7

2
At omi c St r uc t ur e
26(a) Aluminum foil used for storing food weighs about 0.3 g per square inch. How
many atoms of aluminum are contained in this sample of foil?
Sol ut i on: In a one square inch sample:
number =
(0.3 g)(6.02 10
23
atoms/mol)
= 6.69 10
21
atoms
26.981 g/mol
26(b) Using the densities and atomic weights given in Appendix A, calculate and com-
pare the number of atoms per cubic centimeter in (a) lead and (b) lithium.
Sol ut i on: (a) In lead:
(11.36 g/cm
3
)(1 cm
3
)(6.02 10
23
atoms/mol)
= 3.3 10
22
atoms/cm
3
207.19 g/mol
(b) In lithium:
(0.534 g/cm
3
)(1 cm
3
)(6.02 10
23
atoms/mol)
= 4.63 10
22
atoms/cm
3
6.94 g/mol
27(a) Using data in Appendix A, calculate the number of iron atoms in one ton (2000
pounds).
Sol ut i on: (2000 lb)(454 g/lb)(6.02 10
23
atoms/mol)
= 9.79 10
27
atoms/ton
55.847 g/mol
27(b) Using data in Appendix A, calculate the volume in cubic centimeters occupied by
one mole of boron.
Sol ut i on: (1 mol)(10.81 g/mol)
= 4.7 cm
3
2.3 g/cm
3
28 In order to plate a steel part having a surface area of 200 in.
2
with a 0.002 in. thick
layer of nickel, (a) how many atoms of nickel are required and (b) how many moles
of nickel are required?
Sol ut i on: Volume = (200 in.
2
)(0.002 in.)(2.54 cm/in.)
3
= 6.555 cm
3
(a) (6.555 cm
3
)(8.902 g/cm
3
)(6.02 10
23
atoms/mol)
= 5.98 10
23
atoms
58.71 g/mol
(b) (6.555 cm
3
)(8.902 g/cm
3
)
= 0.994 mol Ni required
58.71 g/mol
29 Suppose an element has a valence of 2 and an atomic number of 27. Based only on
the quantum numbers, how many electrons must be present in the 3d energy level?
Sol ut i on: We can let x be the number of electrons in the 3d energy level. Then:
1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
x
4s
2
(must be 2 electrons in 4s for valence = 2)
Since 27(2+2+6+2+6+2) = 7 = x
there must be 7 electrons in the 3d level.
210 Indium, which has an atomic number of 49, contains no electrons in its 4f energy
level. Based only on this information, what must be the valence of indium?
Sol ut i on: We can let x be the number of electrons in the outer sp energy level.
Then:
1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2
4p
6
4d
10
4f
0
5(sp)
x
49(2+2+6+2+6+10+2+6+10+0) = 3
Therefore the outer 5sp level must be:
5s
2
5p
1
or valence = 3
211 Without consulting Appendix C, describe the quantum numbers for each of the 18
electrons in the M shell of copper, using a format similar to that in Figure 29.
Sol ut i on: For the M shell: n = 3; l = 0,1,2; m
l
= 2l + 1
n m
m
m
s
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
p
m
m
l
s
s
l
s
s
s
s
s
s
l
l
= = =
= +
=

= =
= +
=
= +
=
= +
=

=
= +
3 0 0 3
1 1
3
0
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
6
l
l
200 in
2
0.002 in
8 The Sci ence and Engi neeri ng of Mat eri al s Inst r uct or s Sol ut i on Manual
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
212 Electrical charge is transferred in metals by movement of valence electrons. How
many potential charge carriers are there in an aluminum wire 1 mm in diameter and
100 m in length?
Sol ut i on: Aluminum has 3 valence electrons per atom; the volume of the wire is:
Volume = (/4)d
2
l = (/4)(0.1 cm)
2
(10,000 cm) = 78.54 cm
3
n =
(78.54 cm
3
)(2.699 g/cm
3
)(6.02 10
23
atoms/mol)(3 electrons/atom)
26.981 g/mol
n = 1.42 10
25
carriers
214 Bonding in the intermetallic compound Ni
3
Al is predominantly metallic. Explain
why there will be little, if any, ionic bonding component. The electronegativity of
nickel is about 1.8.
Sol ut i on: The electronegativity of Al is 1.5, while that of Ni is 1.8. These values are
relatively close, so we wouldnt expect much ionic bonding. Also, both
are metals and prefer to give up their electrons rather than share or donate
them.
215 Plot the melting temperatures of elements in the 4Ato 810 columns of the periodic
table versus atomic number (i.e., plot melting temperatures of Ti through Ni, Zr
through Pd, and Hf through Pt). Discuss these relationships, based on atomic bonding
and binding energy, (a) as the atomic number increases in each row of the periodic
table and (b) as the atomic number increases in each column of the periodic table.
Sol ut i on: Ti 1668 Zr 1852 Hf2227
V 1900 Nb 2468 Ta 2996
Cr 1875 Mo2610 W3410
Mn 1244 Tc 2200 Re3180
Fe 1538 Ru 2310 Os2700
Co 1495 Rh 1963 Ir 2447
Ni 1453 Pd 1552 Pt 1769
m
m
m
m
l
s
s
s
= =
= +
=
= +
2 2
1
2
1
2
l
11
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
10
3
1
0
1
2
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
d
m
m
m
m
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
l
l
l
l
=
= +
=
= +
=
= +
=

=
=
= +
= +
CHAPTER 2 At omi c St r uct ur e 9
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
For each row, the melting temperature is highest when the outer d energy level is
partly full. In Cr, there are 5 electrons in the 3d shell; in Mo, there are 5 electrons in
the 4d shell; in Wthere are 4 electrons in the 5d shell. In each column, the melting
temperature increases as the atomic number increasesthe atom cores contain a
larger number of tightly held electrons, making the metals more stable.
216 Plot the melting temperature of the elements in the 1A column of the periodic table
versus atomic number (i.e., plot melting temperatures of Li through Cs). Discuss
this relationship, based on atomic bonding and binding energy.
Sol ut i on: T(
o
C)
Li 180.7
Na 97.8
K 63.2
Rb 38.9
Cs 28.6
As the atomic number increases, the melting temperature decreases, opposite that
found in Problem 215.
217 Increasing the temperature of a semiconductor breaks covalent bonds. For each
broken bond, two electrons become free to move and transfer electrical charge.
(a) What fraction of valence electrons are free to move and (b) what fraction of the
Atomic Number
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Li
Na
K
Rb
Cs
M
e
l
t
i
n
g

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
e
l
c
i
u
s
)
Atomic Number
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
Ti Ni Zr Pd Hf Pt
M
e
l
t
i
n
g

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
e
l
c
i
u
s
)
10 The Sci ence and Engi neeri ng of Mat eri al s Inst r uct or s Sol ut i on Manual
covalent bonds must be broken in order that 5 10
15
electrons conduct electrical
charge in 50 g of silicon? (c) What fraction of the total silicon atoms must be
replaced by arsenic atoms to obtain one million electrons that are free to move in
one pound of silicon?
Sol ut i on: (a) (50 g)(6.02 10
23
atoms/mol)
= 1.072 10
24
atoms of Si
28.08 g/mol
Total valence electrons = (4 electrons/atom)(1.072 10
24
atoms)
= 4.288 10
24
electrons
Fraction free electrons = 5 10
15
/4.288 10
24
= 1.17 10
9
(b) On average, there is one covalent bond per Si atom (each Si atom is
bonded to four others). Thus, there are a total of 1.072 10
24
bonds.
Each bond has 2 electrons, so the number of broken bonds needed to
give 5 10
15
electrons is 2.5 10
15
. The fraction of broken bonds is:
f =
2.5 10
15
= 2.33 10
9
1.072 10
24
(1 lb Si)(454 g/lb)(6.02 10
23
atoms/mol)
= 9.733 10
24
Si atoms/lb
(c)
28.08 g/mol
As has a valence of 5; therefore, to get 10
6
electrons, we need to replace
10
6
Si atoms. In one pound of Si, the fraction of As must be:
f =
1 10
6
replaced atoms
= 1.03 10
19
9.733 10
24
total Si atoms
218 Methane (CH
4
) has a tetrahedral structure similar to that of SiO
2
(Figure 216), with
a carbon atom of radius 0.77 10
8
cm at the center and hydrogen atoms of radius
0.46 10
8
cm at four of the eight corners. Calculate the size of the tetrahedral cube
for methane.
Sol ut i on:
219 The compound aluminum phosphide (AlP) is a compound semiconductor material
having mixed ionic and covalent bonding. Estimate the fraction of the bonding that
is ionic.
Sol ut i on: E
Al
= 1.5 E
p
= 2.1
f
covalent
= exp(0.25 E
2
)
f
covalent
= exp[(0.25)(2.1 1.5)
2
] = exp[0.09] = 0.914
f
ionic
= 1 0.914 = 0.086 bonding is mostly covalent
C
H
H
a
3a
1
2
C
3
3 0 77 10 0 46 10
1 42 10
8 8
8
a r r
a
a
= +
= +
=

C H
. .
. cm
CHAPTER 2 At omi c St r uct ur e 11
(
1
2)
(
1
2)
220 Calculate the fraction of bonding of MgO that is ionic.
Sol ut i on: E
Mg
= 1.2 E
O
= 3.5
f
covalent
= exp[(0.25)(3.5 1.2)
2
] = exp(1.3225) = 0.266
f
ionic
= 1 0.266 = 0.734 bonding is mostly ionic
229 Beryllium and magnesium, both in the 2A column of the periodic table, are light-
weight metals. Which would you expect to have the higher modulus of elasticity?
Explain, considering binding energy and atom radii and using appropriate sketches
of force versus interatomic spacing.
Sol ut i on: 4 Be 1s
2
2s
2
E = 42 10
6
psi r
Be
= 1.143
12 Mg 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
E = 6 10
6
psi r
Mg
= 1.604
The smaller Be electrons are held closer to the core held more tightly,
giving a higher binding energy.
230 Boron has a much lower coefficient of thermal expansion than aluminum, even
though both are in the 3B column of the periodic table. Explain, based on binding
energy, atomic size, and the energy well, why this difference is expected.
Sol ut i on: 5 B 1s
2
2s
2
2p
1
r
B
= 0.46
13 Al s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
1
r
Al
= 1.432
Electrons in Al are not as tightly bonded as those in B due to the smaller
size of the boron atom and the lower binding energy associated with
its size.
E
n
e
r
g
y
B Al
a
E
E
a
distance a
F
o
r
c
e
E
Be
~ f /a
Be
Mg
E
Mg
~ f /a
distance a 2r
Be
2r
mg
12 The Sci ence and Engi neeri ng of Mat eri al s Inst r uct or s Sol ut i on Manual
231 Would you expect MgO or magnesium to have the higher modulus of elasticity?
Explain.
Sol ut i on: MgO has ionic bonds, which are strong compared to the metallic bonds
in Mg. Ahigher force will be required to cause the same separation
between the ions in MgO compared to the atoms in Mg. Therefore, MgO
should have the higher modulus of elasticity. In Mg, E 6 10
6
psi; in
MgO, E = 30 10
6
psi.
232 Would you expect Al
2
O
3
or aluminum to have the higher coefficient of thermal
expansion? Explain.
Sol ut i on: Al
2
O
3
has stronger bonds than Al; therefore, Al
2
O
3
should have a lower
thermal expansion coefficient than Al. In Al, a = 25 10
6
cm/cm
o
C; in
Al
2
O
3
, a = 6.7 10
6
cm/cm
o
C.
233 Aluminum and silicon are side by side in the periodic table. Which would you
expect to have the higher modulus of elasticity (E)? Explain.
Sol ut i on: Silicon has covalent bonds; aluminum has metallic bonds. Therefore,
Si should have a higher modulus of elasticity.
234 Explain why the modulus of elasticity of simple thermoplastic polymers, such as
polyethylene and polystyrene, is expected to be very low compared with that of
metals and ceramics.
Sol ut i on: The chains in polymers are held to other chains by Van der Waals bonds,
which are much weaker than metallic, ionic, and covalent bonds. For
this reason, much less force is required to shear these weak bonds and
to unkink and straighten the chains.
235 Steel is coated with a thin layer of ceramic to help protect against corrosion. What
do you expect to happen to the coating when the temperature of the steel is
increased significantly? Explain.
Sol ut i on: Ceramics are expected to have a low coefficient of thermal expansion
due to strong ionic/covalent bonds; steel has a high thermal expansion
coefficient. When the structure heats, steel expands more than the coat-
ing, which may crack and expose the underlying steel to corrosion.
CHAPTER 2 At omi c St r uct ur e 13