ATOM

The atom is the smallest unit of which a chemical element is built, The word comes from old Greek
and it means uncuttable thing becouse they thought that an atom is indestructable.An atom
consist of the nucleus and electrons wihich ocupy quantized energy bands called shells or orbits. The
theory of the sturcture of a an atom was that the electrons move around the nucleus like the planets
move around the sun. The number of shell is limited according to the Pauli exclusion principle, As the
elements increase in atomic number Z, they generally fill the shells in an orderly fashion. A more
recent theory regards the electorns as a cloud and refers to a probalbility density.

Conducting and insulating materials
In electrical engineering materials can be divided into: conductors, semiconductors, insulators and
magnetic materials. All materials posses some ability to conduct electricity. If we connect the
material to a power source and if we can mesure that a current flows trough it then it is a conductor,
and if we can't mesure it then it is an insulator. Good conductors are all metals that are recognized
with their hardness, ductiliy, malleability, luster and good conductivity of heat and electricity. Copper
and copper based alloys are unique in their desirable combination of physical and mehanical
properties. High electrical and thermal conductivity makes them very important in the electrical
industry. The second best conductor is aluminium that was early used in the electrical field becouse
of it's excelent weather resistance. Materials that posses low conductivity are considered as
insulating materials.Electrical porcelain is an outstanding insulator becouse it combines mehanical
stability and strength with heat and electrical resistance. Semiconducting materials such as
gemanium and silicon behave in a dfferent way from conducting materials becouse of different
conductive properties.Today silicon is mostly used in majority of electronic devices.
What is engineering
Engineering is the aplication of science to the needs of humanity. Engineers use basic principles and
energy sources from the natural world and apply them in order to benifit people. Engineers obtain
competence in basic science, mathematics, and engineering science. There are many branshes of
engineering.Civil engineering is about planning, designing, and supervising construction and
managment of infrastructures in both public and private sector. Mehancial engineering involves
designing, manufacturing and testing all kinds of mehanical things. Electrical engineering deals with
electricity frome electrons to large-scale magnetic fields. Computer engineerig applies scientific
theory and engineering desingh for using and developing new computer hardware or software.
The electric circuits
The concept for circuit is a never-ending looped pathway for electrons. If we take take a wire or
many wires joined end-to-end and loop it around so that it formes a continuous pathway, we have
produced a way to suport a uniform flow of electrons.Each electron advancing clockwise in this
circuit pushes on the one in front of it, which pushes the on in front of it, and so on.

Transistors
The function of a transistor is to amplify current. For exapmple it can amplify the output voltage from
a small logic chip to operate a lamp or other high current devices.It can also be used as a switch.
There are two types of transistors NPN and PNP. These letters refer to the layers of semiconductor
material used to make transistors. NPN is the most one used becose it is easy to make. It can be
damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. The two easy ways to test a transistor is
with a multimeter and with a simple switching circuit. The digital multimeter should be set to diode
test and the analogue multimeter should be set to a low resistance range.The pair of leads should
be tested both ways. So there are 6 tests in total.
a) The base-emitter junction should behave like a diode and conduct in only one way
b) The base-collector junction should behave like the base-emitter junciton
c) The collector-emitter should not conduct either direction.
And to test it in a switching circuit Wwe connect the transistor into the circuit which uses the
transistor as a switch. The voltage should be between 5 and 12V.If the transistor is functioning
properly, it should light up when the switch is pressed and not remain lit when the switch is
released. There is also a transistor called Darlington pair. It behaves like a single transistor with a
very high current gain.
How transistor work
Miprocessors are vital to many of the products we use every day. Transistors are the main
components of microprocessors. Transistors may seem simple but their development required
many years of painstacking research. Transistors are miniature electronic switches, They are the
building blocks of the microprocessor, which is the brain of a computer.They have two operating
positions, on and off. On and off are binary functionality of transistors, it enables the computer to
process information becouse computers only understand if there is a signal or not.