ACTA

PHYSIOLOGIAE
PLANTARUM
Vol. 20. No. 2. 1998:201-212
Review
Rol e of chromi um on pl ant growt h and met abol i sm
Sanghami t ra Samant aray 1 Gyana Ran j an Rout 2, and Premananda Das 1,2.
1Plant Physiology and Biochemistry Laboratory, 2 Plant Biotechnology Division, Regional Plant Resource Centre,
Bhubaneswar- 751 015, Orissa, India, Fax: 0091-674-450274
* corresponding Author
Key words : Chromium, Cr distribution, Phytotox-
icity, Tolerance
Abstract
The beneficial as well as toxic effects of chromium with regard
to its absorption, translocation and accumulation in different
parts of plants were reviewed. High concentrations of chro-
mium exhibited severe chlorosis, necrosis and a host of other
growth abnormalities and anatomical disorders. The regulation
of the mineral metabolism, enzyme activity and other meta-
bolic processes by chromium in plants was discussed.
Introduction
Chromi um is known to be an essential element for
normal carbohydrate metabolism in animal and hu-
man nutrition (Mertz 1969 and Anderson1981). A
number of studies were made to investigate the
chemistry of chromium in soil and its uptake by
plants (Desmet et al. 1975a, Cary et al. 1977 a,b,
Lahouti & Peterson 1979, Ramachandran et al.
1980, Samantaray & Das 1997). Although chro-
mium was found to be a stimulant for plant growth
(Gericke 1943, Pratt 1966 and Bertrand & DeWol f
1965, 1968), several investigators reported its toxic
effect on plants (Herbert 1907, Koenig 1911,
Voelcker 1921). Cary et al. (1977 a, b) and Lahouti
& Peterson (1979) reported that Cr (VI) was taken
up by plants because of its mobile nature in soil
while Cr (III) was not. Since trivalent and hexava-
lent Cr may interconvert in soil (James and Bartlett
1983a,b,c; Otabbong 1989a,b) and soil immobilize
both trivalent and hexavalent chromium (Stollen-
Werk & Grove 1985 and Otabbong 1989a,b), it is
difficult to asses separately the effects of the two
types of Cr on plants. Consequently, it might be ap-
propriate to use the term Cr toxicity in plants, in-
stead of toxicity of trivalent or hexavalent Cr. The
literature on the role of chromium in plants is mea-
gre, most of which deals with the function of chro-
mium in biological systems and the genotoxic me-
chanisms. The effect s of chromi um on plant
growth, crop yield, uptake and distribution in vege-
tative and reproductive parts are not yet fully under-
st ood (Shewry & Pet erson 1974, Cary et al.
1977a,b, Goodroad & Caldwell 1979, James &
Bartlett 1984, Barcelo et al. 1986, Dorn et al. 1987
and Corradi et al. 1993). Moral et al. (1995) and
Samantaray et aI. (1996a) reported toxic symptoms
and growth characteristics in crop plants grown in
chromium rich soil. The present review deals with
the role of chromium on plant growth and metabo-
lism with emphasis on the accumulation and distri-
bution in different plant parts.
201
S. SAMANTARAY, G.R. ROUT, P. DAS
General occurrence and benefi ci al nature of
chromi um
Chr omi um is wi del y distributed in soil, water and
biological material and occurs in the range of 5 to
1000 ppm in soils (Swai ne 1955). However, in ser-
pentine soil, high concentrations of chr omi um and
nickel are some of the mai n causes of infertility
(Robinson e t a l . 1935). Samant aray e t a l . (1991) re-
ported the presence of 2100 - 2700 ppm chr omi um
in t he Suki nda chromi t e mi newast es. Chr omi um
was det ect ed in a variety of crop plants (Hodgkiss
& Errington 1941, Yuan 1955, Beath 1943, Moral
et al. 1996, Samant aray & Das 1991 and Samanta-
ray & Das 1997).
Chr omi um is conncct cd with the glucose tolcrancc
factor (Mertz 1969 and Saner 1980) and is impor-
tant in animal and human nutrition for normal car-
bohydrat e met abol i sm (Mertz 1969 and Anderson
1981). A number of studies were initiated to investi-
gate the chemi st ry of chr omi um in soils and its up-
take by plants (Cary e t al . 1977a,b, Lahouti & Pe-
terson 1979 and Ramachandr an et al. 1980). Chro-
mi um supplementation is known to i mprove and
normalise the i mpared glucose tolerance in some
diabetic people (Mertz 1969) and mal nouri shed
chi l dren (Hopkins et al . 1968) whi ch indicates that
this el ement plays an important role in human nutri-
tion. Hassan e t al . (1989) reported the presence of
chr omi um in the hexavalent and the trivalent l brms
in water but trivalent chr omi um rarely occurred in
portable water; hexavalent chromi um, however,
was found to ent er the wat er supply syst em through
industrial wastes. Warrington (1946) reported that
0.1 ppm chr omi um in nutrient solutions was some-
times beneficial. Several beneficial effects in terms
of yield by application of chromi um salts was re-
ported in oat and barl ey (Pfeiffer e t al. 1918); cu-
cumber (Reinhold & Hausrath 1940) and grape
( Dobr ol yubski i 1957, 1958, Dobr ol yubski i &
Slavvo 1958).
Effect of chromi um on pl ant growth
Chr omi um was never recogni sed as an essential
el ement for plant growt h but some of its stimulative
effects were reported. The application of chr omi um
as potassium di chromat e was fatal to tea plants,
even in large doses the effect was slow and several
months were required to kill the plants (Keiller
1939). Ler oux (1940) report ed that chr omi um
added at a rate of 5mg/kg increased the rate of com-
bustion of organic matter and the rate of nitrifica-
tion in soil. Leroux (1941 a,b) reported that applica-
tion of chr omi um to the soil in pot culture experi-
ments increased the ni t rogen content of pea seeds
and also i ncreased nitrogen fixation by the inocu-
lated plants. There was reduct i on in dry weight and
nodulation of peas after adding chromi c sulfate
(Gaw & Soong 1942). Several investigators found
that Cr was toxic to plants (Koenig 1911, Vonschar-
rer & Schorpp 1935, Lyon e t a l . 1970, Wallace e t al .
1976, Watanabe i984, Moral et al. 1993, Samanta-
ray et al . 1996a,b and Samant aray e t al . 1998a, b).
In some cases chr omi um stimulated the growth of
the plants at l ower concentrations whereas at higher
concentrations it had definite growth retarding ef-
fects. Even low chr omi um concentrations inhibited
growth in some plants. Warrington (1946) reported
that lettuce grown in nutrient solutions was some-
times slightly benefited by 0.1 ppm of chromium.
Subsequently, Cr in the f or m of Thomas Phosphate
slag, chromite, oxide or p~,osphate increased the
yield of some plants and more soluble forms of
chromi um such as chromat e and bichromates were
beneficial at low but injurious at high concentra-
tions. Reinholds & Hausrath (1940) obtained fa-
vourable results in cucumber with the addition of
potassium di chromat e (30 and 100 g.m -3) to the
soil. Hewitt (1953) observed chlorosis and growth
reductions in plants like tomato, potato, oat and
kale due to the application of chr omi um as chro-
mate ion; he also found that chromat e ion was more
toxic t han chr omi c ion. Hunt er and Vergnano
(1953) reported that chr omi um at 5 and 10ppm in
nutrient solutions produced chlorosis similar to
iron chlorosis in oat plants. Coupin (1900) found
chromat e and bi chromat e salts of sodium, potas-
sium and ammoni um to be toxic and that the bichro-
mate salt r J~ more toxic than chromates. Samanta-
ray et al . (1991) and Samant aray et al (1996b) ob-
served tt~at high concent rat i on of chr omi um (3 I00
ppm) present in mi newast e caused the death of
plants but, a medi um mi xed with good aerable and
normal soil supported the growt h of plants which
fl owered and set seeds.
202
CHROMI UM: PL ANT GROWTH AND METABOLI S M
Hunt er & Vergnano (1953) observed that growt h of
oat plants decreased with i ncreased chr omi um con-
centration added to nutrient solution as potassium
dichromate. Soane & Saunder (1959) found hexa-
valent chr omi um to be toxic to tobacco as well as
corn in sand culture at low concentrations. Breckle
(1989) was of the view that root growth, not shoot
growt h alone, should be t aken into account because
root comes in contact with the toxic metals first and
usually accumul at es a significantly hi gher amount
of metal than the upper plant parts (Breckle 1989).
A long t erm exposure of chr omi um caused reduc-
tion in growt h and decreased the root/shoot ratio
(B reckle 1989 and Clark 1982). Chr omi um toxicity
not onl y affected the length of the pri mary root but
also changed the architechture of the entire root
system; Cr at high concentrations was found to en-
hance lateral root format i on giving rise to a mor e
dense and compact root syst em but root hair density
was general l y low (Samant aray et al. 1996a). Davis
(1986) represent ed the opinion that decreased water
uptake by metal stressed plants was due to the dras-
tic reduct i on of the root system, and an i ncreased re-
sistance to wat er flow into and wi t hi n roots. Root
browning, as a consequence of high met al avail-
ability were reported (Breckle 1989, Samant aray et
aL 1996a, Samant aray & Das 1997). The browning
seemed due to the enhanced suberization whi ch
mi ght limit wat er uptake. It was suggested that
Rhizo-box studies coul d be an important tool for in-
vestigations on root growt h in plants exposed to
both met al and drought stress (Breckle 1989). Bish-
noi et al. (1993a,b) report ed that hexaval ent chro-
mi um was much mor e toxic and suppressed growt h
of radicle and pl umul e of Pisum sativum signifi-
cantly. In chromi um-t reat ed plants a larger propor-
tion of pods failed to set seeds and the average
number of seeds per pod was lower.
Visual symptoms of chromium toxicity
Sympt oms of chr omi um toxicity were expressed
di fferent l y in dil~erent plants. Soane and Saunder
(1959) and Rout et al. (1997) found the toxicity
sympt oms in corn and mung bean due to the appli-
cation of chr omi um in excess by whi ch the plants
were severel y stunted, and the leaves had a ten-
dency to roll around t he shoot; the leaves were nar-
row and purple green with an intense purple colour
on the l ower two inches of the l ower blade. In to-
bacco, no specific toxic sympt oms were marked;
but shoot devel opment was depressed and conse-
quently no i nfl orescence developed.
Hunt er & Vergnano (1953) report ed that oat plants
affect ed by chr omi um toxicity were stunted with
poorl y devel oped roots and small necrotic lesions.
They also report ed that plants recei vi ng 5.0 ppm
chr omi um in the nutrient solution were usually nor-
mal, but showed signs of mi l d chlorosis of the
leaves at 10 ppm chromi um; the plants wer e stunted
and most of the leaves showed chlorosis and ne-
crotic lesions at 25 and 50 ppm chromi um. Roots
showed normal growt h at 5 and 10 ppm chr omi um
but poor root devel oped at hi gher concentrations.
Hewitt (1953) report ed Cr toxicity in mai ze plants.
Chr omi um toxicity caused wilting of the tops of
soybean plants at 5 ppm Cr onl y after two days of
t reat ment (Turner & Rust 1971). Barcelo et aI
(1985) report ed that visual sympt oms of toxicity in
bush bean (Phaseolus vulgaris cv. Contender) oc-
curred at 2.5 and 5ppm of Cr treatment. The plants
showed chlorosis in trifoliated leaves as in case of
iron deficiency. Samant aray et al. (1996b) observed
severe chlorosis and stunted growt h of rice (Oryza
sativa cv. Pathara) grown on chromi t e mi newast e
containing a high percent age of chromi um. Corradi
et al. (1993) recorded suppression of lateral shoots
with a di mi ni shi ng trend with the i ncrease in the
dose of chromi um. Lateral root product i on was
compl et el y inhibited at 10 ppm Cr (VI). At the time
of harvest, ol der leaves of t hese plants treated with
5 ppm Cr showed interveinal chlorosis with the de-
vel opment of interveinal necrot i c areas. A high
dose of Cr (30 or 60 ppm) added to the plants re-
sulted in the death of plants within three days of
t reat ment in hydroponi cs as well as pot culture ex-
periments. Samant aray et al. (t996a) also reported
severe chlorosis and necrosis of leaf in E. colona at
high concent rat i ons of Cr in solution culture.
Absorption and distribution of chromium in plants
I t is of great interest to det ermi ne the absorption
and distribution pattern of metals in different vege-
table parts, especially in the edible parts, due to the
increasing toxicity probl ems caused by metals in
t he soil-plant syst em (Baxter et al. 1983) so as to es-
timate the basal load that a crop can stand without
exceedi ng permi ssi bl e limits r ecommended for
203
S. SAMANTARAY, G.R. ROUT, P. DAS
consumption. The absorption and accumulation of
chromium in different plants were reported in Cit-
rus s i nens i s (0.2 to 0.3 ppm), pear ( Pyr us c ommu-
hi s) (0.03 to 0.85 ppm), Tri t i cum spp. (10.2 to 14.8
ppm) and corn ( Zea mays ) (0.22 to 0.74 ppm) by us-
ing different types of culture systems (Liebig et al.
1942, Saint-Rat 1948, Vergnano 1959, Shimp et al.
1957 and Prince 1957).
In oat ( Ar ena sat i va) grown in serpentine soil, the
accumulation of chromium varied between 3 to 11
ppm (Soane and Saunder 1959). They also reported
that the accumulation of chromium in leaves varied
between 4 and 14 ppm and in roots from 13 to 175
ppm in tobacco ( Ni cot i na t obacum) grown in ser-
pentine soil. Mung bean plants grown in chromite
minewastes accumulated 62.29 to 70.73 ppm chro-
mium (Samantaray and Das 1997). Chromium ac-
cumulated mainly in the roots and was poorly trans-
ported to shoots ( Moral et al. 1994, Samantaray &
Das 1997) possibly due to spatial localization in a
specific subcellular compartment in the root cells (
Barcelo et al. 1985). The level of chromium in
plants grown in solution culture containing chro-
mium ranged from 3.8 -10.53 (ng Cr/g dry weight)
in tomato, 12-31 (ngCr/g dry weight)in potato, 19-
42 (ng Cr/g dry weight) in wheat and 18-30 (ng Cr/g
dry weight) in bean (Huff man and Allaway 1973).
The dynamics of metals in the absorption as well as
the accumulation in various plant parts have been
studied in soilless cultures (Moral et al. 1996).
Hexavalent chromium was found to be preferen-
tially absorbed by the roots (Ishihara et al. 1968).
Subsequently, Moral et al. (1996) found that triva-
lent chromium was also absorbed by the roots; less
is accumulated and transported to aerial parts.
Hunter and Vergnano (1953) reported that the chro-
mium accumulation varied between 0.04 - 3.9 ppm
in the oat plants grown in solution culture. Accu-
mulation and distribution of chromium were ob-
served in trees, shrubs and herb naturally growing
on chromite mine wastes containing high percent-
age of chromium (Samantaray et al. 1998a,b).
Chromium uptake and translocation by plant cells
were very low and chromium concentration associ-
ated with the root was greater than that in the leaf
which in turn was greater than that in the fruit (Ra-
machandran et al. 1980). Similar results were also
reported on the uptake of chromium (VI) over chro-
mium (III) in soils (Cary et al. 1977 a,b and Lahouti
& Peterson 1979). Often plants growing on low
chromium soils may appear to have lower concen-
trations of chromium as compared to the same
plants grown on high chromium soil which may be
due to contamination (Cary & Kubota 1990). Addi-
tion of up to 1% chromium as Cr(OH)3 to soils in-
creased the chromium concentration in alfalfa and
buckwheat (Cary et al. 1977b). Many workers
noted that the lower chromium concentrations were
found in the fruit with increased levels in the stem
and the highest concentration in the leaf (Desmet et
al. 1975a, Cary et al. 1977a,b). Cary and Kubata
(1990) explained the effects of chromium concen-
tration in soil on chromium accumulation in plants.
Effect of chromium on plant metabolism
Heavy metals have received considerable attention
partly due to their natural occurrence. High concen-
trations depressed plant growth, although certain
metals were required in very small amounts for
proper growth and development. Several workers
also reported stimulatory effects of chromium on
growth, but the absolute requirement of chromium
for normal plant growth was not established (Arnon
1937, Warrington 1946, Farror 1968, Haas &
Brusca 1961, Hunter & Vergnano 1953, Soane &
Saunder 1959 and Turner & Rust 1971). Significant
reduction in dry matter yields of two cultivars of
soybean was recorded with as low as 0.5 ppm of
chromium in nutrient culture and 10.0 ppm in soil
culture. Drastic reduction in yield, as low as 50 % of
the control was also reported by the above workers
due to the application of 5.0 ppm of chromium for 5
days.
The heavy metal toxicities and reduction in the net
photosynthetic rate, leading to decreased growth
and productivity and electron transport system
have been reported by several workers (Desmet et
al. 1975b, Foy et al. 1978, Baszyfiski et al. 1981
and VanAssche & Clijsters 1988). Heavy metals
not only related the growth of algae but also ham-
pered the uptake of nutrients, photosynthesis and
enzyme activities within a few hours of exposure
(Dubey & Rai 1987, Mallick & Rai 1990). Rai &
Dubey (1988) pointed out that an irreversible inhi-
bition of N2 fixation by chromium. They also sug-
204
CHROMIUM." PL ANT GROWT H AND METABOLI S M
gested that ni t rogenase activity of Anabaena dolio-
lure was inhibited by Cr and Sn either substrate con-
centration in N2 fixation. Prasad et al. (1991) re-
ported that metals not only specifically affect carri-
ers of el ect ron transport, but also the el ect ron flow
from H20 to PS-II react i on centre. This inhibits the
primary reactions of photosynthesis t hereby de-
creasing the energy level (Atp pool) of the cells.
The effects of di fferent concentrations of hexava-
lent chr omi um (Cr VI) on phot osynt het i c rate in
gr een al gae have been des cr i bed by Wi um-
Anderson (1974) and in an aquatic macr ophyt e
(Guillizzoni et al. 1984, Francko et al. 1993). Aus-
t enfel d (1979) report ed that phot osynt het i c rate was
reduced in a hexaval ent chr omi um treated hi gher
plant while the chr omi um contents were hi gher in
primary leaves than in trifoliate leaves of beans but
phot osynhet i c rate was mor e affect ed in trifoliate
leaves. Barcel o et al. (1986) reported the i nfl uence
of di fferent concent rat i ons of hexaval ent chro-
mi um on both pi gment and mi neral contents in or-
der to establish a possible relationship bet ween
chr omi um induced nutrient disorders and chlorosis.
Riedel (1985) worki ng with di at om (Thalassiosira
pseudonana) not ed that trivalent chr omi um had
high affinity for proteins and could bind essential
enzymes to inactivate them. Subsequently, Barcelo
et al. (1986) observed that chlorophyll-b and ca-
rotenoids in beans exhibited a similar response to
the hexaval ent chr omi um treatment but there were
differences in the response bet ween the pri mary
and first trifoliate leaves. Pri mary leaves showed
high pi gment cont ent probabl y due to a concentra-
tion effect because of reduced growth. In contrast,
for trifoliate leaves, there was a significant linear
negat i ve rel at i on bet ween the concent rat i on of
chr omi um and the chl orophyl l contents. They re-
ported that the high negative regression coeffi ci ent
of chr omi um versus chr omi um cont ent coul d indi-
cate a direct effect of chr omi um on the pi gment syn-
thesis. Nevertheless, chr omi um mi ght also reduce
indirectly the chl orophyl l and carotenoid contents
by inhibition of Fe and Zn transport to the develop-
ing trifoliate leaves; this hypothesis also supported
the high regressions bet ween the pi gment and Fe or
Zn contents. Thomson & Weier (1962) and Ma-
chold (1972) report ed that the chr omi um i nduced
chlorosis was rather due to a direct or indirect effect
on the chloroplast format i on than to a specific ef-
fect on the pi gment synthesis. Krupa et al. (1982)
reported that the synthesis of pi gment s and lipoqui-
nones in Zea mays was inhibited by the application
of chromi um. Reduct i on in the chlorophyll content
was noted with the i ncrease of chr omi um concen-
tration whi ch may be due to accumul at i on and
deposition of chr omi um by roots (Samant aray et al.
1996b). Guilizzoni et al. (1984) found that chro-
mi um enhanced shoot growt h in Myriophyllum spi-
catum up to a medi um concent rat i on of 50 pg.1-1.
Hi gher concent rat i ons of up to 1 mg-1-1 caused an
almost linear reduct i on in shoot length and weight
and phot osynt het i c rate. They also reported that
chr omi um inhibited met abol i c activity particularly
14C- phot osynt het i c carbon assimilation (PCA).
Porter & Francko (1991) found that chr omi um and
copper were capable of stimulating or repressing
PCA rates in l eaf disks from Potamogeton amplifo-
lius, although both metals repressed PCA at or
above 0.5 mg.1-1. Bishnoi et al. (1993b) provided
evi dence that the inhibition of photosynthesis, res-
piration and ni t rogen fixation in pea (Pisum sati-
rum) seedlings was due to the application of chro-
mi um.
Effect of chr omi um on plant yield
The interaction of heavy metals on plant growt h
and yi el d have been exami ned by various workers
(Turner & Rust 1971, Davis et aI. 1986 and Otab-
bong 1989c). Turner and Rust (1971) indicated that
chr omi um treatments as low as 0.5 mg.1-1 in nutri-
ent culture and 10 ppm in soil culture significantly
reduced the dry mat t er yields of two soybean varie-
ties. The dry wei ght and the yi el d were almost the
same at 0.2 ppm concent rat i ons but decreased at 2.0
and 10 ppm of chr omi um; the critical concentration
of chr omi um whi ch resul t ed in 50 % decrease in the
yield due to excess injury, was estimated at 20 ppm
in outer leaves and 2000 ppm in roots respectively
(Hara et al. 1976). Davis et aL (1986) reported the
upper critical level of a potential toxic el ement in its
mi ni mum concent rat i on in actively growi ng tissues
of a plant at whi ch the dry mat t er yield was reduced.
Ot abbong ( 1989c ) r e por t e d that the dry mat t er
yields on both root and shoot were larger in phos-
phorus containing soil than chr omi um added to the
same soil. The i ncrease in total dry mat t er yield due
to the application of a small amount of CrO 3 in
c ombi na t i on wi t h KH2 PO 4 as compar ed to
205
S. SAMANTARAY, G.R. ROUT, P. DAS
KH2PO4 alone was recorded in acidic soil (Otta-
bong 1989c).
Differential chromium tolerance in plants
Evol ut i on of plants tolerant to heavy metals has be-
come an i ncreasi ngl y studied subject in recent
years. Voluminous i nformat i on has been accumu-
lated, whi ch most l y apply onl y to ecot ypi c species
but i nformat i on on crop plants is meagre. Plant spe-
cies and varieties vary wi del y in their tolerance to
excess Cr in the growt h medi um. In several species,
these di fferences are genetically controlled (Reid
1971). Epstein (1969) pointed out that an el ement
present in excess can interfere with met abol i sm
through compet i t i on for uptake, inactivation of en-
zymes, di spl acement of essential el ement s at func-
tional sites, or the alteration of the structure of wa-
ter. Many of these effects probably involve a modi-
f i cat i on of me mbr a ne st r uct ur e and funct i on.
Closely related genot ypes are valuable tools for
studying the physiological mechani sm of toxicity
or tolerance. Rout et al. (1997) tested eight mung
bean cultivars subjected to the six levels of chro-
mi um in the nutrient solution for seed germination,
elongation of shoot and root, and the total biomass
production. A good degree of variation in the re-
sponses was observed onl y at t he 96 pM chr omi um
in the nutrient solution; the root and shoot growt h
was affect ed by chr omi um in all the eight studied
cultivars. Several mechani sms of heavy metal tol-
erance in plants wer e proposed whi ch including
product i on of i nt racel l ul ar met al binding com-
pounds, alteration of metal compart ment at i on pat-
terns, alteration of cellular metabolism, and altera-
tion of membr ane st ruct ure (Verkleij & Schat
1990). Therefore, the cultivars whi ch performed
well in the presence of chr omi um could be regarded
as chr omi um- t ol er ant . The exact physi ol ogi cal
mechani sm of Cr toxicity or tolerance is still de-
bated; these may well be different in different plant
species and varieties and can be controlled by dif-
ferent genes through different bi ochemi cal path-
ways. Obviously, Cr tolerant plants must be able to
prevent the absorption of excess Cr or det oxi fy after
it has been absorbed (Foy et al. 1978, Barcelo 1986,
Verkleji & Schat 1990 and Moral et al . 1994, 1996).
Cytogenetic effects of chromium
Chr omi um may be divalent, trivalent, or hexava-
lent; it is consi dered as a toxic el ement on plant
(Turner et al. 1971), algae (Fasulo et al. 1983) and
cell cultures (Nakamuro et al. 1978). Many authors
reported that trivalent chr omi um has a lower toxic-
ity than hexaval ent Cr compounds, because of the
strong oxidising power of Cr +6 Also, Cr +6, in con-
trast to Cr +3, is mor e soluble and passes through
biological membranes mor e rapidly (Mertz 1969
and Van Der Putte et al. 1981). Generally, hexava-
lent chr omi um perturbs cell growt h and cell cycles.
The cytotoxic action (disturbance of microtubules,
chromosomal abberations and morphological per-
turbations) of Cr +6 were report ed in Eu g l e n a gra-
ci l i s (Fasulo et al. 1982, 1983). Brochiero et al
(1984) reported the toxic action of hexavalent chro-
mi um on Eu g l e n a gr ac i l i s under heterotrophic con-
ditions. They also indicated that the disappearance
of toxicity after 24 h was not due to detoxification
by algae, and in the presence of lactate Cr +6 toxicity
was marked by the occurrence of complex forma-
tion with organic compounds.
Interaction of chromi um with different
heavy metals and microelements
The interaction of metals and ot her microelements
are very important for plant growt h and develop-
ment but principally it depends on the availability
of the metals. However, availability in soil depends
on several soil conditions, such as pH or redox po-
t ent i al s (Bart l et t & Ki mbl e 1976). Hunt er &
Vergnano (1952) reported the association of nickel,
cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese and mol ybdenum
with high concentrations of the el ement in the leaf
tissue of oat plants, but this was not always so with
chromi um and aluminium. They also observed that
the toxic effects of nickel, chromi um, copper and
mol ybdenum were associated with the reduced ni-
trogen content of the plants and simultaneously
they observed that nickel, cobalt, chromium, zinc
and manganese i ncreased t he concent rat i on of
phosphorus. Therefore, tile solubility of metals can
be increased or decreased dependi ng on the pres-
ence of other el ement s in the soil-plant system. On
the other hand, Moral et al. (1996) established an-
other important point for the interaction between
206
CHROMIUM. PLANT GROWTH AND METABOLISM
chromium and iron and copper upon absorption
which could be associated with the chemical prop-
erties of these metals, as the charge (Cr +3 and Fe+3),
effective ionic and metal radius (Cr and Cu). In the
same way, the contents of zinc can be diminished
with Cr treatments. They also observed antagonis-
tic and synergistic effects of different elements and
metals in stem, branch and leaf where a competitive
interaction of chromium and copper was noted.
However, a synergistic interaction between B-Cr
was found in root, nevertheless, in aerial parts, an
antagonistic effect was observed. Simultaneously,
in fruits no effect of chromium treatments were
noted on Fe, Cu and Zn contents, but, boron con-
centration increased in the presence of chromium.
Turner & Rust (1971) found that 0. l ppm of chro-
mium in nutrient culture resulted in the decrease in
concentration and contents of Ca, K, R Fe and Mn
in shoots and Mg, P, Fe and Mn in roots as com-
pared to the untreated soyabean plants. They also
observed that in soil culture, chromium treatment
significantly increased concentrations of Ca, K,
Mg, R Bo and Cu in shoots of soybean. They also
concluded that chromium interferred with the abil-
ity of the plants to obtain these elements from soil.
The inhibitory effects of chromium on plant
growth are thought to be the result of specific inter-
action between chromium and phosphorus (Robin-
son et al. 1935, Soane and Saunder 1959, Spence &
Millar 1963, Vergnano 1959, Moral et al. 1995) or
Fe (Canon 1960, Dekock 1956 and Hewi~t 1953) in
plant nutrition. Turner and Rust (1971) concluded
that chromium in hexavalent form specifically in-
terferred with the uptake of Fe or P by plants. It ap-
peared that a broad range of elements was affected
by treating soybean plants with chromium soil.
There was no significant effect of chromium treat-
ment on Ca, Zn, Bo or Cu concentrations but the to-
tal contents of calcium and zinc were depressed
with the addition of high concentration of chro-
mium. The interaction mechanism with organic ac-
ids might play an important role in the inhibitory
and stimulatory effects of chromium on the translo-
cation of different mineral nutrients (Barcelo et al.
1985). Interaction with R Zn, Ca and Fe have been
reported, but effects varied widely in different spe-
cies and cultivars (Turner & Rust 1971, Foroughi et
al. 1976 and Skeffington et aI. 1976). The transloca-
tion of phosphorus in bush bean grown on soil with
pH 6.0 was inhibited by the addition of hexavalent
chromium (Turner & Rust 1971, Barcelo et al.
1985).
In nutrient culture, Turner & Rust (1971) reported
that the concentrations and total contents of Ca, K,
P, Fe and Mn in shoots and Mg, R Fe and Mn in
roots showed apparently non-significant increases
due to chromium treatment at 0.05 ppm and signifi-
cant decreases at all treatments >0.1 ppm. They also
stated that there were no significant effects of chro-
mium treatment on Na and Zn concentrations but
the total Zn content tended to decrease with chro-
mium treatment at high concentrations. Riedel
(1985) reported that the uptake of Cr (VI) was ap-
proximately linear with time, proportional to exter-
nal Cr (VI) concentration and inversly proportional
to external sulphate ion concentration in diatom
( Thal as s i os i r a ps e udodana) . Concentration of Cr
(VI) that restricted growth also inhibited sulphate
uptake. On the other hand, Skeffington et at . (1976)
examined the uptake of chromate by barley seed-
lings and found that it was competitively inhibited
by sulphate and concluded that chromate entered
the roots through the sulphate uptake system. Sev-
eral workers reported chromate to be an inhibitor of
sulphate uptake by plants. It usually inhibited sul-
phate uptake though only when the ratio of sulphate
to chromate ranged from 1:10 to 1:1 (Smith 1976;
Coughlan 1977, Jeanjean and Broda 1977 and
Deane & O' Brien 1981). Turner and Rust (1971)
found Cr (VI) to interfere with Co, K, Mg, R Fe and
Mn uptake in nutrient cultures and Co, K, Mg, R B,
and Cu in soil culture. Cary et al. ( 1977a) described
a Cr and Fe interaction in plants and postulated a
similar or related process of translocation for the
two elements. Soane and Saunder (1959) felt that
Cr (III) and Fe(III) acted analogously causing the
acute phosphate (P) deficiency symptoms which
they observed in sand culture experiments with
oats. Hewitt (1953) and Anderson & Nilsson
(1973) found Fe chlorosis to be the primary symp-
tom of high chromium presence. Cunnigham et al.
(1975) correlated increasing Cr content in sludge
with decreasing concentrations of Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd
and Mn in plant tissues. They attributed this phe-
nomenon to a possible blockage of plant absorption
sites. Grove & Ellis (1980) reported the changes in
the soil chemistry of Fe and Mn resulting from ad-
207
S. SAMANTARAY, G.R. ROUT, P. DAS
dition of chromium compounds to soil. They also
reported the formation of a mixed hydrous oxide of
Fe (III) and Cr (III). The precipitated compound
was apparently quite stable at low pH. Sludge addi-
tion raised the pH to quite high levels on all soil and
decreased the solubility of Fe.
Conc l us i on
Chromi um (Cr), a transition metal, is one of the
major sources of environmental pollution. The
compounds of hexavalent chromium are compara-
tively much more toxic than those of trivalent chro-
mium. The reason for such toxicity appears to be
due to its rapid permeability through biological
membranes and subsequent interaction with inter-
cellular proteins and nucleic acids, in the plant sys-
tems; Cr +3 ions seem to be efficiently absorbed by
the roots. Cr +3 transport to other vegetable parts
was very low and Cr values in the stems and leaf
were two orders of magnitude lower than those
found in the roots. Chromium levels in the fruits
were below the detection limit found by ICP analy-
sis. Cr was seen to have a negative effect on Fe ab-
sorption, competitive interactions between Cr and
Cu in the root, stem and leaf were confirmcd.
Boron-chromium interactions showed a synergism
in root absorption; nevcrthelcss, in the stem and
leaf, an antagonistic effect was observed. Complex
formation of Cr with organic acids may play an im-
portant role in the inhibiting and stimulating effects
of Cr on the translocation of different mineral nutri-
ents. Several mechanisms of heavy metal toxicity
in plants were proposed which include production
of intracellular metal binding compounds, metal
compartmentation patterns, cellular metabolism
and alteration of membrane structure. This review
gives an up-to-date information on chromium tox-
icity in plants which may be useful/' or further stud-
ies understanding the mechanism of Cr toxicity in
the plant system.
Ac kno wl e dg e me nt
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial as-
sistance of the Department of Environment and
Forests, Government of India and Forest and Envi-
ronment Department of Government of Orissa for
other facilities to undertake this study.
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Received September 01, 1997; accepted February 12, 1998
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