca.ily fixed. as rhcrc is no in-
scription associatedwith it. However, the sim-
plicity of the treatnent of the facc, thc careful
depiction of the separatclocks of hair, and thc
relatively modest alnount ofjewelry suggcstthat
it was n.radcin thc first quarter of the fifth cen-
tury. The round face with rathcr heavy features
is reminiscent of Kustna types rather than sug-
gestive of the urore fuid, subtly modeled {brms
of the late fifth centLrry.Thcrc i: pcrhaps.no
m o r e d r a u r a t i cs y m b o l o f t h e p o w c r o [ S i v a
than the irnage ofthe /iiga, or phallus,j uxtaposed
with a rcpresentation of one or more human
heads,for it implies thc unification of the sexual
encrgy, represeniarivcof the entirc crcatjve
energy of the universe, with the intellect. It
becomes,in a varicty of different forrns, one of
the most cxpressivesymbols in Hindu art.
The varietiesof Hindu subjectssecnat Udaya-
,94 D\ NASTITS OF IHh MIDDIE PFRIOD

ro.9. One-facedlingab Czve 4. Udayagiri,Madhya ro.ro. Hai-Hara. Fron MadhyaPradesh, India.Gupta

Pradesh, India. Gupta period. Ca- fust quarterIifth H:
period.Ca. early 6fth century.Beige sandstone.
century. r 57.7crn.NationaiMuseum. New Delhi.

gid are unusual among the early GuPta remains
becausetheir contexts are preserved.However,
isolatedGupta-period finds at a number of other
sites reveal a vast repertoile of Hindu deities
early Gupta-period date. Iconographically, the
image,is of interest as it shows the god who is
half Siva (proper right side) and half Vis4u
(proper left side). Not only are the two halves -
-l

widespread by the fifth century. Most of these of the headdressdiferentiated but presumably
.onceptions reveal littlc of their forrnativc the attibutes originally hcld in the handswould
phasei.appearingas flully developcdiconswhen have been appropriate to each of the deities.
ih.y *.r. fitt, preservedin stoncexamples.This The erect liiga charactedstic of Siva is repre-
suggests that, like the Udayagiri sculptures, sented on the proper right side on1y. Such an
these works represent religious concepts that image indicates not only a well-developed
had been developing for a long time, and iconography for each of the gods. but a srage
perhapshad been depicted in works of art that of religious developnent in which both had
have not survived. been reconciled into a syncietic statement-that
An approximately humcn-sjze rePresentation, o f u l t i m a t eu n i t y i n s p i t eo f r p p a r c n td u o l i r y .
of the god Hari-Hara, the syncretic union of K1sr.ra, best known later as the eighth incarna-
Sir," Vi;o.t, fiom Madhya Pradesh may be tion ofVif+u, also appearsin sculpturesfiorn the
"oJ of thc fifth century on the early fifth century. A representationof hin from
dated to the first Part
basis of its rescmblance to the more securely Varanasi depicts him asK;5qa Govardhanadhara,
dated Udayagiri sculPtures (Fig io.ro). Thc or Bearer of Govardhana, in which the deity is
muscular but smooth body, full face, and rather shown holding Mount Govardhana with his left
simplc omrmentation are indications of this hand, like a canoPy to protect the inhabitants of
 THE GUPTApERTOD 195

t- --tra. Gupta ro.rr. Krtna Lifting Mount Govardhana.From Arra, ro.r2. Nr-Varaha.FromEran,MadhyaPradcsh,
H:
lDdia-
r:i-:ilone.
Varetrasi, Ut.ar Pradesh, India. Gupra period. Ca. Gupta pcriod. Ca. carly fifth ccntury. Bcigc sand-
E
carly fifrh century. Beige sandstonc.H: 2r2 cu1.Bharat stonc.H: r86cn1-SagrrUniversityMuscum,Sagar.
r\ara rlnJvlll, vata!4s1.

6-::a1ly, the Vrindevana fron.ra dcluge sentby Indra, who had gupta to the pcriod ofthe Huna invasion around
: ::i rvho is
b e e n . ' n g c r cbdy t h e c o r r , r r r r r n i r iyn' r t t c n r i o nr o thc beginning of the sixth ccntury.ll A large
L ::lr vl5qu
him in their dcvotions(Fig. ro. r r). Krsna'snamc scuJpturcofVaraha ftorn Eran suggcstssculptural
r :-.r-o halves (Thc Jllack One) is a probablc rcfcrencc to his tics to artistic clevelopn.rcnts at ncarby Uclayagiri
t ::esumably Dravidian origin. His rolc as cowherd and during the early fifth ccnnrry (Fig. ro.r2). The
-:ds would
protector of the pastoral pcoplc suggestsfurther p o r n e ro I r l r e d e i t y i s c r p r c . ' c d i n r h c t i r i l .
f :ie deities. aflinities to the cor.v-r.vorshipingpeoplc of pre- hcavy forrls offic body and the solidity of his
i:-.: is repre-
Vcdic Indic society. His cncrgcncc dLrring the posc, which lnust havc easily earncd l.im thc
c--'-. Such an
Gupta period as a popular god rcflects the re- confidence of his human devotees.
r,Jeveloped surfacing of an ancient conccpt rathcr rhan an Latcr in datc is a pillar from lran bearing a
. :ut a stage irxlovation. In form, thc relationshipof this fig- double-sidcdiuage of Garudadrted in the ycar
c:- both had ure to early fifth-cenrirry images and Kusana- r6J (Gupta cra), ecluivalcntto A.D. 484 (Fig.
!::::1ent-that
period prccedents, like those fron Mathnre, ro.r3).12Thc specificdatc, sivcn as the twclfth
:-: Juality. is cJcar,cspcciallyin tJrcbody forrns ancldctaiis
sl:rh incarna- {"y of d," liglrt fortniglrt of the nonth of
of thc costulnc.lo Asadha (June-JLrly),indicatcsthat astrolosicai
;., from the At Eran, a Vaisnavite sitc approxin.ratcly considcrationswcrc taken into accorultin sclcct-
r -.i him from cigl.rty kilometers from VidiSa, a grear couplcx ing thc timc of thc dcdication,sincc Asadhais
rihanadhara, of tcmplcs and accompanying sculptures was associatcdwith thc srulmcr solsticc and thc
l- rhe deity is produced during thc Gupta pcriod. Inscriptions Iengthening days, which are considcred to be
; ..i'ith his left found at lran (ancicnt Erakaina) documcnt auspicious, as is the bright haif of the lunar
L-labitants of artistic activity thcrc fion the reign of Samudra- nonth. Although this aspect of thc dcclication
r96 D\NA\TlL\ul Illl MIDDII PrqloD
of tcruplcs and religiorrssctllptureshas becn ..:: .:
virtually ignorecl, sincc scholarsare often more : : - : . : : : : -:
conccrncd l,ith the ycar (an.l heirce thc chrono-
1,::: '::

lotical implications) than l'ith the actttal clate ):-:::,::

(n,rdth.r, t"ligio.,t and astrologicalimplications),
i r i . u c l l l n o u r r t l ' u r' t r c l t , o t t ' i d ' r ' r t i ow
n 'r r ( )t:--a:::r:
a nrajor part of religiousclcdications, apparendy
f.o,ri -r.ty carly time. The inscription furthcr
"
revcals that tl.re pillar u'as clcdicatedto a lorm
of Visrlu. It is interesting to note-in light of
thc' datc of dre inscription that both Visnu and
Garuda arc considerec'lto bc solal dcities.Two
front viervs of Garud:r arc :rddorsed atop the
pillrr. onc facinq west towxld :r ro\4' of templcs,
tl.r" oth., facing-east. Each represcntationholds
a vrakc, a syn.rbolof Garuda, who is said to be
the natural enemy of snakcs Such Garuda
-rlarrllas n-rust have bccn comtrronly placecl
beforc V:tisnevitc temples frolu en carly date as
suggestcd by the Heliodoruspillar of thc Sunga
peirod (Fig. 5.r), I Practicecontinrrcdto the
pr"r.nt d"-t in India and Nep;rl. In srylc, tl.re
ir.rsky fontl, of the body revcal closc ties to !iiang-'

nuch carlicr carvings frorl north-central Inclia, r'::i:r ;: (

contrxstins strongly rvidr thc slencler' dclicate a;lrt1 :l

hgurcs of the latc fifth century xt a nunbcr of rfrc U.--.

oihcr sites(Fig. ro.r9) ancl possiblyinclicatinga t h i r* . ' r . :
regional stylistic prelerence is rhe l--
r'l'cDL\:
ti1\ c t_::
th.- at:.rc:
pillar.At Eran,Madhya
ro.r 3. Upperportiolrof GarLr!a vhLrsr'i::
Pradcsh,lndia. Cupta pcriod (reign of Budhrgpta) . . i l i c h :,
Cuptr era r6J (,l.o.484).Pinki$ sarrdskDe H: (of
c a p i t e l )c e . r 5 o c m .
itr rh.-::,
rhlt on:
a1lJ ol

Buoprrrst Attt ol rtr s FrlrH CsNr unv : Nonrs-CENrtar INDIA (SINCi) - l a 1 1 c i s- t . -

! ilr.rf::_:

An iuscriptior-raddecl to the castern lornna of in p:Lrtmiqlit have bccn clncto rcucrvedirlperial c d g c . .H : .

tl.LcGrcrt SttlPaat Sanci rcfers to Canclragupta p o r r c r . , t t Jr t , . , l t l 'i r r t h ( r , S i u l l' u l ' . i 1. , t t t t r ' r i. .

,'r1ip,,.
l,vc"Prltcno t f t\c srdco:;
ll end thc year 93 (Gupta cra, cquivalent to i ' . u . . , . o ' t i r r r r t l . . r tcl o' c
a.o. 4.rz) and rccords i grant in favor of thc ncarby Hindu tnollLlnlents lt Udayagiri and
Iluclclhistcommunity by an individual r,vhorvas other sitcsasrvell).Apparently,aftcr the Satavx- llt:lt:lcai.

hata peliod, artisticactivity tn dLrrablcmatcrials As p::

apparcntly an officer of Candmgupta lI s.13
cinle to a virtual halt at Sanci sincethc only rhc ir:rlr
Altho,1glt the 5;raut ciocs not specify altistic
rvorks that sccnl to.lxte from rhe pcriocl of phcc.r.:
prtronagc (it simply providcs lor the lccding of
l{uslne rulc in tl-Lenorth arc a lcrv scttlpturcs licint i -:
ihc tren.licants ancl maintcnance of oii larnps),
obviotrsly importecl llrom Methnra rvorkshops.la ,rcldc.lr:
its dcdication coincidcs rvith x rcsurllence of
The .cncrved cllort at Sanci durins thc fifth or t]1c i:l
artisticactivity in stoncat thc site.Thc neu'burst
 THE GUPTA PERIOD 197

h.:: been century involved both the creation of new

ft: more monuments and the refurbishing ofold.
t ::ono- Certain additions, for example, were made to
r::l date St[pa I that considerablyalteredthe iconographic
, program to more typical Mahayana forms.
;&.---rions)
i-:-s were Since there is evidenccof Mahdydna pracrices
t: rrently at the site from earlier periods, tbese modifica-
nc :urther tions may not refect a real change in thought
tr a form but only in form. A pillar crowned by a repre-
b .ight of sentation of the Bodhisattva VajraPali was set
\-i nu and up near the northern gateway of the ancient
r-..:s. Two rftpa. Now detachedfrom the pillar, the Iigure
I :top the is broken of at the knees(Fig. ro.r4) The main
o: remples, portions ofthe arms are alsolost but the damaged
rrion holds right hand Lolds a uajra, still vhible at the dght
said to be bry . Clad h a dhott that is carved with sonewhat
i Garuda irregular but delicate grooves representing the
n1r' placed folds of the garment, the body is smooth and
rlt date as reflects a development toward the mature
rhe )unga Gupta formulations of the mid-fifth century,
ued to the although still reflecting Kusa4a-period prece-
L style, the dents. The figure, though carved in the round,
iose tres to strongly relates to the depictions of the duard-
nrral India, palos at C^ve 6, Udayagiri, and a date in the
early Iifth century, perhaps slightly later than ro.r4. Vajrapani.Capital of pillar set up nearnorth
er. delicate gateway,Stipa I. S,ffci,MadhyaPradesh, India.Gupta
number of the Udayagiri materials, may be suggested for
period.Ca. early Iifth centuly. Seici Site Museulnr
mdicating a this work. An interestingfeature ofthis sculpture Saflci.Beigcsandstone. H: r55 cm.
is the halo behind the head with its twelve
evenly spacedholes piercing the rim. Thesemay
have becn intended to hold nctal tenons for
the attachment of a larger, morc grandiosehalo lay worshiper named Harisvtmini to a Buddhist
r:n, Madhya whose metal spokes might have suggestedrays community (at Sanci) for keeping lamps at the
Budhagupta). jewel house as well as at the "place of the four
of light emanating fron.r the figure. Tiny holes
in the nccklace (which is strikingly similar to Buddhas." This inscription may refer to the
that on the liiga at Cave 4, Udayagiri, Fig. ro.9) four Buddha imageslocated at thc entranceways
and on the belt also indicate that n.retal or to th"' sttpa, providing proof that they were
ici) jewels had been addcd to enhancethe sculpture. c y a . o . 4 s o ( C u p t ac r a t 3 L ) , t } e
r n e x i s t e n cb
Vajrapani signifiesthe power ofBuddha-knowl- date given in the epigraph.ls The best preserved
,;cd imperial cdge. His location at the north cntrance to the of these images (Fig. ro.r5) demonstratesthe
..hich must stapo is significant, for it is through the north delicacy, grace, and tranquility of the sculptural
ncnt of the side of a cosmological diagram known as a style, which is often said to characterize the
Lavagiri and ma4dala,in this case,the sfapa compound itself, art of the mature Gupta period. With eyes cast
r the Setava- that accessto enlightenment is gained. downward and a gently smiling expressionon
t ie materials As part of the refurbishing of Saiici during his [ace.rhc Buddhr crnbodiesthc inrrospection
r.e tl.Leonly the fifrh ccntury. four Buddha irrtagcswcrc and harmony of Buddhist thought. An intri-
re period of placed at the entrancesof the Great StuPa, one cately carved halo, almost lacelike in eft-ect,is
.t sculptures facing each ofthe four directions. An inscription centered behind the head. In design consistsof
.r'orkshops.la added to a crossbar of the ground balustrade a rim of triangular rays reminiscent of Mathura
ing the Iifth of the stupa recolds an endowment by a fen-rale or KuFta precedents(although not scalloped),
rg6 DYNASTTES OF THE MIDDLE PF.RTOD
ro.r J. Buddhapaneloneastside,SrtpaI. Safrci,
Prrdesh,India. Guptapcriod- Ca. Drid-fifthcentrrry.
Bcigesandslor1c- H: 162.5cnr.
but thc intcrior is {illed with deeply
loliatc and scroll desigl.Ls, cxcmpiifying the cx-
quisitc work emerging fion.r Gupta-pcriod sites
throughout northern and north-ccntral India
at thxt til.r1c. The smooth contoLrn of thc
Buddl.ra'sbody, with in graccfully r.nodulatcd Its small size,r.rnpretentior,ls
transitions, also mark thc dcvclopmcnt away
fiour tl-rcn-rore angular forms of earlier Gupta
formulations.
Iconographically, thc four sculpturesare also
of jntercstlor tlrcl nr.,1bc c.,rJyrcprcscntariont clcarly and there is no attcnpt to disguisc thc
of llucldhas having directional significance. j o i n r b e r w c c nr l r e r r rT. l r i ' c l . ' r i L 1o f p a r t sc l t " r -
While thc dircctional Buddhas orjlras (literally,
"victors," rcfcrring to thcir spiritual achicvc-
rlcr.Lt) popularized in latcr Buddhist art are
g c n c r . , l l yr c c o g r r i z . r bbl .y' r l r c i r d i ' t i n c t i v cr r r r , - widcr intcrcolun-rniationbctwccn thc two ccn-
/ras and thc bodhisattvaswl.ro oftcn accorrpany
thcm, thc Sancr stclac arc comparativcly stancl-
ardizcd.lGln cach case,the Buddha is seatedin
uajraparyaikdsana ar,.ddrsphystlhyau nnrlra with
his hands, inclicating a statc of dccp mcditation.
Thc figurcs sit upon cushions that rcst on
rectangular bascsand, in two of thc carvings,
these bear depictions of lotus petals. Flanking
cach Buddha is a pair of attcndant figrres and lh
above are uidyadharas bearing offerings. In tlrrce
of the stelae,the attendantsappear to be calr!-
t
bearing bodhisattvas.(The figure to the proper
left of the central Buddl.rain Fig. ro.r5, for
exanrple, may be identificd asVajrapani because
hc lrolds a njrc at his lcft hip.) Thc fourth
sculpture,that at the south gate,bearsrepresenta-
tions of Indra and Brahn.ra instead. Thus, the
carly link betwecn bodhisattva and Indra and
Brahn.rl imagery seen in the Kusaqa period
sccmsto havc pcrsisted.
Rcncwal ofart production at Saici during the
fifth century did not only include sculpture.
Sevcral new temples wcre addcd and earlier
architectural stmct[res were remodcled or
rcfurbishcd, although thc Great Stupa rcmaincd
by far the most dominating feature of the
community and the esteen.riu which it was
held docs not sccmto havc din.rinishcdthrough-
Madhya out thc ccntLrrics. By the fifth ccntLuy, the
site had a complex plan including numerous
stipas fron early periods, rlilaras with identical
cclls surrounding a central space, and other
brdldings.
undercut One ofthc rr.rostirnportant aswcil aspcrfcctly
prcscrvcd of the Gupta-period structtres at
5 : n . r i 5 t l r c . r r r : r l.l l r r i n , k n o r v n r . f e r r r p l ct r
(Figs.ro.16, ro.r7), whicl.ris uenerallythouglrt
to datc ftom tl.rcfirst quartcr ofthc fifth ccnttuy.
form, and simplicity
are ciraracteristicof early Gupta-period arcl.ri-
-- -- __
l c (r r r r c . I l ) c r c r r r p l cc o r r r i r r ro f t w o r r r r i r . .a
^.,.t t.- -
pillarcd porch (uundapa) aud a slrrinc (garlla-
grha). Each of thc two scctions is articul;rted -\1i-i
:::iiils
actcrizes this and otbcr carly Gupta-period :::: iITJ
teurplcs.Tbc structurc restson a Jow plinth wit]r :-U-t.-i
stcps at either end of tl.rc porch. Howcvcr, a -_.:,lar.e
::::..:.:i,
tral pillars of thc porch sLrggcsts that tl.retenple :-:-:br::
was propcrly approachedalong its longitudinal ::.i:: ;
axis, as is the cascgcncrally iu latcr tct'nplcs,ancl .:i ...-i,
r- :. -'-.
not fronl thc sidcs.Massivc slabsof stone, some
as rDuch astwcnty-fivc centinrete{sthick, pl^ccd .--.ii rr:.
sidc to sidc rcross the sanctlrtrrand porch con-r- :--:.'n laC
'.:.: 'l
prrst rhe roofof rhc .tnrtrlrc .rndcrcrtc cornices rn
 THE CUITA PTRTOD lgg

10-16.Temple 17. Sancl,Madhya pradosh,I11die.Guprapcriod. Ca.

first quarccrfifth ccntury.

: lts, a that relieve the plain ashiar cxtcrior of the

.'./lrl14- building.rz
[:-:-::]lted Although this temple appears to be solidly
l: ,:.; thc built, severai features inply that the craft of
p-:., char- building in stone was still in its infant stagc;
r -r-:criod the sructrue totally lacks foundations, which
resulted in buckling of the walls and partial
7., :: rvith
l: jtcr, a collapseof the roof (both corrected by modern
restoration). Furthcr, thc walls are made of
E-. :L'llrPle rubble tl.rat has been faced with stone, both
tr:::-rclinal inside and out, giving tbe appearanceof wcight
r::: :s. and and solidity but not thc stability of solid stonc. O5

[:: i. 5()111C It is aln.rostas though thc practice of erecting O1

solid structuresllke *upas with rubble that was M, I ,9
tr::. Placco
r :-_:t co111- then faced with stone was bcing adoptcd for ro.r7. Plan of Tcmpte rZ. Safrcl, Madhya pradesh,
E::Jrlliccs use in buildings such as this. Eventually, solid l)dia. GuDraperiod.Cr. 6rrc quarrerfifth ccnrury.
2OO DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD
relaxation,
stone structures without the rubble core came structure. Furthermore, the simple form of the
of the righ
to be used in lndic architecture, buildine, with its ma4lapo and gafthag1ho, is
ment, for
general enouqh to relate to both Buddhist and
Simplicity and understatement characterize Gupta-pe
the de-.oration of Sanci Temple 17, for sculp- i{irrdu -ooo-*.n,r. Its shrine and antechamber
unified th,
tural ornamentation is confined to the doorway format, for example, is found in Buddhist
Jancr (rlg.
and to the pillars, which have square basesthat arihitecture in the rear worship area of caves
depicted ir
ch"ns. into an eight- and rhen sixteen-sided such as at Aja+!a, and a similar plan is also used
ridges on
form"rrr-ounred 6y bell-shapedlotus capitals' in Gupta-period (and later) Hindu structures'
were abse
Certain Gatures of the pillars, such as the ad- Theseiactors have led some authorities to claim
period Ma
dorsed reclining lions, whjch forur the decora- that the building was in fact a Hindu temple'18
on draper
tion of the capit"ls, the lotus bells recall It is likelv, however, that the structure was
"nd the Bactrc
Maurya-period Pr€cedents. erected to ierve the needs of the Buddhist com-
garment r(
No' iiage w", found in the srnall cubical muniw. lts form, however, may be seen as
not Mathr
shrine, noi has any other clue come to light containing certain essential Gatures of both
body is c
that can reveal the original dedication of the Buddhist and Hindu architecture.
that clings
characteris
period an
Buolurst A R T o F T H EF r r r n C r u r u n v : NoRTH INDIA (MATHURA AND SIRNATH)
the rwo b
reconcilinl
The florescenceof Ku94a art in the Mathura emphasizi
reEion seemsto have ended by the late third love of th
^.o. when the Kuqalraslost their hold Mathur
"rirt,ry
and were replaced by the Yaudheyas, Nagas, India wa
and other minor dynasties. Wlren Samudra- Kusaga p
gupta defeatedthe Nagas, the Marhurd region sitesrose I
i""i it into the Gupta domain The Kugala (
"o.por"t.d
extent of Ntga infuence is little understood, )amattr,
althouqh rheir coinagesuggests that some con-
performe<
rribution to the tnainstream of Indic art might
of the le:
havebeenn.radeby then.In addition, the heritage
Chinese t
of Kugana art of both the Mathura and the in the 6ft
Bactro-Gandhtuaregioqs remains visible in the and two r
Mathura GuPta style. but by *
On the basis of its strong similarities to a arrived, tl
recently discovered Buddha sculpture frorr erably, fo
Mathuia dated to a.o. 434,1ea standing Buddha a commu
imaqe fiom Mathura may be used to de{ine the school lir
Maihura Gupta style of about the mid-fifth tne oe
century (Fig. ro.r8). An inscription on the justly far
pedestalstatesthat the image was dedicatedby third qua
I mook n"-.d Ya{adinna.2oCarved in the red by a seri
sandstonetypical of the Mathura region, the is shown
fiqure of the Buddha stands approximately by a mor
himan-size, although the total height of the sculpture
sculprure including halo and base imparcs a gupta II
..nr-" of -onr,-.ntality to it. Compared with while th,
Kugaq.ra-period sculptures of the Mathura style ro.r8. Buddha.FromJamalpur,Mathure, Uttar Pradesh, yeer r57
(Fig.8.z9). the contoursof the body rre more lluid India. Gupta period. Ca. mid-fifth century. Reddish
Budhagu
gt"..ful and the body is slenderer'The sandstone.FI: 22o cm. Mathura Museum, Mathure.
"nJ

r:r of the relaxation of the pose, seenin the slight bending
lirc_.-rla, is of the right leg, and the great delicacy of treat-
iJ:ist and ment, for example, of the halo, reveal that a
B::amber Gupta-period aesthetic had developed and
i loorust unified the art at distant Buddhist sites like
r :: caves Saf,ci (Fig. io.rJ) and Mathura. The drapery is
I -l.o Used depicted in a series of regular folds shown as
giclures. ridges on the surface of the body. Such folds
rs :,-, clairn were absentfron.r the typical drapery of Kugar.ra-
i::nple.18 period Mathura sculptures,although an cmphasis
r:i:e was on drapery folds prcvailcd in the Kusana art of
tL-t com- the Bactro-Gandhara region. The style of the
E iaen as garment too is reminiscentofthe westem Asiatic,
r :i both not Mathure, fashion. However, the Buddha's
body is clearly revealed through the drapery
that clings between thc ridges of the folds in a
characteristicallyIndic manner. Thus, the Gupta-
t\iTH) period artists of Mathurd seem to have unified
thc two traditions into a harmonious synthesis,
reconciling the classicisticsryle ofthe northwcst,
emphasizing garment depiction, with thc Indic
love of the human form.
Mathura's cultural dominance in northern
India was virtually unchallengcd during the
Kusaqa period. But under the Guptas, other
sitesrose to prominence and eclipsedthe former
Kusana capital's preeminence. In particular,
Samath, the site where Sakyarnuni Buddha
performed his first preaching, cn.rergedas one
of the leading Buddhist centers of India. The
Chinese traveler Fa-hsien,who visited Sernatl.l
in the fifth century, noted only two largc stapas
and two nronasteries(sathgharauas) at thc site,2r
but by the sevcnth century, when Hsiian-tsang
arrived, the establishmenthad cxpanded consid-
erably, for he describeda vast cornplex in which
a community of r,5oo monks of the Sammitiya
school lived.22
The developed style for which Serneth is so
justly farnous apparently emerged around the
third quarter of thc fifth century, asdocumented
by a seriesof three datcd in.rages,onc of which
is shown here (Fig. ro.r9). All were dedicated
by a monk named Abhayamitra, but one of the
sculptureswas given during the reign of Kumara-
gupta Ii in the Gupta year r54 (ca. a.r. 473)
while the other two, dedicated in the Gupta
:.r: Pradesh,
year r57 (ca. t.o. 476), fell within the reign of
cr. Reddish
L \'lathure. Budhagupta as indicated in the inscriptions.23
THE GUPTAPERIOD 2O1
In each of the three inscriptions, Abhayamitra
expressedthe wish that the merit accruedby the
good deed of this gift should go toward the
obtaining of extinction of worldly existence
(the goal of Buddhism) for all sentient beings,
includhg his mother, father, and teachers.
Such wishes were. by rhis tinre, common in
Mahayana Buddhist dedications,for they rcfect
the basic doctrinc of the transfcr of merit frorn
one individual to another.
Thc elongated, slender, graceful bodies and
the re{ined exccution of the details of thc halos,
robes, and facesof thcseimages have long been
considereda measureof Gupta art. Even in the
period of their creation, the two images dated
to about A.D.476 must have been considcred
masterful works, sincetheir identical inscriptions
state that they were madc bcautiful through
drc scienceof cirra.In this context, cirl4 seemsto
refcr to the technical achievementsof the artist
as well as the artistic exprcssionitsell Thus, the
acclaim that modem art historians lavish on
theseworks is perhapsreflective of the renown
they achieved in their own time. Part of the
bear,rtyto thc contemporary eye lies in the pale
buf-colored Chunar sandstone out of which
they (and most other Sarnath sculptures) are
cawed, although it is likely that odginally they
were painted, likc n.rost othcr ancient Indian
images.
The sculptures pinpoint a moment in the
stylistic continuum betwccn the stiffer Kusena-
Mathula-type formulations and the more dyna-
mic representationsof the post-Gupta pcriods.
Each central Buddha stands in thc abhaiga
posture with a slight flexion to the body, as
indicated by the bent position ofone leg and the
gentle thrust of the liip to one side. Thc forms
appear to bc rhytlrmic and natural. (Tbis general
senseof relaxation is also seen in the position
of the right hand of the Buddha figure dating
from abotrt ^,D. 473, as the abhaya uudra is
considerably lowered in position from thc
shoulder height of Kusar.ra-periodexamples;
thus ell-ecting a less rigid, less commanding
position.2a)A significant featlrrc of the latc fifth-
century Samath Gupta style is the treatnent of
the drapery. Though fully dressed,the figures
are clad in drapcry so clinging that it reveals
 2'2 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLT PEIIIOD
io.r9. Buddha.Fronl Srrnath,Uttar Pradesh,India.
Guptapcriod (reign of Budhagupta).Gupta cr. rJ7
(A.D.476).Buff sandsronc.
H: r93 crrr.Sanfth Site
/vruseum,Jarnrtn.
virnrally all of thc forn.rsof thc bodies bcncath,
almost as if thc figures rvcrc unclothed. The
drapcry is n.rostvisiblc at the neck, sidcs, end
hcrr. Horvcvcr. .rs.rrrnirrg rhrr rhc irnges rvcre
originally paintcd, rvith the robes in a color
contrasting with that of thc ski[, thc prcscnr
"invisibility" of the garrlrentq may havc bccn
i
obviated. Thc gxrrlcnt irsclf lns tlvo lxyers, at
lcast from thc waist down, as may bc scen by
thc two hems, and might rcilcct thc specific
costunlc of a pxrticular Brlddhist scct rt Sernath.
Thc faciai fcatures of thcse figcrrcs rcpresent
what mLrst havc bccn an idcal typc in this
sctlpturel school, charactcrizedby the downcast
cycs, gently sniling cxpression,and refiuemcnt
of the treatmcnt of d.rc individual elcments of
the face. A feeling of quicsccnceand introspec-
tion is conveyed by the facc, cxprcssive of the
pcxce and inncr tranquility posscssedby all
Buddhas.
A l r h o u g l r t l r c [ o r n r . r r so f r l r c r w o i r r r a g c s
dated to abont 476 arc virtually identical, thcy
diffcr fiom that of thc slightly carlicr ir.nagcof
473, but this should not suggcsta chronological
dcvcloprhent. The 473 figurc stands atop a
plain lcdge of stonc that is inciscd with a
lengthy inscriptionand has.lrrge round halo,
derived from Kusala types, centcrcd directly
bchind his hcad, sin.ilar to that of tlic ir.nages
placed at the four cntrancewaysto Seicl St[pa
I (Fig. ro.r5). Tl.re halo containsthe scalloped
ray motif around the rim, within which are
pcarls,a garland, and floral motifs that according
to Brrddhist rexlu.ll sorlrcesrre prrt of rlrc
radiant splctdor of the Buddha. The pieces
clating from 476 do not llave round halos, but l:.:4,
insteadcachhasan clongatedaura that is rounded Cx:-
at the top (Fig. ro.r9).ThescBuddhasstandatop
vcry thrce-dinensional lotuscs,and are attcnded
by figurcs on cach sidc, flying uitlyatlharas abovc,
and small dcvotccsbclorv. All figures subsidiary
to thc rr.rrin Buddl.ra in each sculpturc are Fig,
dcpicted in hicrarchic scalerclative not only to e!Fecr
the Buddha but to each othcr, rcflecting textual Kus-l
descriptionsof the sizcsof bcings according to Cu:r.r
their rclativc spiritual achievencnt, not thcir lLr,lri..
physiques. Such hierarchic scaling pcrvadcs the :ir -..e
art of Sorrt]l Asie, and is charlcteristic of most eli oi
R r r J J l L i ' rH. i n d u . , r n dJ . r i r r. r r r i . r i cc o n c c p r i o n s . !ctin-il
Undoubtcdly dating fror.n around the same .ire ic
time, about A.D.47j (althoughuninscribcd),is a ji.crpi,
rcprescnhtion ofa scatcclll[ddha t]rat epironlizes :ane] i
both thc high style of thc latc fifth ccntury at .-'irie r
Samath and the Buddhological mcssage of ro r5a
Sarnad.ritself, that is, the First Preacl.ringof rea'ra:a
SakyamuniBuddha at thc dccr park at Sarnath alea:]iJ
 THE GUPTA PTIiIOD 2OJ
-: . irs. at
I ::-'n by
::r.'cific
' \::nath.
r:::c'Sent
: : - ahis
i: .,.-ncast
i:::inent
= ::1!S Of
L-_:-rjPcc-
r-. -.i dre
i il all

r rrlagcs
.. .t-^.,

---,--l
-:oP a
| '.'' ith a
r--:- halo,

c rrlages
i.: Srupr
,--t^..^l

i:ch are
c:crding
: -,i the
c pieces
;--.s.but ro.zo. Buddha- From Samith, Uttar pradesh, India. ro.zr. Life Events of SakyarnuniBudclha. Frorn Sar_
r-'undcd Gupta pcriod. Ca. 47J. Buff sandstone.H: 160 cm. 'rath-Unar Prrdcsh.India.
-- I ^,^-
Cuptapcriod.Cr. rfurdquar_
SamethSite Museum,Sarnath. L e rl r t t hc e n l u r y .B r f f . r r r d s r o n H
e .: 7 o . r . N a r i o n a l
::rendcd Muscnm, New Delhi.
u ibovc,
r'rsidiary
tr:re arc (Fig. ro.zo). Although several hand postures of the crossbar, both presumably auspicious
.,.'] ." (especiallyabhayamudra) were used during the syrnbols.
I rc\tual Kusana period to signify this event, by the Several stelae recovered from Sarnath and
Gnpta period, variations on the dharmacakrQ stylistically relatcd to works known to date
!'i thcir mudra, one of which is shown herc, bccame by from the late fifth century stresswhat had comc
-:.:es the far the most common indicators of the event to be considered the major events in the last
.-: nrost and of Buddhist teachingsin general. Also char- life of Sakyamuni Buddha. One examplc shows
::fnons. acteristic of scenesdepicting the First Sermon a serie-sof events, arranged in chronological
:: sllne a r e l h e p a i r o [ d e e r . f l r n k i n gt h c w h e c l, n d t h e order frorn the lower ro the opper rcgistersand
::.1), is a disciplcsto whom Sakyarnunipre.'chcdin rhc l i o m l e f r t o r i g l r r( F i g . ' o . r , i . A , , h " b o , r o , , . ,
l:.rIl1tzes panel beneath the main figure.2t The treatnent l e f r .Q u e e nM a y a r e c l i n c so n . r c o r r c ha, r r c n d c d
ofthe ccntral figure and its halo is nearly identical by maidservants,while the elcpl.rantthat heralds
to that of the 473 ir.nage. The throne bears her- conccption of thc Buddha-to-be appears
rcpresentations of rarnpant winged lconine to her. At the lower right, Maya gr"rpr th" jal
l.rrnatn creatwes (ladilas) supporting the makarq-end.s tree while thc Buddha-to-bc emcrges fron hcr
2'4 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLT PERIOD
righr side.ln the cenrerof the lower register.
the infant bodhisatwa stands with his right
hand in the abhayanudra while being given his
first bath by two nagas.The secondregister
shorvsthe bodhisattvaatop his horse,Kanthaka,
in the GreatDepartureepisode,then cutting his
hair when he takesthe vow of the ascetic,and
finally, at the right, he is in the final meditation
ro.zz. Khasarpa4a Avalokite(vara From Samath,
Uttar Pradesh,India. Gupraperiod. Ca. 475. Buff sand-
stone. H: r37 cm. National Museurn, New Delhi
leading to enlightenment. Here, his greatness
at tJfs stage of his life is distinguishedfrom the
earlier events by the relative increase in scale O$er
in his depiction. The upper scenes show the b€dd€s
victory over Mera at the left and the First and sir
Preaching at the dght. A fourth level may have cailf p
depicted thc parinirva7a at the toP. The rather nnF.er
free arrangement of sceneswith one blending Brcrra
into the next is characteristic of fifth-century
isEcro:
life-scene stelae,although by about the eighth flfe t
century and later it was replaced by a rnore EIi:L
ordered arrangement with separate comPart- u.i rt
ments for each scene. Sgrco
A particularly fine cxample of the Sarnath iE i!.
treatment of the bodhisattva (Fig. ro zz) shows loEre (
Klasarpapa Avalokiteivara standing in the iil*-r '
slightly relaxed abhaiga pose. In accordance :iut ir
with textual descriptions,this form of Avalo- H:dd2-
kiteivara is decked with ornaments, has a iooeir
smiling face, apPearsto be about sixteen years l(fI o[
of age, and holds a lotus stem in his left hand, Bo.ldh
while lris right displays the uarada (gift-bestow- fu-r
ing) nuilra. Adorning his jotlnukuta hair style C'andh
is a representation of Amitabha/Amitayus in de Bu
his characteristicdhyana mudra, signifying the
family from which the bodhisattva emanates.
Beneath the right hand of Avalokiteivara are
two preta figures, ghosts of beings who were
greedy in past lives and whose doorn it is to be
hungry forever. Avalokiteivara's cornpassionfor
all crcaturesis dcmonstrated by the nectar that
flows from his gift-bestowing hand to feed
these ravenous beings. A somewhat parallel
generosiryis cxpresscdin the donariveinscrip-
Ion ^t the bottorrrof thc scttlpttrre. offeringrhe
merit accrued from the giving of the image
for the attainment of supreme knowledge for
all sentient beings. The slender, elegant body
garbed in diaphanous draPery suggeststres to
the three late fifth century Buddha figures, and
probably indicates a similar date for this image.
Lik" thir. Buddhas, the gentle countenanceof
this in.rage with half-closed eyes suggests an
inner calm that makes the Gupta idiom at
Samath one of the most appealing of Indic art
styles. A relative sinplicity in terrr,s of adom-
ment parallels the treatnent in Gupta temple
architecturein which a balanceis struck between
the rnain forrrt. and surfacedecoration.
 TIII CUTTA p!RIOD 205

::l !-s\ B U D D H I S TA R T I N TIII N OR T I { W I S T

: IC
..ilc Othcr sitcs in thc lorruer KtLsanl tcrritolics the vely classicized iices of thc three |qures,
lllc b c s i . l cM . . r t l l r r .p, r o . l r . c , l , n J , r r i q
r r l r , f r fh a qreetc'r softness llnc] reltncment ere also
Ict
rlr\t and sixth centuries, but thcse l'erc not spccifi- prcscDt,sugqcstirq drat thc Cuptr stylc hacl
:lrtc '
ca1lypert of thc Gupta cnpirc. Thc histor'1of P u rr i r er ' c r r c p r r i f i r c rrl . r f t l r c c r l l l i r c .
this pcriorlin thc northu,cstrcgiousof Glrrclhaue, A r M . r ; , r r rl ( ' r ' i r r r i ' r ' 1 .P . ' \ i . 'rr ' . . ' . r , ' p . r
.iurg Bectrie.end essoci;Lted ercesis still unclelr. but lvas lodncl thlt hed numerous tcrr:l-cortl rc-
l:llr-I p:ltro[:rgc of tsudc]histr-stablishurcllts sccnrsto p r c . r r i.r r l - r .,.' f . , . . r ',r L l r, 1. r , . f r c r r r ' tr l . ' t . r k .
: tlrth havc continuccl. lnstcacl of stoilcj 1r()wcvcrl sculpturesiionr Haddr. bctrrv a blcnding of
rvhich hed bccn rvidcly nscclfir :rchitccrLrrc northwest Kr-rsatraend Gupte idionrs. Al-
''tIt
and sculpturcin thc sccolclnd thirrl ccnturics. thoLrch thc cl:Ltingof thcsc filc1s rs lrnccrtilln,
stllccobecanc a major rrtistic mccLiurn. Pcrhaps thc figurcsslLqgcst x (1atcaroun,l thc nridtllc to
:tllLl1l the inerpensivencss of this nnteriei xccoLtnls to l r t c f i t r l r. c r r r rLl b c . . , . r ' o . f r l r ,i . l . n , l ,r r r , . r ,
sonlc dcsrcc for its popLrlarity,although it is the di:rph:Lrrous qu:rlitvof thc cLapcry(elthough
thc likely drar thc grcatcr llcxibilit,v aucLftcccloru B . ' c t r u - C . ' r r ' 1 1 . " r . , - *t ^r lll rcr r r , . r l l p r e . . r r r ) .
-.:l1c:c thxt it 1 lolr'e.l the artist rvas also a factor. At and tlte ovcrrll dclicrcyofthc fomx (Fig. ro.z4).
. .rlcr H:rdcle,in Afghenistell,stuccofrcingsthat oltcu Thc style ol thc robc, rvhich covcrs botll
contaiircdclcea[t sculpttrralcol]1posrtlo11s were shorrlclcrs. clc:rly rcletcsthis l'ork to thc cllssi-
'-cilrs , l rl r U l . ) c | o r. 1r r\ 1 ' d .O r . , \ r l . ) fl c . l t . \ i . r
L \ . 1, 1 cisticB.rctro-Grriclhirastylcsof thc sccondanrl
:.rn11. lSudclhe:rttcndctlby nralc enclby fcrullc clcvotccs thirLl ccntllries.
(Fig. ro.z3). Clcer c'r'idcnccof thc Bactro- A lcmarkable sericsof caves that iitcrellv
' lvtc Ciandhlra hcritagc is sccn in tirc clepictionof honcvconib 11 cllorrrroLrs clilliiclc r,ves cx-
:. iu rhc Buclclha'srobc, his hail stvlc, and evcn in cavatcdat ljdmivar. in A{gh:Lnist:Ln, arounclthc
: the
iiltcs.
:.1 lrc
1i ere
.io be
: ,:1 for
-
r tlLlt
r lcccl
-:r:Lllcl
.\.1]p_
-' :
:rig fhc
:irilgc
:.'for
:: body
: L a s! o
:'-':.:rnc]
inllqc,
.rcc of
:. ':\ ln .,;
.aLrl nt
:-.
. :,:ic ltt i-'
rcDrple
t o . : r . B u d d h : r a n d d c v o t c c s . t lrrlch, Aigh:urntrn. C:r. to.-ua.Buddhr. Fro.r I4npur Kh:rs, Prkist:ru.Ce.
_-t\\'ccn
lifth sixth ccnnrrv. Snrcco- nicl-to-lete lLfih ccrrtLrrl'.Terrr corr:r- n: /o cnr.
Princeoi Wrlcs,Musclnnol Wcstcrn lndia. Bornb:rv.
 Dw\A\lll. Ol lHr \
li
4',
'*'
. inragcs inclicatctlut this cult rvrs spccifically
..4.'
_:..:
,i;
l: ..
r o . r \ . l J L . . l d. l , \ . J " . 1 r . . : , .l j r r . r . . . \
I r f r l tr ! r r ) r | \ . H r r . ) r , r .
fifth ccntrrry. Onc oi thc uost imprcssivc
clrvings is thc cnormous Budclha tlrlrt stands
ncarl) flfty-five mctcrs tall c^rvecr :lr orlc cl1cl
ofthc vrllcy (Fig. ro.:5). A sirrilrr figurc on r
sliqhtly slrrallcrscr]cis locetcclat thc othcr si.lc
of the groLrp of clvcs ebout a kilornc,tcrancla
l r r l i . , r r , v .l r r c c o l o . . , r j . . r r . . ,l.rr,r. r ei . n . , rj r r . r
e siqn of grruciioscconccptiorrbut is a clclibeiatc
xtlcnrpl to cxpressin :rs litcral
possiblcthc spiriturl sizcof a Budclha
to thilt of iitr orclineryhuman. Thus, t]rc sm:rll
sizc of thc clevotees shorvn acconlpllylrlq
As part of tirc grorvingpopuhrity of Hinduism,
tcrnplcstlcdicetcclro veriousHindu clciricslvc-re
corlstrLlctcdthrotqhout nortjrcm ano norttr_
ccntrrl lnclir.clur.ingthc Gupre pcriod. Usuxlly,
t l r . . ,' r r . r r, r r r . i . r - c, rr 5 , r l - l ( , J . r rl icno: rr , ,c e r r, i n
phvsicelchar:rctcristics as rvcll as thelr rctatron_
ship to latcr forms. Regionalpxttcrnsrnry luve
:rccouDtcclhlr sorne of thc clifcrcuces betu,.ccn
rcmpic rypes. but, in adclirion,rirurl necdsof
DD|I lt.RlL)!
L']uJdhasin nranv snr:r]lcrerristic conccptions
(Fig. ro.r9) is sivcn e lircrriucsshcrc as thc
lrunrur t'orshipcr finds hirusclf drvrrfcd by
thc gi{:irrtic im:rgc. Thc creltion of such cnor-
rnous inegcs is associ:rtcrl u'ith thc cu]t of thc
Brlrol ((lierutic) Brrdrlhn,rvhich rvas prcvalcnr
in South Asia ls rvcll ls in othcr rcqronsrn:rt
wcrc iuflucrcc-cl by Incliln Mahayana liucl_
-Ihc
<lhisnr.?6 avaihblc cviclcnccof ihc iuscrip-
tior-rsencliconogrephic contcrts of thc survivilg
rclxtcrl to Vailocane,thc Bucldhein whom thc
totality ol thc univcrscis pcrsonificci,ancl rvls
cxprcsseddrrough drc siganric sizc of thc
trqLucs.Oniy roLrqhly carvcd fi.onr thc soft
stonc-nlatrix, drc rlcteiling of thc clrepcry rvas
crcltcd by molding :r mucl rnixttrrc oir thc
surhcc of thc imlgc th;it rvas thcn coverccl
with iinrc plastcrencl paiDt."Ihc dr.rpcryfolds
rvcrc creetccl by suspcndilq ropcs that wcrc
: r r r r rr , l
thcn covcrccl r,vith mucl plistct to forn-r thc
riclqrs of thc qxrmcrlt. Thc chuuing eppc:Lrancr-
ot thc qxrnrent, rvhich rcvc:rls thc forn-r o[ tjrc
IJuddha'sbody bcnceth,suqqcststics to Gupt.r
irt in Lr.lix propcr. alrhoireh tire folds ltr..d
style of thc robc erc clearly brscd upon cariier
Kusera-perioclnro.lclsof thc nortLwcsrrcgron.
A l . r . q et r , j r , , r c . r r i n ..tr r r p , . , t I t " l o
1i,r,rblra-
, t . ' . a n tJlo. lt o L , t t dr l ' . l r . . , , l . , r r .1l . , . , d y , r l r c D r r d _
dlre wxs piilstcrcd.rnd pailrtc(lto complctc thc
iconogr:rphyof the frgurc. J)ropcrly spcakrnu,
tlrls lniirqe :lnd othcr rcluaiiltsit1 t]rc northtvcsl
lrtntlcr 1ls reqion ntay bc studiccl ls p:rrt of thc art of
"
comparccl lntrcr Asia rather thin ancicnt Inclia,althouqh
thcy reprcscrlrr logicai outgrorvrh of what is
, ' . . n r r . ' l l y . r r I n d i r r c l i 3 i . , u .c o r ) . ( p f i ^ r .
Ht r,rl u TE I,rp rr A t t c H l t t c t u n t
thc grorving Hindu relision, ls rvcll es scctlriln
rirttcrenccs, ucccssitatcd thc dcvcloprncut of
indiviclLr.rit ) P \ 5 ^ r r ( ^ [ r h . . l o r r . r . r . . r ] c , r
stnlctrlres t]rar ntust hevc existcd prior to thc
fifth ccntury but l,hich hlvc bccn lost, atd
o r l t c r ' r . t . r r 'l r . r r r .b r r ' n c , , n p l , r . . l y r r r n n r . r t i r , .
A. I rr ,.,'.r;,i.., .,g:crr r 1 . , .r i c l . r r c . ,
,,cl"crcd
ot tlre Llcvcloprnq lorrr\.
Siirci Tcnrplc r7 (Figs. ro.i6, ro.r7) servcs as
 THE GUPTA PEP.IOD 202
:- a:ftlons
::: .1r d1C
, -,-I 1.,
i:, - !-nor-
::-: ..[ the
:::r'elent
= :ri rnat
i. B.rd-
!::iJcrtP-

- rl..ll.,

s.: rrn thc

,rl rvas
j .rf the
::a soft
L::i| was
e nn tl1c
. -_ovcrcd
r.1'folds
** *":-' .:-.a:,;r:,.
:_-:: were
ir::l the ..--..'Y',
10.26. Vig4u templc, frorn sourhwcst. Deogarh, Urtar pradesh,
i::]rancc India.Ca.eat)ysixthccntury.
:-- oi thc

:--.ir and an examplc of one charactcristictypc_of Gupta
:: errher tc'rple. Although its ties to Buddhism arc
evident, structurcs si'rilar in form, size, and
decoration from the G'pta period are found in
:--: Bud- a Hindn contcxt as well.z?whilc the issueof
!:.r'!e tlle whctlrer or not this ty-peof tcr'plc originally
ludasuPerstILrcturc-ofcphenrcraln-ratcria]sorThemains1rrineoccupresthcccnterofa
r r:ahwest onc.that was planned but never cxccuted is not
:: art of scttled, by the cnd of thc fifth ccntury or the
bcginning of thc sixth, a type of templc with
: '.r'hat is a tot'er (-i1fr/rara)
was r,vell developcd.
I l:1. Onc exarnplc is dre Visn'tcr.nple at
_such
Dcoglrlr (fig ro.z6). corrrrronly irnd rrris-
takerrly) called .],1eDaia^tarc bccarse it was
originally tholght that the iconographicprogram
referred to tlre ten incarnatio's (daiauataru)of
,iictarlan visnu. Although thc patronsand donorsinvolvcd
nlnt of in its ercction arc not kno*'n, on stylistic
:. rellect grounds,. the structurc may be dated thc thc buildings, although thcy nr"ay havc bcen
r: to thc -to
carly sixth ccnt'ry.28 In many ways, the for.r of miniature vcrsions of the nr"i' t"rrroi".
-osr. and thc templc shows considcrableadvancemcnt in
:oYattvc. the deveiop.rcnt of.Hindu tcr.nplearchitecnrrc,
richness a factor tl.t has lcd somc to conclude that its
datc is much later. Thc forn.r of thc tower is
lr-MS aS one of the most intcrcsting and highly dcbated
featurcs in this rcgard,.sinccits tall, apparently
r
curvilinear shapc a'ticipatcs tlr" j"',r"lop"i
,
northcrn-style ir[,Lar,l. Its danage.l st"t", hiw- i
ever, precrudesfulr anarysis,,ni rho, rrr" pr".c ii
of thii tcmple in thc devclopnrcnrof rhe nirrh- ]
etn-style likharc rnay nevcr bc knorvn. ll
squareplinth (Fig. ro.z7) tirat is accessibrcon arl
four siJes by rt"-i.c"r", witir senricircular bases
sonetiurcs rcferre,r ro asrDoonsroncs.orisina|v-
four smallcr subsidr:rry ,hrir,", *"..
i..r"ri,
onc at each .or,,.. of thc plinth,,o ir"r,h"
rernprci" of rhepanrayaraaa (i-rvc-sJrrrne)
variery.
Each shrine w", proirbJy dcJicrtcd ro a di'f-
fercnt Hindrr deity, although their iclentitiesare
unknown beca'se rhe si'ctrrrcs arc corallv
destroycd cxcept for rheir bascs.Further, it i's
imposibrc to dctermine the origi'al forms of
The tcmp]e is oricntecl to thc ivcst, whcre
thc i'rprcsive, decorated doorway to thc
shrinc is locatcd (Fig. ro.zg). In contiast to the
carly Gupra-typc enrraIrce sccn at Udayagiri
(Fig. ro.aJ, th.-D"og"rh ,loorw"y i, g."""tly
"
 2Od DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PERIOD
0525
05 10
elaboratedensemble.The lintels and jambs have
been multiplied, and these are replete with
well-oldered foliate motifs, mithunas, guardian
figures, and the river goddesses,Ganga and
Yamuna, placed respectively at the top left and
right of the doorway and clearly defined by
theii nahara and tortoise vehicles. At the center,
above the entrancCway, is a panel showing
Visr.ruin an unusual form, seatedatop the coiled
body of a serpent with the open serpent hood
behind his head while Lakgmi, Vi5gu's consort,
massageshis foot, and two other forms of
Visqru hirnself appear, the man-lion (Nrsirirha)
and the dwarf (Vamana). The multiple figures
in this small relief demonstrate the growing
complexity of Vaisnavite iconography, and
perhapsprovide a clue to the original dedication
of the temple.
Before entering the single-celled shrine
through the decorated doorway, ritual practice
to.2j. PlalJ of Visnu temple. Deogarh,
Uttar Pradesh, India. Ca. early sixth
century.
probably required the devoteeto circumambulate
the temple to view the three major sculptural
panels on the exterior. lach of the three
ieliefs decorating the main body of the temple
is placed in a niche that consistsof decoraied
lintels andjambs flanled by pilasters(Fig. ro.z9).
The subject matter of the sculpturesreveals the
order in which the devotee would view them.
In this case, the viewing order of the major
sculprures would be the reliefofVisnu Nareyaqa
as Anantaiayana (or Sela:iayana)on the soLrrh
(Fig. ro.z9), that of Nara and Narayana on the
east (Fig. ro.3o), and the sculpture of G_ajendra-
mokga on the north (Fig. ro.3r), thus moving
the devotee in a counterclockwise direction
(pra-yuya).This assertion,which is contrary to
the commonly held belief that in Hindu worship
circumambulation is alwavs oerformed in a
clockwise marner (pradaksira), is based on the
internaJ messageof the reliefs, their accompany-
 TrrE GUpIA PTRTOD 209

ro.28.Doorway, or1wcsr, Viylu

tcr)rplc.Dcogarh,Urtar h-adcsh,
Lrdia. Ca. carly sixrh ccrlrury.

ro.29. VisnLrAuanta(ay:rn:rclicl
... . l)cogerh, on south, Vjsnu tcnrplc. l)cogarh,
: .',lrl1 sixth Uttar Pradcsh, Indir. Ca. early

- -:::rrlrbulate

: :hc three

: decorated
. Frq. ro.z9).
:, :r-1'calsthe
. .-rawthcm.
: :h. rDajor
.:: \irayana
:: rhc soutir
rl ,fY'
.. rla on the
: G.r.jcndra- J3
:-:r nloving
, -' .lirection
' - rnarxry ro

:::r.'il in a
.,.-I on the
,,:,)nlPany-

G
 'I'I{E
2] d DYNASI'IES oF MIDDLE PERIOT)

ing clcrucuts,ancl :rn an,rlysisof cit'cLurumbula-

tion practiccsin Hindu ritutrls
zl)
T
An inclication that thc clcvotcc bcgen l-ris
u o r . ] t i n' r r t h , . ' ' r r h i ' ' l c " r r l y ' ' c tr it' tltc
. 1 , p i c r i . rorf ( , . r n e i r .
r l t L. l c 1 ' h, n -
r l r c' d 'J q o ' l ' €
on- a pilester to thc lcft of ''Ovcrcortrcr the An:urta(:ryana
rclicf (Fig. ro.29). As thi-' of
t)Lrr".i"r,;' Geucie is ilvokcd rr thc start of
rvorship. ancl bccxrllc a stendxrcl clenrcnt in rhc
iconoe'.^phicProgr:rlrs of Hinclu tcmples ltcl
p , . r l i i " . 1 , l . ' J , , o , , - ' ' o , , ': o r ' t r A s :r ' l l t e
4 , t " , , , . , i , r ' u '..,' r b 1 t , irr c l f i i r r i t i c 'r l " b e g i r r -
nine. loi it is cot,ccrne.l rvidr thc birth of
llr;r'irn-La froru the urvel of Vistru Sincc Brahm-
is the crcator of rhc tlnivcrsc, his own birth
signifies thc bcgimring of rhc bcgir.iuing or thc
..-""tion ,rf thc creltor. ln this fornr' Visnn is
callcd Narayrna (Movine on thc Watcrs' or
Abocleof Meu) rs hc rcstsor thc serPcntirl.thc
orirncv"l .vatcrs,and hc is clcscribccles olclcr
ih"n tlt" .,1.1"rt. ln thc rclicl the fottr-artued rclicl. orr c.rst, Vi94u tcnrplc
ro.lo. N]rr-Nrri-vrnr
Visntt sccmsto rcsr cou-rforttrblyon the coilcd l ) c o g : r r h . U t a r P r r d e s h .I l r d i i C r ' c r r l , v s r \ t h c t n t u r y
bo,lv nf tl.t" scrpc[t Sesx(Rcm:rinclcr),rvho is
also crllcd An,rit" (Endlcss). rnd t'hosc hoorl
archcs bchinrl Visn s lreacl like a halo Thc
god's wife Laksmi urassagcshis right lce'
r r , , L or r r . c r r ) r r q t n fqr o r l lV r ' n u' n ' r c l ) r r l t c r r
epito,,rizirte tl.re bliaArl tcaching in rvhiclt thc
clcvotee sccks ref,.rgc rt tl-rc fect o[ Ntrayana' V i . n r r d , s r r u y c Jt l i n r ' I n r l r i ' r c l i e f ' t h c L ' r r r
personificationsof Virndt *.capons (ayrrlla-
Furthcr, Laksuri (Gocldessof FortLrne) is con-
prr,,ro-r) ,tr".1,ttt"p,rscd s'ith thc two dcruonsasif
sidcreclto bc tltc ruc.liator betrvecu thc dcvotec
in,l,o"t Virnn', might ageinstthc*r, althor-rgh
ancl drc lorcl. Glrudl stancisjttst to dtc vtclvcr s qrlcc of rhc figures
clcgant positioniug aucl
riqlrt of Llksnli, n'car-inghis sttlkc otnantcttts' thc -rutg"ttt
an inpcncling bartlc From the
1 1 i 1 1r' c, r r r . r ,. h , . r i .l j t . l t t t t . 1 1 . l 'It' ' o ' r c tl l c ' h"r,llv -pc.ronificd
right, tirc wclpous are Gedaclcvi'
elso callcclNlrivene) cen bc i'lcntified b'v his
fthc fcnralc.rccoqnizcd b\-thc nrace cncrlilllg
:rntclope-skit't grrlllcllt, his thrcc laccs (the (recog-
i-ronrt1.,.tot, of lier hc'r.l), Crkrrpuruse
fourtli is i,rrplii'.l) rncl his sittinq iltoP ,r lottrs ' r ' t t r o t t t' t r c t r t )
,",,'l L, Ii,' ,alrn lr'lr.ill
.rftcrhavingjtst eurergctitrortr Vistru's trlvcl
Hc is ll.urki by thc ri.boruc tigtrres of Indrr tll",..''o.,r,,.',''i.l ll,' p"'rri""' l'r' rtqllt 'rltr
anclKar-ttikcveto his riqlrt, rcsl'rcctivelyurottntccl rs if it'.ucr.i ,r bor"J. "nd I(hrdqap'''rusa(rvho
prepxrcsto dralv his srvord)'
on their rardl/.i-r,thc elcphant and pcacock'
:ro.l to his lcft, Siva, rvith his rvilc Parveti on his On thc cast.tbc ulrjor rclicf sho*'strvo salnts'
lzlrnna Neutli end lnothcr tlliLlcntificd frqLrrc' Nera (viervcr's riaht) and Nara,vena(vierver-s
lcft). who b.ing tie nrc,,s,rqc of clivinclovc ancl
Ilelorv, r scprrrtc slab bcers dccply carvecl
.lcvotion rs an instrtttncntof spiritullizationto
reDfcscntxtioln of fivc uulcs ltltl onc fcnrle'
-fl.,"r" MrdhLr and KriLebh'r :rt thc lcit thc rvotL{ (Fiq. ro.3o). Thcsc trvo' rvho erc
"r" cousiclcrcrito lrc thc foLLttlt of thc trvcnty-r*'o
rvith thc fbrrr pcrsonificdattributesof Visurt
ntinor incatnationsoi VisnLr,wcrc thc sorlsot
at drc right. Medl.ru an.l Keitrbhe s'crc nvcr
l)harlra (Ilighteousness)atd his rviFe Ahirirsi
.l"u,nttr.i'ltn spranQfrottr Vivru's ctr u'hilc hc
(Nonviolcncc).'fhcy pertormccl rtlstcrltresxs
rves :rslccp. ^tt.l .u"," abotrt ro kill Llrahlna
 THE GUPTA ?ERIOD 21I

in the relie{ for the water beast (herc a naga

accompanied by his xagint) is depicted in .aiijali
nxdra, payirrg respectto the victors. Essentially,
the story is a parable about a devotee who had
been cursed becausehis untrained intellect was
like an elephant's,and his subsequentdeliverance
through faith, which representsthe attalnment
o{ nok5a ar.d serves as a model to the wor-
shiper at the temple. A crown borne aloft
by vidyadharasabove signifies this fiual achieve-
ment.
The overall messageof the temple is thus
clearly indicated in the sculptural program,
revealed through a sequential arrangernent of
the reliefs, for the Anantabyana rePresentsthe
begiuring, Nara and Naraya4a denote the
means through which rro&;a may be achieved,
and dre Gajendrarnokga story expressesthe
final result.
In contrast to earlier Gupta tcmplcs, sculpture
has a much morc important role in the over-
Yitnu tenple. ro.3r. Gajendramok;arelief, on norch, Vigqu ternple. all scheme of the monument, including the
i:\dr century. Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh,India. Ca. early sixth century. major reliefs as well as the decoration of the
doorway. Still, sculpture is conJincd to certain
areasof the ternplc and a balanceis struck be-
tween ornamentation and the sirnplicity of the
part of their devotions, and their ascettcnature architecture. The rather largc blocks of stone
navel) when : . ,.
is indicatedin rhe relief by their lack ofjewelry used to construct the teraple are easily visible,
lieL thc four
and by the wearing of their hair in topknots as therc has been no attempt to disguise them
ons (ayudha-
(jatanukula)- Like other ascetics who have with the ten.rpledecoration. The beauty of the
r demonsasif
forsaken the comforts of society, they appear monument is carried out in the grace and
em. although
in a wilderness setting suggestedby the rocky delicacy of the.sculpturesthenselves, which re-
oi the {igurcs
landscaoe with deer and lions beneath and presenta high point in the developnrentoflndic
rle. From the
bowers oftrees above. The {igures hold peaceful art, refecting what has come to be known as
Lre Gadadevi,
attributes in their hands, including the rosary, the Gupta ideal. Smooth body contours, relieved
ace emerging
as-symbols of their devotion. A female figure by moderate amounts of jewelry, peaceful
r'-rrnsa(rccog-
in the center above is Urva(r, who was created facial cxprcssions,graceful poses, and elegant
r omament),
when Naraya4a struck his thigh to demonstrate hair styles characterizethe figures. Each com-
ris right arm
ap.rrusa(who that he could not be tempted by celestialnymphs, position is carefully balanccd, and seerns to
and tbat he was sreadfast in his devorions. come alive with the deep, three-dimensional
lrs two saints, The niche on the north depicts the story of carvrng.
;:la (viewer's Gajendramoksa, conceming a king who had The so-called Pervati ternple at Ntchna-
itinc love and been changed into an elephant (Cajexfua) by a Kulhara is approxin.ratelycontemporaneouswith
ii..lalization to curse (Fig. ro.3r). One day, while wading in a the Viqru temple at Deogarh, ca. A.D. Joo or
$ !r. who are lotus pond, a water beast seizedthe leg of the perhaps slightly later, and likc it, is a notable
L(-rwenty-two elephant and a tug of war ensuedbetween them achievement of Gupta art. The name Parvati
re rhc sons of that lasted for a thousand years. Finally, the is undoubtedly a late apellation, for the temple
'.',rie Anlmsa elephant invoked NaFyana and was saved.The was probably originally dedicated to Siva. Its
rs moment just after deliveranceis depicted clearly form offers insight into a con.rpletelydifferent
"ustcritics
212 DYNASTIXS OF THE MIDDIE PERIOD

ro.33. Plan of "Paffar1" temple as it

existed in r884-8j. N,chna-Krfhara,
Madhya Pradesh,lndia. Ca. early sixth

:::-_i:::

0r030

o5

temple format in use at the time, howcver, for
it is a double-storiedstructure resting on a plinth
with an enclosedcircumanbulatory P:rssagc, the
outer walls of which are norv lost (Figs. ro.3z,
ro.33). This buiiding is apparently the earlicst
surviving examplc of a structural temple with
an cnclosedcircumambulatory passage,and th.rs
it is the oldest known temple of thc sandhara
class of Hindu tcmplcs that are in fact char-
acterized by this feature. Light was admitted
into the ambulatory by three windows, one on
eachside cxccpt that of the entrance,which was
opcn, and some light was also admitted into
the main shrine through windorvs in the am-

ro.34. Doorway, on west, "ptrvatt,, temple. Nachna_
Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh,India. Ca. cariy sixrh cen-
tury.
I Brrcx Truprrs ANDTERRA-corrAART
Although brick and terra corta have been
popularly used since the eariy discovery of
pottery t€chriques in ancient India, the fragile
nature of the material has led to the destruction
of nost early examples. However, during the
Gupta period, interest in brick and terra cotta
led to the construction ofa number of important
monum€nts, some of which have survived. The
brick temple at Bhitargaon (Fig. ro.35) o one
ol the besrpreservedcxamples.in spire of the
I lact that it was damaged by lightning in the
.lastcentury. Its date is difiicult to fix as therc is
no inscriptional or other evidence of its dedica_
lion. but on stylistic grounds. a datc of the
te sardhara firsrhallofthe fifth centurymight bc suggested.
iact char- Burnr bricksjoined by mud rnorrar were used
r admitted in the conshuction of the building, and the
I'S, One on walls reached a thickness of -ore than two
rvhich was meters. The temple faceseast, as may be deter_
rined into niTi by the remains of a portico on rhat side,
n the am- and rt rests upon a square plir.th (jegati; Fig.
THE GUpTAPERTOD 21'
bulatory passagewall. The secondstory covered
only the temple shrine (not the passageway)
and may have contained a representation oi
a deity. Perhaps specilic ritual needs neces-
sitated the double-storied form. No signs of a
iikharu or other fugh supersrrucnrre exrst,
"forms
although the original of the roofs of rhe
temple are unknown. The doorway of the
structure.which is orienredto thc west.is Jmong
the finrst in all Cupte an (Fig. ro.34). and ii
general, rhe rrcllislikc carved windows and
miscellaneoussculpturesfound at thc site testify
to a high quality ofworkmanship. An intercsting
Gature of the plinth is the delibcratelyrusticate;
blocks ofstone that have beencarved io resemble
a rocky landscape,complete with animal life
(Fig- ro.3z). The depiciion of such stylized
landscapes,although unusual in this location, is
also seen_in the paintings of Ajanta (pl. 8) and
in carved renditions of stylized landscape,for
example,in the Nara-Narayana reliefat Deogarh
(Fig.
_ro.3o).Here, a rcGrence to the tempi-eas
a replica of Kailasa, the mounrain abode of the
god Siva, secmsto be implied.
ro.3o). Eachside of rhe remplehasa projecring
tay. creatrngwhat is known as a triratha(three
rutha) dcsigtt.Thc number three is obtained by
co-untingthe two sectionsto the ]eft and right
of the bay, which form the wall of the str"uc-
ture itself, aswell asthe outer surfaceof thc bay,
whiclr run. parallelro tl:cm. (ln five rarftn,seven
rathd.anCtothcr systemswhere addirionalbayr
extend out from the centcr of each preceding
bay,..the count cxpands to include tbe lengti
of all new parallcl wall sectionsformed.) S;h
ofiietting of the walis of a tcmplc bccame
a standard feature in many later schools of
architecture. A secondary shrine chamber is
present above the main shrine, although this
feature is not readily apparentfrom the e-xterior
because of the rising, vcrtical shape of the
iikhara, which is one of the earlGst extant
examplcs of a northem-style tower. Niches
on the exterior of the body of the temple and
the supersrructure contained sculpted panels,
2-1I DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PTRIOD
ro.3J. Brick temple from southeast. some .o
Bhitargaon, Uttar Pradesh,Indii. Ca. are ?art
fust half 6fth century. the con
true all
preferer
Froqr e
ancient
date bu
sroDs.P
lhet

d
a
,temp.
terra co
temples
rmPr€ss
slze re
G,;'g,
rle ent
probab
dxth (
besn h,
o'hich I
$one (

10.36. Plan of brick temPle.

Bhitargaon, Uttar Pradesh, Lrdia.
Ca. first half fifth century.

some .of which are missing and rrany of which
are partially destroyed.An interesting Gature of
the constiuction in this building is the use of
ffue arches in the shrines and the porch in
oreference to rhe usual Indic corbellid vauft.
From examoles like this. it is evident that the
ancient Indians knew of the arch at an early
date but elected to use it only on cettarn occa-
sions,preferring trabeatedforms,
The type of sculptural decoration usedin such
a temple is perhaps best seen in a number of
teira cottas that are better oreservedfrom other
temples, such as that ai Ahicchattra. Most
impressive among them are the nearly human-
size representations of the river goddesses,
Gairga and Yamuna, -which originally fanled
the entrance to the Siva temple (Fig. ro.37),
probably dating from the late fifth or early
sixth century. Although these figures have
been heavily restored, their original animation,
which perhaps exceedsthat seenin contemporary
stone carving and nay be due in part to the
THE GUPTA?ERIOD 2'5
nature of the tera-cotta medium, is preserved.
Their positions, tuming inward toward the
devotee who would enter a doorway between
them, provide a sense of immediacy to the
viewer. The costumes, with the heavy drapery
folds and tight bodices, and the very fully
rnodeled facial featuressuggesta departure from
the more tranquil, delicate forms of Gupta
stone sculpture. Each goddess, now easily
recognizedby her respectiveuahana,the mdkard
and the tortoise, holds a water vessel and is
anended by a diminutive figure holding a
thattra alofc-
Other terra cottas recovered from northem
India hint at what must have been the wide-
spread and highly developed art of terra-cotta
sculpture in the Gupta period. In contrast to
the surviving terra cottas from the prehistoric
and early historic periods (Figs.2.6, 5.39), Gupta
terra cottas are often large (though not always
as large as the two river goddessesfrom Ahic-
chattra). Many formed panels that were used

ro.37. Gaige (left) and Yamuna (right);

much restored. From Ahicchattra,
Uttar Pradesh,India. Ca. late fifth or
early sixch century. Tena cotta.F{i r7o
cm (lefr); r7J.2 crn (right). National
Museum,New Delhi.
216 DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

-i-j:

F-r
sPDr
Or

irn!1
T--.

rr.-n
.-:
in:rc,
eI:];a
::i,
5S(
:ierc,
ro.38.Vitnu on Garuda.FrorrrnorthernIndia,prob- ro.39.RarnaandLak;ma4a. FromnorthcrnIndia,prob-
abiy Uttar Pradcshregion. Ca. Iifth century. Terra ably Uttar Pradeshregion. Ca. fifth century.Tena I
cotta.H: 3r crn.BrooklynMuseum,New York (Gift cotta.H: 40.6cln. Asia Society,New York (Mr. and t€ ci
of Dr. BertraurSchaffner). Mrs.John D. Rocke6ller3rd Collection).
r:e (
A-E-a
-.osr
as decoration on temples,One such architectural in stone. The outlines of the eyesand eyebrows, "*t'
fragment shows the god Vifr.rrl riding atop his for example, have been createdsimply by using 6rou
winged vehicle, the bird-rnan Garuda (Fig. a sharp tool ro incise in wet clay. crearinga iifrcr
ro.38). Only Visnu's two left arms are preserved; senseof dynamism and calligraphic line that is 5s.el
one holds a bow while the o-ther brings his not apparent in works produced by the slower 5 CU
characteristicconch to his lips, as if the god is and more painstakingprocessof stonecarving. ani r
blowing it like a trumpet. The conch, whose A secondterra-cotta sculpture, also probably eleEe
fleeting sound sometimesservesas a symbol of intended to be used as architectural adornment
_ -- : _
the transience of the physical world, here and also probably from the Uttar Pradesh uons
probably indicates a war call, for the god and region, shows Rama, the hero of the Ramayatla, .-'rign
his companion seem to be in battle-ready posi- and his yorurger brother, Lakgmana, as if in As
tions that suggest that dre relief representsan conversatioll (Fig. ro.39). Rema came to be cdDfr:
attack on an unseen adversary. Although its considered the seventh incarnation of Visnu, tlllrot
findspot is not knowr, the piece is of a type and stories narrating events involving him are &oug
generally identified with the Uttar Pradesh commonly included in the repertoire of subjects aldot
region, and such works are generally attributed adorning a Vaigqavite temple. However, as a
to the site of Ahicchattra or, alternatively, to cult deity, he never acfuevedthe statureofother Fnor
Bhitargaon, two of the most well known and incarnations of Villu, such as K1gqra.When at De(
well preserved sites that have yielded Gupta- depicted in art, he is generally showr, as here, -uller
period terra cottas in northern India. But it is in a two-armed form that stresseshis hunan, P)-raf
likely that the monuments at these two centers rather than his godly, characteristics.The panel curse(
were not urique at the time of their creation, apparently records the period narrated in the ie re
and that sculptures like this may document a Ra rayqltdwhen, after Rama had been banished brick .
broadly basedstyle and art forrn current through- from the kingdom to which he was rightful n€ger
out north-central India. The curly hair style of heir, he lived in the forest, for the two brothers iuced
Garu{a suggestsaestheticassociations with stone are dressedasforest dwellers,rather than princes;
art of the Gupta period, though the techniques their earlobes,stretched from years of wearing
used by the terra-cotta artist differ considerably heaq' ornaments,are unadorned, and their hair r:+I_
from those of his fellow craftsmenwho worked is tied into simple topknots. The figures are \-aiot
 THE GUPTA PERIOD 217

strikingly naturalistic and lifelike, an impression

perhaps partly created by the freedorn and
spontaneityaccordedby the terra-cotta mediurn.
One of the most dramatic and realistic of
3,:;*
all the terra cottas surviying fiom the Gupta
period representsa Saivite deity (Fig. ro.4o).
The relief, broken at the waist of the figure, is
from Sahegh-Maheth,Sravasti, Uttar Piadesh,
and shows an ascetic whose divinc nature rs
indicated by the presence of four arms. His
emaciated body, matted locks, and piled-up
hair style (jata), as well as his lack of jewelry
(especially noticeable due to the distended,
pierced earlobes that conspicuously lack ear-
E:- India,prob- rings),all signify his asceticnature.
A very problematic monument that may
I :k (Mr. and be discussedalong with terra-cotta remains of
the Gupta period is the Mahabodhi temple at
Bodh Gaye (Fig. ro.4r). Since it is one of the
most sacred of all Buddhist shrines, this brick
md eyebrows, temple has been repaired numerous times
nolv by using throughout history and its form is therefore
ro.4o. Saivite dcity. From Saheth-Maheth, Sravasti,
t\-. creating a difticult to assessin terms of the art of any Uttar Pradesh,India. Ca. fifth century. Terra cotta.
Lic line that is given period. Much of its present appearance H: 30 cm. StateMuseum, Lucknow.
tv the slower is due to renovations as recent as the nineteenth
stone carvrng. and twentieth centuries, although the essential
also probably elements may have been determined as early
d adornment as the late-Kuge4aor Gupta periods..The rela-
--:--ar ?radesh tionship between the present structure and the
t:- Ka|tfiyqt|a, original building erectedby A6oka is unknown.
r.a:a. as if in As it now stands,the temple consistsofa large
,-:ine to be central shrine surmounted by a high tower,
on of Vi9nu, surrounded by four smaller shrines. These are
lsing hirn are thought to have been added fairly recently,
ri: of subjects although certainly, the concept of the paficaya-
Iolvever, as a tana format was well developed by the Gupta
r:rure ofother period as demonstrated by the Visnu temple
I\r!na. wnen at Deogarh. The presenttower is probably much
,o..rr, har", taller than the original superstructure,and its
", pyramidal profile, which differs from the typical,
es his human,
ics- The panel curved, northern-style iikhara, is possibly also
rrated in the the result of later modifications. The type of
t'een banished brick work and useofcertain vaulting techniques
: .r'as rightful suggestties to Iranian methods, possibly intro-
: trvo brothers duced into the Indic region by the Ku9a4as.
r rhan princes;
rs of wearing
ird their hair ro.4r. Mahabodhitemple.Bodh Gay:, Biher, India.
re llgures are Variousperiods.
?]8 DYNASTTTSOF THI] MIDDLE PI1RIOD

Mrr.tr IuacEs

Although some metal images are knorvn frour
carly periods of South Asian history, few have
survived, and thcrefore they providc only a
very incon.Lpletepicture of this art. Even Gupta-
pcriod remains arc scant. Howcvcr, a hoar.l of
metal images found at Chausa, Bihar, contained
examplesthat cierrly sccnr to be of Gupta date.
One reprcsentatiolr of !.sabhanatha, the Jain
tirthahkart, espcciailyreveals the grace of form
and naturaiism associatedwith Gupta art (Fig.
ro.4z). Certain fe"turcs, such as the arms that
reach to the knees,are dictated by iconographic
considerations.Yet the scnsitivity to the anaton-i-
cal forms is remarkablc, although not controlled
by an adhercncc to rules of anatony ot a
scientific approach to thc hunlan figurc. Some
srlggestion of thc later Jain preference for
abstract, gcometric forrns is seen in thc chest,
which, fiom the front, aln.rostanticipates the
trianguiar form so charactctistic of latcr Jain
exan-rples.

to.tz. Trrthaikara Riabhanatha.Frorl Chausa, Bihar, Iudia. Ca.

fifth century. Mctxl. H: 2I.2 cul. Pahu Mlrscunl, Patna.

Corqcrusrox

Works of art surviving fron.r pre-Gupta pcriods
provide an inconrplete picturc of thc n.rajor
artistic trcnds in style and iconography. In
contrast, the Gupta period is rclatively rvcil
rcprcsented by architectural :rncl sculptural re-
nuins. Although cphemer:Ll n:lterials must
have continucclto bc used for art production
clurinq Gupta tirncs, the usc ofstone had bccorne
so rvidcspreadthat it mry be essurnedthat thc
surviving lnonuments provide r fairly dctailed
ovcrviclv of the rnajor lrtistic trcnds. Yet thc
survivilg rvolLs, especiallv from the early
Gupta period, shoulclnot necessaril,v be viervcd
es narking rvholly ne*' developments,partic-
 THE GUPTA PERTOD 219

ularly in the Hindu religion. For just as the the Guptaperiod,however,thereis little doubt
earliest survivins Buddha and bodhisattva that all threemajor Indic religions,Buddhism,
onograplnc images of the Sak-a+"rthi"n and Ku;dga periods Hinduism,andJainism, werenot only foudshing
he anatoru- may not represent the initial formulations of but were also fostering the development of
t controlled such icons, early Gupta-period Hindu works, significant artistic creations, though they are
lomy or a like the examples at Udayagiri, may reflect perhapsunevenlyreflectedin the survivngart
zure. some the crystallization of trends that had been works.
ierence for developing for decades,if not centuries. By
r rhe chest,
icipates the
f later Jain

had become
rei that the
:.v detailed
.is. Yet the

; be viewed
::1rt. Paruc-
 t
CHAPTER ELEVEN I
E

The GuptaAftermath
v-
Tur DrsrNrrcnarloN o F T H EE M P T R T

The Gupta king Budhagupta probably lived in India, while another branch of the Hu4a
Tonm:
until around a.D. Joo. This date serves as a family, led by the famous Anila (d. 453), was
Fdhi.aj
convenient,althoughnot absolute.turning point wreakins havoc at the courts of Ravenna The de(
in South Asian history, for it marks the begin- and Constantinople. But in spite of Skanda- ooce et
ning of the disintegration of the Gupta political gupta's defeat of the invaders, the difiicult s,tro. q
state, after whiah northem India wai fragmented military efforts must have drained the royal
up Se
into numerous principalities. The turn of the treasury, as suggested by the fact that fewer Budhag
sixth century also may be seen as a kind of eold coins were minted under him and the lDe tlr
watershedin the history oflndic art after which lold employ.d was lesspure. BudhaguPta,who gu]rr s
regional developmentsbecameincreasingly well ruled in the last quarter of the fifth century, r$a.ra <
defined, undoubtedly as a corollary of the also managed to hold the empire together al- colossal
decentralizationthat occurred upon the breakup thoush he faced the extemal threat and internal ro,tf+
of the Gupta empire. Although intemal prob- difiicultles as well since feudatories and minor IlreErS
lems, especially the disputed succession after rulers in the eastemportions of the empire and h€!- R
Bu&agupta, may have accounted for some in the west were gaining strength, and the srating
of the weakening of the empire, a rnajor factor Vakagakaswere already a strong political factor. his brn
wastheadventof the Epthalires.orWhire Hdnas By the closeof his reign, it was evident that the and qi
(Huns).who had begun to make incursionsinto Gupta enpire was past its glory.
on rle r
the Indic regions in the mid-fifth century. Evidence of the Huqa incursion is found at
lEg- r
Skandagupia(reigned ca. 45s-467)is reputed to Eran, where a large image of Varaha (Fig. rr.r) oi &e r
have been victorious in holdinq back the Hu4as bears an inscription dated in the first year of on de
 THI GUPTA AITIRMATH ?27

rr.r. Varthx. Eran, Madhya Pradesh,India. Ycar r of reigr of

Toraufna, dre Huna (ca. lete lifth or carly sixrh century).Sand-
stone. H: 34J c111.

:::1! Hina
Toramana, the Hur.ra,who is called a Mahara- Toramlna's first rcgnal year, the datc given
:_i:), was
jadhiraja, indicating his rulc in thc region.l on the inlge, rurst have occrirred around the
Lavenna
The dedication ofthc boar and the templc which end of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth
: Skanda-
once enshrined it was n.radeby Dhanyavisr.ru, centriry, at lvhich time the donor Dhanyavisnris
,. Jiilicult
who, with his elder brother Matrvisnu, had sct allegianceapparcntly transfcrrcd fiom lludha-
: :-:i royal
up the Garuda pillar at Eran in the rcign of gLlpm to Torandna. Such shifts arc not unusual
: : _,rfewer
Budhagupta sonre years carlier (Fir. ro.r3). in South Asian history, and were it not {br the
: .rnd the
The templc, now in ruins, was a small rcctan- common belief that thc H[na incursion had a
r r'-rl, who
_: aencury, gular structurc prcccded by a portico w'ith a dran-raticallydestrucrive impact on the culturc
- ::rher al- torana on tltc cast. Once cnshrincd rvithin, thc of ancicnt India, this dcdication lvould sccnl
colossal representation of Varaha, sirown as a p e r l e c t J yn o r r n . ' 1l.n r d d i t i o r r .' i n , , r h e i r r a g c
.: - internal
fourJeggcd theriomolph, is morc than lour and thc tcrnplc (as nuch as can be determincd
:.-l minor
nleters it1 length and stands ovcr three nletcrs of it) easily fall within thc paranctcrs of Indic
:::ire and
high, Rows of figures cover his body, repre- iconography lrld style of the late fifth :rnd
, ,nd the
senting the sages who sought shelter anong carly sixth centudes,it is not possibleto suggcst
, :.1lactor.
his bristles, as dcscribed irt the Visnu Purdna2 an inflLrenceon tlle art that is specifically as-
: :hat the
and which arc comparablcto the figures arrangecl s o c i a r c Jr v i r - r t l r c H u n . r s .5 i n . p l 1 . t l r e r r u c
on the rear $,'all of thc Var-ha cave at Udayagiri c f f c c ro f H t r r ' . ,r L r l ei r r ; n c i e n t I n J i . ro n . L r r i . t i c
: Irnd at
(Fig. to.8). As in anthropomorphic vcrsions devclopr-ncntsremains to be cxaminccl, but it
r-1,I r. r.)
- : r'ear of of the subject, the carth godclessis borne aloft is likely that rnuch untruth surrounds the conr-
on the tusk of the boar. m o n l l I L c l d v i c w r h a r r h c . c L , r e i g n e r sr v c r e
 PERIOD
222 DYNASTIXS OF THE MIDDLT

intolerant of the Indic religions and that they F_:-t:\-

in
sysrcmaticallydestroyed tenples and images c.-rsn- t
--: \le':r
iconoclastic fury.
--
Torarrlan^ continued to rule until around
his son'
a.l. 5r5, when he was succeededby :=afr\. -(

rttl.tii"["t". But around 53o, an individual

and
named YaSodharman rose to prominence
region
freed the north-central Indian Malwa
lasting
from Hona control. This king's briefrule'
Lnlv a decade,did rrot succeedtotally in i:a tr:l
"bout pose
desiroying the Hu4as, who continued to ::a lN-;\

ttr..",J f"i some tirne. In sPite of the political Bc5-r .

-..-..--'.
diffrculties after the reign of Budhagupta until -the
first
rise of Ya(oclharman,the art produced in the
part of the sixth century is the logical culmina- ::lL1lTli

iioo offifth-century trends.The site of Mandasor i:: ;l-<{o

-....'-
fancientDaiapura)in Mdlwa was an rmPortant
cen-
iul,ur.l ..n,.r. during the frfth and sixrh ::i aratr
,"ri"t. ,t,ttougL lirrle-remains-o[ the glory.of
"-entioned -.,_-.:,
th. ,.rr-rpl., in the several lithic
,".o..ls r'e.ov"red from the vicinity However' :.aD ci I

,ro*b., of sculptures and architectural frag- :=aa

"ments associated with Ya(odharman's reign :E.LAEq I

,n" artistic developments of the second r!e'e

".
"Utify
quarter of the sixth centurY' -c- o!
'
A dvarapalo(Fi1' rr'z), one of a pair ;:alaor
"olorr"l
now at Sofrdni, sit" once part of the metro-
"
oolitan
'.orr"o.",o Da6apura area, may have flan-ked the :'rle rlt
a Saivite temple in the Mandasor :ts LL' t

area. The Saivite nature of thesealmost mirror- 51- . .':

i-"g" {igor", is indicated by the trilala each
"well '--^'.
hold"sas as the presenceof the diminutive
figure from which the trilila seems to emerge ;;
(tTiirrlopuruso) 3 tn style' rhe figtrres clearly i.2. Dtarapald sondni, Mandasorarea, Madhya sr:n:}
seenat Deogarhand Nachnd- Pradesh, quarlersixth century Beige
India.Ca.second -::aart
i.lrt. io.*r-p|.,
H: u6ocrn.
sandstone.
Kr:rhara a few decadesbefore' and the same :!a'.1efe

refineurent and delicacy noted in late frfth- r;:- Ii

centurv art is present.An increasein the height =asel
relaxed but somewhat angular posture is sug-
.iaboratiin of the headdres, however' 6i'& d
I "nd gestive of the exaggerated Posescharactedstic
suggests Progrqss toward the more ofnate
I
periods' Further' the of figures in Post-GuPta art.
I {b;tt ti pir,-copr"

Tbe \t
O u r c s o w r n s o r r s t G u p r ' t I D I o M S( c A J J o - 7 o o ) oi hori
=; qq
pire. regionalPatternsalong Iinguistic' artistic'
The polirical unity imposed-by the Guptas on regirJ
lnd culi.,r"l lines increasingly became the hall- h -,ie ,
-ucli o[ no.th"m and norrh-centralIndia was
em- mark o[ lndic civilization. While such regional
only ternporary, for upon the collapseof the

vadations have been identifiable in South Asia
vinually from the earliest human remains
known, the unity of the political state under
the Mauryas and later the Guptas provided an
apparent overlay of commonality that was
quickly lost when the dynastiescollapsed.This
I e sr ; n x I l o r e
The Gupta empire reached as far east as what
ate today the Indian statesof Bihar and West
Bengal and the nation of Bangladesh. Bihar,
which includes the ancient Magadha heartland
ofthe Buddhist and Jain religions, had long been
important in the mainstream of Indic artistic
and historical developments.But Bengal, further
to the east, emerged as a force on the political
and artistic sceneonly after having beenbrought
furto the GuPta sphere primarily by Budha-
gupta during the fifth century. Aftet the cessa-
don of strong imperial control by the Guptas
in the east, there was a scramble for power
among numerous competing dynasts, many of
whose only apparent claim to fame is the pres-
ence of their names in the lists of dynastiesin
ancient history books. The situation became
clearer duriug the seventh century when two not-
able rulers emerged, Sa{anka,who is reputed to
be the Iirst king of Bengal, and Harga (r. 6oG
647), of the Vardhana family, who established
hegemony over much ofnorthem India includ-
ing parts of present day Uttar ?radesh, the
easternPafljab, and western Bihar. These early
seventh-centuryrulers are known mole through
literary and historical sourcesthan through art,
however, and much legend surrounds their
rule. Hsiian-tsang, the Chinese monk whose
ls sug-
travels throushout Buddhist India coincided
lf:.
with the perlod of Harga's rule, and whose
l-::acteristic
BUDDHIST Ant tN rur
The Magadha region had remained a stronghold
of both Buddhism and Jainism virtually since
the time of Sakyamuni Buddha and Mahavira,
sic, artistic,
regardlessof political situations in the region.
me the hall-
ln the caseoI Buddhism,the region was materi-
och regional
TH3 GUPTA AFTERMATH 22'
was particularlytrue after the decline of the
imperial Guptas in the eastem ancl western
extremesof the empire,wheredifferentbranches
of the Gupta family ruled simultaneously after
the death of Budhagupta,and clearly defined
artisticschoolsquickly emerged.
travel account4 is a main source of historical
information for the period, assertedthat Saianka
was a hater of Buddhism (he was a known
Saivite),but that Harsa was partial to Buddhism,
and in fact may have been a practicing Buddhist
himself. While Har;a's capital was at Kanauj,
in what is now lJttar Pradedr, his influence in
easternIndia, especiallyMagadha, seemsto have
been significant. Although archaeological evi-
dence has not vcrified Harsa'sputative associa-
tion with the artistic developmentsat nunerous
sires, in particular Buddhist monasteries.in
Magadha during fus reign, it is probable that
the developmentsrhat occrrrredwere in some
ways indebted to his tolerance and encourage-
nent. Saianka is also credited with artistic
activities, as he is said to have founded the
Lingaraja temple in Orissa,but he is alsoblamed
for the destruction of some Buddhist rernains
such as the Mahabodhi tcn.rple at Bodh Gaya,
which has since been restored on nLrmcrous
occasions. Harsa's association with Magadha
was formalized in his assumption of the title
"King of Magadha," an appellation possibly
chosen becauseMagadha was famous outside
of the Indic regions and thus such a titlc was
perhapsusefulin the forrnulations ofhis "foreign
policy," especiallyhis relationswith the emperor
or t -ntna-
Elst
ally helped by Buddhistsfiom other parts of
Asia, such as China and SoutheastAsia, and
thus the Buddhistholy land wasnot dependent
solely upon the fortunes of local rulers to
maintain itself. During the Gupta period and

variations have been identifiable in South Asia
virtually from the earliest human remarns
known, the unity of the political state under
the Mauryas and later the Guptas provided an
apparent overlay of commonaliry that was
quickly lost when the dynastiescollapsed.This
EAsTIRN INDIA
The Gupta enpire reached as far east as what
are today the Indian statesof Bihar ard Wesr
Bengal and the nation of Bangladesh. Bihar,
which includes the ancient Masadha heartland
ofthe Buddhist and Jain religioni, had long been
important in the mainstream of Indic artistic
and historical developments.But Bengal, further
to the east, emerged as a force on the political
and artistic sceneonly after having beenbrought
into the Gupta sphere prirnarily by Budha-
gupta during the fifth century. After the cessa-
tion of strong imperial control by the Guptas
in the east, there was a scramble for power
among numerous comPeting dynasts, many of
whose only apparent claim to fame is the pres-
ence of tleir names in the lists of dynastiesin
ancient history books. The situation became
clearer during the seventh century 'when two not-
able rulers emerged, Sa5anka,who is reputed to
be the first king of Bengal, and Harsa (r. 6o6-
647), of the Vardhana farnily, who established
hegernony over much of northern India includ-
ing parts of present day Uttar Pradesh, the
easten Pafrj-b, and western Bihar. These early
:, Madhya
seventh-centuryrulers are known more through
rturl'. Beige
literary and historical sourcesthan through art,
however, and much legend surrounds their
rule. Hsiian-tsang, the Chinese monk whose
rre rs sug- travels throughout Buddhist India coincided
aracteristic with the period of Harsa's rule, and whose
Buorltlst AxT rN rnr East
The Magadha region had remained a stronghold
of both Bu.{j'lhism and Jainism virtually since
rc, altlsttc, the time of Sakyamuni Buddha and Mahavira,
e the hall- regardlessof political situations in the region.
:h regional In the caseof Buddhisn, the reqion was maten-
THX GUPTAAFTERMATH 22'
was particularly true after the decline of the
imperial Guptas in the eastern and western
extremesofthe empire, where different branches
of the Gupta family ruled simultaneously after
the death of Budhagupta, and clearly defined
artistic schoolsquickly emerged.
travel account4 is a main source of historical
information for the period, assertedthat Sa6anka
was a hater of Buddhism (he was a known
Saivite),but that Harsa was partial to Buddhism,
and in fact may have been a practicing Buddhist
himself. While Harsa's capital was at Kanauj,
in what is now ljttar Pradesh,his influence in
eastemIndia, espcciallyMagadha, seemsro have
been significant. Although archaeological evi-
dence has not verified Harga'sputative associa-
tion with the artistic developmentsat numeroLts
sires. in parricular Buddhist monasteries.in
Magadha during his reign, it is probable that
the developmentsthar occurred were in some
ways indebted to his tolerance and encourage-
ment. Sasairka is also credited with artistic
activities, as he is said to have founded the
Lingaraja temple in Orissa, but he is also blan.red
for the destruction of some Buddhist remains
such as the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya,
which has since been restored orr numerous
occasions. Harsa's association with Magadha
was formalized in his assumption of the title
"King of Magadha," an appellation possibly
chosen becauseMagadha was famous outside
of the Indic regions and thus such a title was
perhapsusefulin the formulations ofhis "foreign
policy," especiallyhis relationswith the emperor
or \-nlne.
ally helped by Buddhistsfrom other parts of
Asia, such as China and Sorrtheasr Aiia, and
thus the Buddhistholy land was not dependent
solely upon the fortunes of local rulers to
maintain itself. During the Gupta period and
224 DYNAS'fIIS OF THE MIDDI I IEITIOD

colsistins of a sqlrarc plinth rvith a rocky lancl-

scapedesign surmountcd by a round lotus into
which the figurc is set, rnuch as if it wcrc a
netal image placed iuto a base.Elegaut, monu-
nental, and finely carved, this image docuneuts
a little ltnolvt pcriocl of Indic art ticd to nor-
Magaclhan sourccs but clcarly of local manu-
factnrc, as indicated by the grey black stone
out of rvhich it is carved.
One of the nlost rcnorrncd Bucldhist insritu-
tions in eastcrn India aftcr thc Gtpta pcriod -'tr
\r'as the rnonastic univcrsity of Nalanda. A
'I number of modcrn villagcs prcscndy occupy
tirc cxtcnsivc arca of the ancicrt site, and only
a smali portion of thc once hugc monastery c
has bcen revealeclby cxcavation. Ancient Bud- =!
dhist tr:rclitior-rsknown lron eariy canonical _l

rexts refer to Nalanda es a suburb of Rajgir ancl

it is like1yth:rt thc sitc, rvhich was not historically I
associatccl rvith an cvcnt in the life of Sakyamuni I
Buddha, r'as not promincnt rrntil the Gupta
rr.3. Buddha,fl:rnkingentranccro MahtbodhiteIrrple. period, although it was apparently founded
Bodh Gayt, Bilur, Indie.Ca. sevelthccrrrurv.Black carlicr.
stone. H: ca,rJocrn. Thc Nalancll cstablishurentis rlost properly
r r r l r , r l . r r i d l , airl n r a ( g t c , t ra i l r a r n ). .i n c c i r w a .
aD aqgregxtion of scverll n-ronastcrics. Although
latcr, ancicnt holy placessuch asBodh Gaya 'r''ere prcccclcr.rts for this typc of cstablishr.rrcnt may bc
refurbished or maintained and ner,v oncs were found in sor-ncofthc Iksr'tku remaitrs,in Bactro-
founded. By thc Pala pcriod, bcginning in the Glnclhera and other areas, it is not until dre
eighth ccntr.rry 4.o., so m:r1rylludclliistcstablish- Gtrpta pcriod t)nt nnlndharas, rvhich oftcn
ments or tiharas dottctl drc rcgion that its c : r r r c r o b . ' c . . r r o I J t , ' r r l e . , r r r ig . ' r r Cl r L , c r . ' l
n-roclcm nlrnc, Bihar, is a rnclnory of that schol;rrsl-rip, beclrDcthc norm. Hsiien-tsangtclls
phcnonrcnon. of tlrc fonnrling.ofthis nalfirilnra.i Supposcdly,
Most of thc sculpturc thrt nr.lst hAvc bccn e king nrmcrl Sekraditya, u,ho hes bccn iclcn-
procluced in the sixth end sevcnth ccnturics hxs tificcl :rs KLuraregupt.LI (cx. +rS-+ss), laid the
been lost; possibly,stucco:inc1terrl cotta rvcrc lounchtions lncl built a nlonastery thcrc. Tliis
co1l1ll1or1lyused but rvere sir-r-Lp1y not strong is supportedin that Fa-hsien,trrveling il drc
cllough to sulvive the centurics :l11c1 periodic carly fitth ccntury, onlv mcntions thc place :rs
clcstmctiolls the r'egion sullcr'cd. Hou'cvc-r, an thc birthplecc of Sariputra, tht' clisciplc of
image of a strncling Uuddhe in abhoya nudrc Sdkyamuni lluclclha.and rclers to a rttipa there.6
prcsently flrnkirlg thc cnt|ncc to thc Mahaboclhi That grcatcr rloticc is not given by Fa-irsien
ten.rplc ar Ilodh Caya sLrggests somcthing of sugccststhat indeeclthe eror,vthofthis monastcry
111., . r p p c . r r . L r r r
L, r J tlpic,.l " t l p r . t r c r t t . r d c occurrecl in thc l.lter Gupta pcriocl and aftcr.
aftcr thc (inpta period, pcrlnps in thc scvcnth Horvcvcr, since Fa-hsicu's clcscriptionsare fre-
cennrry (Fig. rr.j). The debt to Sarnathidioms qrrerrtlyskctchy,tlis cal]rot bc takc[ as a ru]c.
. T - r .. | . . . c T ,t - - t , . r ( . d ( \l ( d I n Hsiiln-tseng'sstorv rcvclls that aftcr the kinq
r h c , r . , n c c. ' r r db ^ d ) 1 ' p c . , , r r , l . r . t l r c r r L . r r l y Sakradityr, othcrs (some of r'honr are not
invisiblc clrapcry and snriling facc. Thc figute knowr in othcr historical clocuments)sr,rches
stands on an u[r]sLiel tlrlcc-rliruensionalpcdcstal Buclhagnptn, T.thagrt., I3alaclitye, Vrjr,i, and a
 THE GUPTA AFTMMATH 22J
rockt land- king of central India extended their patronage to by gatekeepers(an honorific position for highly
C iotus into the site. According to Hsiian-tsang, Budhagupta learnedmonls).
f it s.-ere a built a monastery to the south of the first one; The most dominant structure at Nalandt
pnt. monu- Tathagata erected one to rhe.easr of Budha- today is the one designatedas Stupa/Temple 3
iocuments gupta's; Baladirya erected a three-storied pavi- at the southem end of the complex (Fig. ri.4).
ied to non- lion; and Vajra construcreda monastery to the This monument is the product of several dill
ocal manu- west of that of Baladitya. Thus, according to ferent phascsof ionstruction. At the core is a
black stone tradition, within a span of about one cenrury, sr,l.all stipa with a square base mcasurrng r73
at least five monastic units had been built. The centimeters on each side and a height of r37
hirr institu- king of central India later erected a high wall cenrimeters.Tts dare is not known, nor is it
rpa period and gate around the earlier structures,and thus known to whom it is dedicated,since no relic
\alanda- ,1! the site becarne a truly unified aggregate. was found within, but it hasbeen suggested,due
dr- occupy However, if Nalanda was patronized by the to the obvious care and expense lavished on
e- and only GupJas,it was brought to prominence during this monument, that it rcpresents the caitya of
monastery the reign of Harsa. Hsiian-tsangdescribeslife in Sariputra over which A6oka is reputed to have
rcient Bud- the monastery during this period, saying that built a temple, Three more rather modest
r canonical rules were strictly obeyed and that rebellion enlargementswere made to this core, but in
'Ralgir
and simply never occurred. Strict policies of admis- the creation of the 6fth shell, the structure took
hisrorically sion were followed and prospective students on a ncw appearancc and form, Large in sizc.
Sakvamuni were screened before entering the monastery and having four corner towers, this layer was
rhe Gupta
v founded

sr properly
ince it was
i Although
enr may be
. in Bactro-
,{ until the
'hich often
ard liberal
r-rsang tells
iupposedly,
been iden-
_;r. laid the
rhere. This
Iinq in the
he place as
iisciple of
trga there.6
rv ra-nslen
i fronastery
:nJ after.
,n: are fre-
n :-. a rule.
:r rhe king
t :re not
Lt' such as rr.4. Stnpa/ Temple 3. Nalanda, Bihar, tndia. Ca. late sixth,early
ei:.:.. and a seventhcentr,rry,Brick and stucco,
?26 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

rr.J. Figureson Stdpa / Temple

3. Nilande, Bihar, India. Ca. !1_:Jer
late sixth--early seventh century.
Stucco.
\te
:r.eiir:
!1el;
oi P.Jl
1.dage
DINAT
og]- a
*ar o
'Es. :

h s1lt.
Bud&
shors ,
rng inr
AtM
archire
lavislrly decorated with stucco architectural the sir
mouldings and niches containing figures of
Buddhas and bodhisattvas (Fig. rr.5). Bricks
with Buddhist inscriptions used in this phase
are believed to date from the late sixth or early
seventh century, around the time of Harga's
reign or slightly earlier, on the basis of paleo-
graphy. In style, the sculptures also fit this at-
tribution, for while they still strongly relateto
Gupta material from sitessuch as Sarnathin the
slender,gracefully posed figures, their clinging,
near transparent drapery, and the style of their
costumes, the slendemessis perhaps greater
than that seen at Samath. This is visible in the
very thin faces especially, wbich anticipate
the sryle to be seen in subsequentsculpture at
Nalanda. This core, revealed by archaeologists,
was not the latest addition to this monument,
for two more layers were added, posibly not
long after the fifth. Stucco, like terra cotta, n
r highly frrgile medium. lts nse. as tllat of
t
brick, was popularized during the Gupta period,
both in the eastern and western outreachesof
the former Gupta empire, possibly as an eco-
nomic measure.The populariry oF stucco may rr.6. Buddha. From Sultengeflj,
fl
Bihar, India. Ca. seventh cen- {..
be relatcd to Inner Asian practicesthat grew up
tury. Metal. H: ca. zoo cm. Bir- rr--- Ka
where stone was scarce.However, its adoPtion rningham Museurn and Art Gal- .eveoth
at Nelanda and other sites in Magadha where PaBla -\ll

npa / Temple stone was abundant nust have been due to
'. lndi:. Ca.
other considerations.
'enrh century.
Metal must have also been a popular artistic
medium in eastern India, although it too is
barely representedamong the known exarnples
of post-Gupta art. However, an extraordinary
image of a Buddha from Sultanganj in eastern
Bihar indicatesthat not only was metal technol-
ogy an advanced sciencein ancient India, but
that craftsmen were able to use it to advantage
(Fig. rr.6). The image, which is larger than
THE GUpTA AETERMAT]J 227
human-size and weighs more than a ton, was
found during railway excavationsin the nine-
teenth century. Undoubtedly, it was not a
unique creation and others of similar ambi-
tiousness must have existed, but since metal
corrodes and can be melted down and reused
for other purposes, many of the rrnages pre-
sumed to have been produced have been lost.
Stylistically, the figure strongly relates to the
Nalanda stuccos and a seventh-century date
may be suggestedfor its production.

HrNou Anr rN rnr last

In spiteof the fact that Magadhawasprimarily controversial inscription from Mu4de$ari gives
Buddhist,otherportionsof the easrcrn regions the year thirry of an unspecified era,? often
show evidencethat Hindu worshipwas becom- thought to be the Harsa era, which began in
ing increasinglypopularin post-Guptapedods. A.D.606, thus giving a date equivalent to 636;
At Mundefuari Hill in Bihar, for example, and it is possiblethat some ofthe artistic produc-
archirecrura]andsculptural remainssrrggest
that tions found at Mundeivari date from this period.
the site was an important Hindu center, A An image of Karttikeya (Fig. rl.7) and another

529,

rr.7. Kartrikeya. Fron Mundeivan, Bihar, India. Ca. rr.8. Surya. Frorn Mun{e(varr. Bihar. India. Ca.
GJ- seventh century. Reddish brown stone. H: 68.5 cm. seventh century. Reddish brown stone. H:48,5 cm.
PatnaMuseurn,Petna. Patna Museum, Paha,
226 DYNASTITS OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

of Surya (Fig. r r.8) from the vicinity of Munde-

6vari demonstrate the stylistic idiom of the
severth century. These Hindu figures reveal
sorneof the graceand delicacy of Sameth Gupta
imagery, although the figurcs are nlore stocky
and short in their proportions and perhapsrnore
accentulredrn rheir posture.. In stylc. rhcy rc-
veal associationsn.rorewith north-central Indian
Gupta modes, sccn,for cxample, at Eran and
other sites, rathcr than the Buddhist Sarnath
idcal.
A t A p s a d h .a l ' o i n B i l r a r .a n i n s c r i p t i o twr a s
found that tells of a king Adityasena of the
Later Gupta dynasty who is tl.rotght to havc
ruled in the third quarter of the seventhcentury,
around a.r. 672. A lengthy genealogy of this
family, which is also knowl as tlle Guptx line
of Magadha but whose relationship to the
imperial Guptas is unclear, is included, and the
inscription further records the building of a
Visnu temple by Adityasena, the erection
.g. Ranaya'la scene.Apsedh,Biher, India. Ca. third
of a rcligious college or r.nonastery by his
quarter seventhcentury, Stucco.H: 96 cm,
mother, and the excavation of a tank by his
wife.8 Although no trace of the religious college
or tank have been identified in modern times,
it is believed that thc large mound at the site
i s t h e r e m . r i r r 'o [ A d i r y e . e n a . t e r n p l e .T h c
mound has not been fuily excav?ted but one
side has been cleared to reveal a nurnber of
fine stucco sculpturesthat have becn idcntified
as scenesfrom the great Hindu epic, the Rarra-
yana (Fig. rr.9). The san.rcfrcc stylc sccn in
Gupta-pcriod tcrra cottas such as those frotr
Ahicchattra is present here, and nust bc in
sorDe part dlre to the rralleable natruc of thc
materill. A numbcr of stonc sculptures have
al,o bccn rccoverc.rfronr Ap.rdlr tlrat. for thc
nost part, sccrn to datc fror-n thc period of
Adity"sena as well. Oue of the most bcautiful
of thcsc is a standing male figure, presumably
Visnu, carved of the local black stone typically
usedin the sculptureofthis rcgion (Fig. rr.ro).e
The refinenent and delicacy of thc dctaiiing
and the gentle colrntenanceof thc god owc a
clear dcbt to Gupta art, but thc incrcasccloma-
mcntatioll, and lesseneddegree of softnessand
r re t r r e e r r h c p a r t . o f
f l r r i d i t yi n t l r c r r . r n s i r i o b rr.ro. Vittu. From Apsaclh,Bih.r, India. Ca. third
thc body sLrggesta departure froln the earlier quater seventhcentury. Black stonc. H: 9r.J clll. Mrs.
idiorr. John D. Rockefellcr3rd Collcction.

'Wtsrrnx
IltoIlt't DlvrropurNts
Certain artistic developments in the western
regions of ancient India that arosein the wake
of the decline of the imperial Guptas provide
important insights into the earlier history of
the region, especially the heritage of Western
classicisticsyles. Probably the oldest surviving
structural temple in the Saurasprapeninsula of
Gujarat state is the so-called Old Temple at
cop (Fig. rr.ii), which is thought to have been
built between 575 and 6oo, when this region
was under the sway of the Maitraka dynasty.
Its form and style, while unusual in terms
of the mainstream developments in northem
temple architecture(nagara).is an inreresting
episode in the development of westem Indic
styles, deriving both fiom earlier traditions in
the west, as well as from Gupta modes. Rela-
tionships between the Gop tenple and later
Ka6miri forms, as well as earlier Bactro-
lia. Ca- third Gandhara architecture, have been observed by
D.
scholars,and the temple is usually classi{iedas
belonging ro the "Candheric" type since it
preservesa number of elementsfiom the north-
westem tradition of the Kusana period. One
of these is the so-called "penthouse-type"
roof (actually a pyramidal roof rising from
a square base), known as the phathsanatype.
This forn is laterro bc seen in Kairnrr, suggesr-
ing an early widespread dispersalof the con-
vention-10
The temple at Gop sits atop a high terrace
(jogati) that ts squarein plan except for a projec-
tion on the east (Fig. rr.rz). Originally, steps
at either side of the extensionwould have given
the devotee accessto the templc. The increased
plinth height, in comparison, for exanple, with
the Visnu temple at Deogarh and the "Parvati"
temple at Nechn5-Kuthara, anticipates later
developments in northem temple architecture.
The bold form of three false dornlcr windows
(cadraiala) decorateseach slope of the peaked
roof, creating a dominant motif on the monu-
ment. In general, relative simplicity prevails,
perhaps indicating the early date of the
ta. Ca. third temple, although in this casecaution should be
9r.5 crn. Mrs. exercised in making such a judgment, as
numerous later templ€s in this region are also
THE GUPTA AFTXRMATH 229
rather stark and plain. Further, the use of large,
heavy blocks of stone in the construction of
the temple, often also seenasan "early" element
refecting associationswith Gupta temple archi-
tecture, seemsin this caseto be a regional form,
since later ternples as well maintain this type
of construction. It is not known to whom the
temple was originally dedicated, as no image
was found in the shrine and most ofthc extcrior
decoration is lost. Originally, thts sandhara
shrine was enclosedby a circumambulatory pas-
sage, as was the "P-rvati" temple at Nachna-
Kuthara, although, like that of the earlier
temple, this enclosureis now in rurns.
The Maitraka dynasty, which may have been
ruling SauresFaat the time the Gop tcmple was
built, forms a puzz\ng chapter in the history of
South Asian art. One of the most durable ofthe
new statesthat arose upon the ruin of the im-
perial Guptas, the Maitrakas seem to have been
establishedby the late fifth century (their earliest
presently known land grant is dated to around
Jo2). Yet, in spite ofa rule ofover two hundred
and {ifty years, little is known about the art of
this dynasty. Over one hundred temples in Sau-
ra;ga have been identified as bclonging to the
Maitraka period, although none can be speci-
fically tied to the patronage of the rulers them-
selvesand none is datableon the basisofinscrip-
tional evidence. This pcculiarity is especially
notable becausethe Maitrakas in general left
extensive epigraphic records, many of which
describe their generosity to and patronage of
religious establishnents. By all standards, the
rulers must have been wealthy, since Valabhi,
the now-ruined Maitraka capital, was at that
time a seaport and a major tradc center linking
ancientIndia with the Persianand Mediterranean
worlds. Recordsdating from between about J3J
and 7oo document donationsmade by individuals
to specifically nan.redBuddhist establishments.ll
Hsiian-tsang, who travelled to Valabhi in 64o,
spoke of the flourishing of Buddhism in the
area.lz And yet, virtually nothing has been
recoveredfiom Valabhi and its vicinity to testify
to its former glory. I-tsing, another Chinese
traveler, who visited India during the Maitraka
rr.r2. PhD of Old T.nrpic. Gop,
GLUar.t,Lrdi:r.Mritrrka pcriod.
 THE GUPTA AFTTRMATH 2'T
supremacy (although he did not visit Valabhr),
mcntions that the two pron-rinent centers of
learning in India at the time (lateseventhcentury)
were Nalanda in the east and Valabhi in the
west,13
Thus, an important chapter in the develop-
ment of Indic art as known Gom historical
sourcesis a virtua] blanl<to us. A good portion
of the materials must have been plundered, for
the collapse of the Maitraka enlprrc was ac-
celerated by a marine invasion of Arabs from
Sind, and this was only a prelude to the largc-
scaleadvent of Muslims whose iconoclastic zeal
is well known as onc of the contributing causes
of the decline and destruction of nonumental
art in northern India. But undoubtedly, future
discoveries will help us to better understand
this important phaseoflndic art.
The distinctiveregionalcharacterofart in west-
ern India and the merging of the earlier Bactro-
Gandhara inlluence with north-central Indian
Gupta modes is visible in sculptureand architec-
ture alike. A number of sites in Rajasthanand
northem Gujarat have yielded interesring sculp-
tural remains, usually carved of the distinctive
greenishblue or greyish blue schistIocally known
^s pireua stone. SeveralGmalc figures found at
Tanesara-Mahadeva, about fi fty kilometers from
Udaipur, reveal aspectsof thc style that was
apparently current throughout southwestern
Rajasthanafter the Gupta period, in around the
sixth century. Although they are usually identi-
frcd as matykasand have been presuned to have
been part of a sapta,flabl<agroup, they may
insteadrepresentthe six &rrrl&asor foster mothers
of Karttikeya, also called the Skandamatas
(Mothers of Skanda).raSupposedly,Karttikeya's
six faces developed so that he could drinl the
milk of the six mothers, who comprise the con-
stellation Pleiades.lsIn style, the figures betray
a Hellenistic flavor combined with the Gupta
heritage. The depiction of one Skandamata,for
example(Fig. r r. r3), shows a rather solidly built,
almost muscular looking female reminiscent of
Ku954a and post-Kus-na portrayals of won.ren
from the northwest. The drapery is highly rr.rJ. Skandam:ta. From Tanesara-Mahadeva.R:_
naturalistic,with heavy, three-dimensionalfolds jasthan, India. Ca. sixth century. Greenishblue schist.
that recall Bactro-Gandhara types, as does H:76.4 cm. Los Angeles County Museum of Art,
the curly hair. The child al.o ha, a Hellenized Los Angeles (Nasli and Alice HeeramaneckCollection).
2J2 DYNASTIESOl: THr MIDDIE PERIOD
rr.r4. Sxivite kst,dpald.Ftot.lrSa rxl:ji, Gujartr, India'
Ca. secondquarter sixth ccntury. Grey schist H: 93 J
cln. Princeof WalesMuseurnof WcsternIndia, Bon1bsy'
appearance,undoubtedly based on crotes and
oiher .hild depictions that had been freely in-
corporated into the western Asiatic rePertore'
Yci clearly, these forms, lvhile indebted to
Bactro-Gaudhara precedcnts, reveal the grace,
chanr.r,and delicacy of the Gupta tradition, as
doesthe dcpiction of the clinging.garments'
At Samalaji in Gujarat, a nutnber of impres-
sive stone sculpturcs wcre found- T}Leir datc
and patronagc remain controvcrsial However,
"they
stylisticaily, seem to bclong to thc sixth
..lrarry, ,ttort probably thc second quarter of
that century. A Saivite in.ragepcrhaPsrePresent-
rrtg a ksetrapalo(r kind of Protective deity)
rr.r6.!:
rr.rJ. Vilnu VlavartPa.At Nilaka4lhaMahadcvatcD-
\ 1 . 1 h r : . !: i
ple. Samalaji,Grjarat, India. Ce. sccondquartcr sixrh
centurl'. Blue-grcy schist.H: ror.6 cn.
ne\i c:
shows thc rem:rrkably high quality ofcraftsrnan-
ship of the westernIndian sculPtor(Fig. rr.r4).
Thi hcavy drapery, like that of thc figurcs from
,::..'; c.
Tarcsara-Mahadcva, revcals a classicisticheri-
tage, but thc delicatecarving and graceful forlns
:,.lit c-
d e r i v c f r o r n t l r e C u p t a r r . r d i r i o nl.h c ' t r o n g
rclationship of this {igurc and other sir.niiaroncs
-:::a: -:
to cxanplcs frorn the Mandasor region (Fig
r t . . z )' r r g g e , tb r o . ' d t r r t . t i c t i c ' . r r l t o n gs i r c ' i n
::::1::
thc rl,'esternand northr,vcstcrnregions.Howevcr,
the posc of the rnair-r{igure is even more exag-
:-, . i::
gerltcd and thc entire configuration more orn'lte
r l ' . r r rr h c M r n d : r o r . c t r l p t t r r cs. e c t t i i n gt o a n r i -
cipate more fully d.re stylistic directions of the
 THE GUPTAAFTERMATH 2,'
r'elief in the center), Brahma (beneath him),
auata$ and tyuhas ol yisnu. himself, and India
and Surya.r6As Viivarupa (Having All Forms),
Visnu appears as the Universal in whom ail
things are embodied and from whom all thines
emanate.This form of Vi5nu, while known in
a number of Hhdu texts, is describedperhaos
mosr poignantly in the BhagavadGlr;, a woik
appended to,rhe Mahabharai, which is basically
a dialogue berween Arjuna and hjs charioteei.
who is none other rhan Visnu in his Krsna in_
carnation.The dialoguerakesplaceon the eve
of rhe great battie of Kuruk5eria, when Arjuna
is overcome wirh doubt about rhe righteouiness
of the.killing that will occur the ne"xrday and
begins ro-questionKrsna. In responseto Arjrrna..
request that he reveal himself Krsga manifests
himself in a forrn that embodies every asoectof
the universe, and rhus fills Arjuna with awe.
All various coiors. alJ moving ind unmoving
trungs,many mouths.eyes,ornaments.weapons.
marvelous garlands,garments, perfumes, and
olntments are contained within Arjuna,s vision-
While such a vision would be impossible to
porrray in a work of arr, the ard;rs of this
carving. have clearly attenpted to suggest the
multiplicity inherent in it. The stvli-of the
figures, though somewhat dificult io discern.
fall: wthm rhe definitionsof the sixrh-cenrury
l:hadeva tem- rr.16. Stele. Ar Baredeviche Deul. parel (Bombay), school at Samalaii-
quafter sixth Maharasfra, Irdia. Ca. frst half sixth cenrury. Stone. The
H: 348 cm. -regional styles developing rr vanous
parts of westem India following the breakup
of the Gupra empire were
_highJ/dependenroi
wnat must have been earlier artistic traditions
irr each locale. Thus, while some general .,post_
,f craftsman- next centuries,particularly those to be seen in Gupta" featuresmight be common to works of
(Fig. rr.r4). the art of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. Thus, the art produced *noughourthe region, Iocal peculi_
tgures from Samalaji sculpture rnay be slightly later, and may an esare atsolound. and thesein turn form the
icistic heri- have been made as late as around a.u. 55o. basisfor the highJy distilcrive sryles*ut emerged
rceful forms The trend towards increased elaboration is rn- arouncl.the seventh century. A huge stele
The strong even clearer in a representation of Visnu Vij- (Fig. rr.16) found at parel in the Bomb--ayarea
siadlar ones v_arBpa.also from Semaldji, which probably migk appearat first glanceto relare stron;ly to
region (Fig. dates from around the same rime (Fig-. rr.r5j. the Viivarupa image from Samalaji (fig. ilr5),
ong sites in Xight-armed and four-faced (the fourth implied but this is largely due to the coincidence of
s. However, at the rear), Vis4u sits atop the serpentAn-nta, their emanarory iconographies a:rd the general
more exag- wears an elaborate crown, and is accompanied similarities arising from rhe lact rhat bJrh are
rDoreomate by a seemingmuJtirudeoffigures, most ofwhom western Indian works ofabout the sixth centurv-
ing to anti- seem to emanate from his head. These fisures The Parel stele,however, finds its closeststylistic
tions of the inclode the ayudhapttrr^, SiV" (.t th" top of th" counterparrs in the caves at Elephanta
lFigs.
 2)4 D Y N A \ T I L \ O I T H T M I D D IL P I R I O D

rr.r7. Dratupald. Ltkharlrandal, Uftar pradcsh, India.

Ca. sixth or seventhcentury. Illack stone.H: r78 cm.

r r . r 8 . B r a h r ) a . F r o r l B r a h m a n a b a d ,p a k i s t a n . C a . s i x t h
ccntury. Mfial. H: 96.5 cnr. National Muscum, Karachi.
 THX GUPTA AFTERMATH 2'J

I r3.J-8) and related sires, indicating a regional

style probably current around the Bombay area
during the first half of the sixth century. In
general, this style reflects the rather heavy, full-
figured body type prevalent in the sculptural
stylesthat evolved in the westem Deccan
"iound
the fifth century, as at Aja+Ia, and contrasts
with the figure types developed in Gr{arat and
Rajasthan identifiable in. the images from
Tanesar-Mahadeva and Samalali. ih" t igh
hcaddressesand elaborate coiffures are also
characteristicof this style. The identification of
the subjectofthis reliefis controversial,although
most authorities agree that it is Saivite rather
than Vaig4avite. The three c€ntral figurcs ap-
parenrlyreprescntmanifesrations or er)raflations
of the main diviniry.lT
lvidence of Gupta aesthetics affecting art
production in outlying regions is found in a
life+ize, black stone irnage of a duirapala, one
ofa pair,18found at Lakhrmandal in the Siwalik
Range (LesserHimalaya$ in the far north of
India (Fig. rr.i7). Although the rmages are
of uncertain age, the delicate forms, graceful
poses,and diaphanousdrapery betray the pene-
tration of the Gupta ideal into what rnay have
been an isolated pocket of the Indic regions. A
date of the sixth or posibly seventh century
may be suggestedfor the figures, which are
virtually identical, each showing a standing
male dressedin a finely delineateJ//rori, with I
simple necklaceand ornate crown. The articula-
tion of the knee, the treatment and pose of the
body. end the unu.ual rype of qarmint do nor
find prrrlJelsin other styicsof ;dic arr ofposr
Gupta ages, but instead, find ties with Cam-
bodian sculpturesof the early seventhcentury.te
As in easternIndia and Bangladesh,a number
of metal images from the weit provide further
evidence of sculptural idioms and indicate the
supposedpopularity of meml as a medium, in
spite of the paucity of remains. A very large
statue of Brahma2o(Fig. rr.r8) found at Brah-

rr.r9. Tithaikara.Ftom Vasantagadh,

Rajastban,
Irdia.
Year 744 Vikrama era (A.D.687). Mcral; grasseyesand
eye
_paint added lacer. H: r37 cn. In Jain temple at
Pi4davad., Rajasrhan,India.