THE LACTOMETER-ITS UTILITY AND

RELI ABI LI TY .
By CHARLES E. XUNSELL, Ph. D.*
After using the lactometer constantly for six years (1880 to 1885),
an ex-milk inspector wishes to demonstrate its value, utility and
reliability as a detector of adulteration, as well as to refute its
alleged errors.
To obtain scientific accuracy with the lactometer, it is necessary
to have an instrument which is absolutely correct, that is, exact
from 90 to 110 degrees, and not over one degree in error at other
points ; and the examiner must be an expert, who uses all the
precautions that would be needed in employing other sensitive in
strumonts, for the lactometer is the most delicate hydrometer in
ordinary use, each degree being less than one-twentieth of a degree
Baum6, its modulus being the highest, 3548&, while that of the
Baume scale is 140.
The compiler was extremely prejudiced against the lactometer
when he commenced his inspections, for if analysis were useless,
i t would be unnecessary to employ a chemist as an inspector ;
therefore, for two years, no complaint was made by him unless the
sample had been previously analyzed ; afterwards the analysis was
dispensed with unless the lactometer stood above 95 degrees, as in
every case the analysis showed from three to ten per cent. more
added water than the lactometric indication.
Whenever milk was found between 95 and 102 degrees, an
attempt was made to discover its source, but in no instance was a
cow found giving milk below 101 [degrees; of course, in this
search strippers (cows nearly dry) were avoided, as the small
quantities of milk given by them would have but little influence
4 Rcad before the American Chemical Society, June, 1888.
THE LACTOMETER. 123
on the specific gravity, when mixed with that of regular milkers
in a forty quart can ; the sule of the milk from a cow that is nearly
dry should be prohibited, the same as that of a cow shortly after
calving, on account of its liability to contain pus and to be other-
wise contaminated.
The milk should be taken at the regular milking time, as it is
very easy to obtain samples at irrcgular times which will have
specific gravities as low as 1.0226. ( 78") ; and the specific gravity
immediately after milking and cooling is lessened by absorption of
air.
If the cream has risen it is difficult to mix the sample again ;
and a sample taken from the top of a bottle or can is liable to con-
tain an undue amount of fat.
Therefore, if the specific gravity of a cow's milk is below 1.020 ;
either the milk is abnormal, that is, from a diseased cow, or from one
which is nearly dry or has lately calved ; or the sample tested
is not a fair average of all the milk that could be obtained from
the cow at her regular time of milking ; or the sample has bee11
tampered with ; or is full of air ; or the lactometer used is incor-
rect ; or the temperature is above 60" Fahr.
When the New York City Board of Health commenced its crn-
sade against the sale of adulterated milk in 1875, the citizens were
paying over $10,000 daily for water sold as milk.
During 1575, $2,300 ; 1876, $2,900 ; 1877, $5,100 ; 1878, $1,73G;
and 1870, $527 were paid into the City Treasury as fines by milk
dealers.
I n 1880, a systematic store inspection was made throughout the
city, which resulted in a reduction of the instances where the
ltlctometric readings were below 100 degrees from one in threc
to less than one in twenty, the average for the year being eleven
per cent., the average specific gravity in about one-fourth of the
stores in the city being 1.0308 or 106 degrees ; the fines for 1880
were $4,518.
I n 1881, the store inspections were continued with weekly early
morning inspections to examine the milk retailed from the wag-
ons, and night inspections to test that brought to the city by the
railroads and across the ferries ; these night inspections showed
1?4 THE LACTOMETER.
that dealers had ceased to deliver watered milk to the stores or
consnmem, or to receive it from the farmers, as the dealer was
constantly watching the milk sent by the farmer in order to refuse
payment for it if watered.
As the lactometer caused the detection of watered milk, the
dealers formed a combination with the creameries for the sale of
skimmed mi l k; during the Summer of 1881, these creameries
were visited under tlie direction of the New Pork State Board of
Health, and although no complaints were made against them
directly, the dealers, whoin they supplied, were watched and the
milk was inspected at the ferries: from five to ten thousand
quarts of skimmed milk were destroyed at each night inspection
until the traffic was stopped and the dealers fined ; these fines
amounted to 811,657 i n 1881 ; $9,058 in 1882 ; $2,265 in 1883 ;
$3,101 in 1884 ; and $2,040 in 1885.
The total fines collected from dealers for the sale of adulterated
milk from 1875 to 1885 amounted to $45,202 ; besides nearly fifty
imprisoiinients for terms of from ten days to three months.
The combination of dealers and creamerymen resulted in a
Milk Trust, known as tlie New York Milk Exchange, limited ;
nine of the thirteen original directors of this exchange have been
arrested for selling adulterated milk, and aided by the best law-
yers and most depraved chemists they hired a man to act as the
defendant in a test case with regard to the lawfulness of the
sale of skimmed milk ; the trial resulted in his conviction at Gen-
eral Sessions and his payment of a fine of $150. This exchange
has since succeeded in having the aforesaid defendant appointed
as an expert on the New York State Dairy Commission, and the
consequence is that the farmers can obtain no better price for
milk containing over 3 per cent. of fat than these creameries do
for partially skimmed milk.
The lactometer, or centesimal galactometer, was invented by
Dinocourt ; for descriptions of this and other lactometers, galac-
tometers, lactodensimeters, milk testers, and milk weighers, see
Dr. H. A. Motts article in the Americait Chemist, April, 1877,
Vol. VI I ., p. 369.
The compiler was only employed as an inspector, and as such
was kept busy examining the milk sold by his proportion of the
THE LACTOMETER. 125
2,000 milk dealers and 6,000 stores in New York City, and did not
investigate methods of analyzing milk, but used the method of
Wanklyn, as improved by Dr. Waller, and published in Cairn's
Quantitative Analysis ; what suggestions he would have made
with regard to the analysis have been anticipated by Dr. W. H.
Kent, and published in this journal (Vol. IX, p. 132, and Vol, S,
p. 32.)
Thetometers as obtained from the maker should be tested at
60" Fehr.; this is done either by comparing with a standard lttc-
tometer which is known to be absolutely correct (this is the best
method when only one instrument is to be examined), or by
means of standard solutions ; these solutions are made of salt or
dilute sulphuric acid. A 3 per cent. solution of sodium chloride
has a specific gravity of 1.0217 ( 7 5 O ) ; a 4 psr cent. 1.0% (100') ;
and a 5 per cent. 1.036 (122O) ; these solutions, and others at
90" and l l Oo, should be tested with a specific gravity bottle at GO"
Fahr.
With sulphuric acid a three per cent. solution has a specific
gravity of 1.019 ( GG" ) ; a four per cent, 1.035G ( 88" ) ; tl five per-
cent, 1.033 (111').
The fault with the salt solutions is that they vary from evapora-
tion ; the dilute sulphuric acid solutions are more constant, still
they should be tested occasionally.
It is necessary to allow the lactometer to descend into the milk
slowly, as the milk which remains on the portion of the stem
above the surface of the sample being tested, when the entire fitem
is dipped, would lower the reading about two degrees ; the baniple
should not be shaken any more than is necessary to mix any cream
which may have risen, as it will absorb air ; and the foam on the
surface should be removed, as it makes i t difficult to read the
scale.
When a cow is milked, it is necessary to take the entire quan-
tity given at the regular time of milking, as the first portions of
the milk contain the most casein and sugar, and the last the most
cream ; milk taken from a cow whose regular yield stands at over
1 0 5 O will give milk standing below SO" if the cow is retnilked
shortly after her regular time ; the milk should be allowed to
136 THE LACTOMETER.
stand for some time after it is drawn from the cow, and cooled
before testing, so that the air absorbed during milking will be al-
lowed to escape.
For accurate tests the sample should be cooled (if above 60"
Fahr.) by placing the bottle or cylinder in cold water or packing
with ice ; or if below GO" Fahr. by setting in warn] water, rubbing
the cylinder with the hand, or placing in a warm room. A dif-
ference in temperature of from 23 to 3* degrees Fahrenheit will
cause a variation of one lactometric degree, different samples of
milk having different coEfficients of expansion ; 3 degrees is the
usual average, and is approximately correct from 40" to 70" Fahr.
Beyond these temperatures its calculation is uncertain, particu-
larly if the temperature is near freezing or so high that the milk
is liable to sour ; when once frozen, the constituents of the milk
appear to separate, and after thawing the specific gravity is
different .
When the contents of a can of milk are frozen, the water freezes
first, pushing the cream and casein towards the center, in very
cold weather forming an inner core of cream ; while, after melt-
ing, the ice around the exterior has a specific grtivity sometimes
as low as 1.008 ; a common trick of milk dealers being to pour out
the core, and then scrape out the ice, sometimes mixing i t with
snow or iee.
The consistence or thickness of milk can be easily determined
by allowing i t to run off of the lactometer and noting i ts
appearance over the black background of the shot in the lower
bulb ; this consistence is an important test, as with the opacity
due to the cream, the color and taste, the examiner, with
some practice, will be able to determine within one-half of
one per cent. how much fat the sample contains when below
three per cent., and approximately above that amount; if
the milk contains less than one-half of one per cent. of fat
i t has a mother of pearl opalescence, which caxi easily be seen
even by laniplight, i t also looks blue and tastes very sweet ; if less
than one per cent., the opal lustre is still apparent, the color blue-
ish, and tastes sweetish ; if under one and one-half per cent., the
milk appears like glue, color neither blueish nor yellow, and tastes
THE LACTOUETER. 127
flat ; if below two per cent., i t becomes more opaque, slightly yel-
low, and tastes more milky and not so sweet ; above two and one-
half per cent., it is opaque, yellow, niid the cream can be tasted in
proportion to the amonnt contained.
When the cows are kept confined in stables and fed on distillery
swill, or are in an unhealthy condition and fed exclusively on de-
cayed brewers grains, the odor of the milk will betray the fact ;
but the odor of milk from cows fed on brewers grains mixed with
other feed is not characteristic, if the milk is thoroughly cooled im-
mediately after milking, so as to remove the animal heat.
The principal complaint against the lactometer is that ti person
who never saw a sample of milk might be deceived by testing a
liquid that had about the same specific gravity-a salted solution
of white glue, for instance-if he made the test, as he might of an
unknown substance, from a book description.
As it is necessary to add a solution of at least four per cent. of
salt to milk in ordcr not to reduce its specific gravity, i t can
always be detected by its brackish taste ; and the addition of burnt
sugar or annatto will not conceal the opalescence of skimmed
milk or the thinness of watered milk.
The following formula for a compound for circumventing the
lactometer was devised by the chemist, who was employed by the
Hester street coalition of dishonest dealers :
(1) One gallon of water,
(3) Three ounces of sugar,
(lg) One and a half ounces of salt, and a little caramel ;
This to be added to
(4) Four gallons of milk.
This gives a fluid which standd at 99 degrees on the lactometer
at 60 Fahr., and shows on analysis :
Water, 89.06%; fat, 2.95% ; casein and sugar, &SO$; and
salts, 1.19%; sodium chloride, 0.42$.
The salt can be easily detected by its brackish taste, and the
dealer who offered it for sale did the State one months service
besides paying b fine.
Usually the addition of water alone was sufficient for milk
adulterators of the olden time, as the easiest and most convenient;
they tlieii ran the risk of detection, coiisidering that the fine-if
they were caught-had been paid many times by the consumer;
now, the adnlteration is mostly performed at crciameries, where
/ ruth inilk from the farmers is changed into p i w e inilk for the
city, by the addition of from twenty to fifty per cent. of skimmed
Illilk.
Objectioii has been made to the use of the lactometer that it is
nureliable, because, being an even scale hydrometer, the degrees
are not accnrately graduated ; this error of construction IS T ery
mal l on ncconnt of the slight range of specific gravity which it
records, the greatest error being at the 50 degree mark, where
the error is .;14 of one degree, or .O.?fj of an inch 011 the regular
size of lactometer, whose scale from 0' to 100' is 32 inches.
See Drs. TYdler and Hathaway's paper on the Modulus of I I y-
drorneters i n the School of Mines Quarterly, 1.01. ]*I., 13. 153
(J anuary, 1835).
To fi i i cl the error of a lactometric degree from the true position
of tlic same, according to the laws of graduation of hydrometers
by the specific gravity.
= 1701nme of lactometer immersed when floating iii water,
that IS, volume of water of the same weight as lactometer.
ly4, ir5, etc., Tl o =Volumes of lctctometer im-
mersed when floating in solutions of gravities corresponding to
I O', ?0 , , 40 , .io'. etc., 100' respectively, assuming that
10- = 1.+10X0.000'!9 ; 2u =1.+20x0.000'!9, etc.
I-,, \'.
].=Length of stem from 0- to 10(J ".
r.=.%rea of cross section, assnmed to be uniform throughout.
I ,.=Tmgth of lactometer assuming i t to be all stem ; then
Kow for a solution of gravity equal to 1.029 ; we have the vol-
ume of liquids of same weight as the lactometer 1- and ITlo.
These are to each other inversely as the specific gravities of the
solntions, or
Y=Lr. (1)
v : v,
l-lo=lu\g=T-. x0.9';1817. (2)
=l.029 : 1
Subtracting each member from ; \7-1T, ,=0.028153 1- (3)
Or the stem of the lactometer between 0" and 100" is 0.028183
of the volume of the whole lactometer.
THE LACTOMETER. 129
Then lr=volunie of the stem between 0"and loo", and I r=
0.028183 Lr from (l ), or dividing by r,
I= 0.028183 L, or L=,,&,,l.
(4)
If the value of 1 is 38 (=3.625) inches,
If 1 is 20 centimeters, L='709.647659 centimeters.
If 1 is one meter, L=35.482383 meters.
For solution of gravity of 50", specific gravity 1.0145.
tame reasoning which gives us equat'ion (2), we obtain
L128.693638 inches (or 10 feet 83 inches nearly).
By the
V : V6=1.0145 : 1 ;
V , =V , gk=V X 0.985707. (51, and
V--V,=0.014203V=O.O1~903Lr. (6)
1 ,=O. 014-2931; ( 7 )
Volume of stem from 0" to 5Oo=1,r=3.014203Lr, or dividing
through by r
If the 50" mark is placed just half way between 0" and 100"; i t
is placed at +1 below the 0" mark or from equation (4) at
4 1=0.01400PL, then
or when placed half way between 0" and looo, it is by that amount
above its true position, the measurement being made from the 0"
mark, and I
1 6-+ i+o. 01.1293-0. oi.iooqrJ =o. O O O ~O ~L
(8)
) 3 1.
Assuming the value for L obtained from (4), ( 8) gives;
lo-+ 1=0.'3501'77 inches (9)
l0=dab of 3.625=0.0:3G*25 inch, and the 50" mark is out of place
by +:#+#"=$" nearly.
If L=700.6476,50 centimeters, 1,- 3 1=0.143832 centimeters
If L=35.488383 meters, 1,- +L0.7142GO centimeters.
For solutions of other gravities, corresponding to loo, 90, 30",
40, etc.=1.0329, 1.0058, 1.0087, 1.0116, etc.
v : v,=1.0030 : 1 ; vT.&~g=0'9971OYV
V-V, =0.00:!89'JV=O. 002SO'?Lr=1* r
dividing by r and substituting va!ue of L
difference=0.009481 inch too high (11 )& 1)
L128.623638 inches ; I1=0.3719Y1 inch, & 1=0.3625 inch ;
L709.64'7659 centimeters ; diberence=0.052017 centimeters
L35.48'7383 meters ; difference=0.9GOOYG centimeters
130 THE LACTOMETER.
For 90"=specific gravity of 1,0261 ;
IT : IT,=1.02Gl : 1 ; \T--V,=0.'7543G\7,
1,=3.271680 inches ; 1$ 1=3.'?695 inches,
difference=0.009180 inch t oo high (1 , > I$ 1)
For l"=specific gravity of 1.00029 ;
V--T-,=O.O00072SV ; difference=0.0000103 inches too
high.
For 99"=specific gravity of 1.02871 ;
1, ,=3.58074 inches ; difference=0.00009 inches too high.
Table showing difference between actual positions and proper
positions for marks indicating lo", 20, etc., respectively, measured
from 0 mark.
-
Lacto-
metric
Degree
__
10"
20"
30"
40"
50"
60"
70"
SO"
90"
100"
l l oo
120"
ometei. 1
1,0029
1.00%
1.0087
1.0116
1.0145
1.0174
1.0203
1.0232
1.0261
1.0290
1.0319
1.0348
.997108
.994233
.991375
.988533
,985'707
.!I82808
.980104
. 977326
,0745G4
.971817
.96908G
.066370
Even Scale Re
' ci procal o
)iffarciice of' 1.029 divide
Reciprocals by 100 aril
md 1.000000. multiplikd b,
10, 20, etc.
IEven Scale Re ~
tip r o c a io
)iffarciice of' 1.029 divide
Reciprocals by 100 aril
md 1.000000. multiplikd b,
10, 20, etc.
I
.002892
,005767
.OOY625
,011467
.014293
.017102
.Ol98DG
.022G74
.025436
.028153
.030914
.033630
.002818
.005637
,008455
.011273
.014002
.016910
. 0 19'2 8
.022546
.025365
.028183
.031001
. 0 3 38 19
Crror ol Eve
Scale io dec
mala of tt
entire lengt
of Lactom
rer
.000073
.000130
,000170
.000194
.000201
.000193
.000168
.000128
,0000$1
.000000
.000087
.000189
Crror reduced
to centime-
ters on a
meter L -z
55.482983
meters.
.86008G
.4G1271
.GO3555
. G8'7649
.7142GO
.683391
.596104
.452755
* 253344
.oooooo
.309406
.G72391
THE LbCT03I ETER. 131
Centimeters.
31.G1
32.G2
33.G3
34.64
35.65
X. 66
37.G6
3S. G;
39.GS
ERROR OF THE LACTOMETER FOR EACH DEGREE IN CENTIMETERS ;
DEGREE xr 0" IS 1.028 CENTIMETERS, AT 100" .98 CENTIJ IETEHS.
DI STANCE FROM 0" TO 100" BEI KG OXE JIETER. LENGTH OF
Degree
61
69
G3
1 G4
G5
GG
G7
GY
GO
-
Degree
___
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
15
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
99
30
Iy
-
:entimetere. 1
G1.GS
62.137
G3.M
Degree
91
92
93
2.056
3.054
4.11
5.13
G. 1G
7.13
8.20
9.23
10.3'30
11.95
12.30
13.32
14.34
15.33
16.38
I 3 2
1 33
34
1 35
3G
37
3s
39
40
41
42
I 43
I 44
45
1 46
Centimeters,
42.69
43.69
44.70
45.70
46.70
47.70
4s.71
49.71
91.23
92.20
93.15
94.1G
95.135
9G. 108
97.0S3
95.05
99.02
100. OG
100.97
101. !)4
102.91
103. ss
104.55
105.83
106.';9
107. 7(j
10s. 73
109. G91
ll0.CjS
111. G5
ll?.G9
113.59
111.53
115.51
llG.46
117.41
113.37
119. 33
72
I 7 3
74
I 7. 5
7G
77
7s
79 19.44
20.4G1
21.48
22.50
23.52
24.54
25.55
2G.5G
27.57
28.55
29.59
30. GO3
~ 49
1 50
1 51 52
' 53
I 51
1 55
~ 5G
1 ii
I
55.705
56.703
57.GDS
5S.694
39.GS9
GO.GS:;
I
S5
SG
S7
ss
SO
90
TO METERS.
Used by Mi l kmen.
IO0 *= 1.0 2 9 I O Oo= 1.03 4 I O Oo= 1.038 10 Oo= 1.080 u y
i
I . . . . .
Board of
JJACTOUETRIC STANDI NGS AT 60' FAIIR.-~UITTING SAMPLES OF
SKIXMED MI LK.
Total _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Ayerage - - - - - - - - -
No. below 100"---
Percentage _ _ _ _ _ _
Lactomet,et.
1514 1116 1776 1470 2195 2078 10149
106.12 107.06 106.26 107.12 107.71 107.97 107.12
167 57 121 86 125 101 657
11.0 5.1 6.7 5.8 5.7 4 8 & 4
1880. 1 1881. 1 1882.
i
- - - _ _ -
- _ _ 1
_ - - 1
_ _ - I
1 _ _ -
_ - - _ _ _
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
1
--i !!!~
1 11
1 1;
- - - 2
1 - _ _
2 - _ -
4 1
2 - - -
2 - - -
9 1
2 1
9 1
6 _ _ _
10 4
2 3
15
10
22 3
40 6
25 13
21 6
64 43
66 20
67 37
61 56
80 61
87 75
102 108
116 91
122 114
126 111
119 89
94 101
84 77
56 32
45 25
30 8
18
5
1
- - - I - - - I - - -
I 1
2
3
2
4
5
3
14
13
18
18
32
37
47
90
97
125
143
141
177
161
158
121
114
98
67
49
19
Iy
i
- - -
- - _
- - -
41
31
- - -
I!
4
9
14
13
17
14
19
36
51
76
51
92
130
159
145
149
108
135
116
53
31
9
3
1
- - -
- - -
_ - _
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
3
3
4
4
4
8
5
5
12
3 - - - I 12
2 - _ - 15
1 - - - 12
1 - - - 19
3 1 16
6 3 37
6 3 47
15 10 77
25 24 106
24 21 118
30 34 137
34 22 '219
35 35 239
59 50 354
68 48 406
94 85 496
117 118 632
201 160 842
169 214 926
237 210 989
208 255 1007
173 134 764
218 227 889
192 178 745
133 129 470
110 99 359
16 13 95
6 _ _ _ 37
_ _ _ _ _ _ 14
- _ - - - - 4
- - _ - - _ 2
- - - _ _ _ 3
134 THE LACTOMETER.
AXALSSIS,
.-
L.-
p
-
K
159
1ss
1 ;1
13
24s
:;5
ss
173
349
102
193
s
300
330
9
57
2 0
17
327
2 ;
.!9
1 (i
1 ;s
86
3 .I
14
3 ;
12
5 6
3 1
342
3 2 2
i l
9 I -
k * , k
a:
-
* m
-
,3?
* 32
A3
.4l
. . ; ?
.x
*
*
il
~
5.03
5.10
5.54
G.06
6.47
G . 76
6.2s
6.23
40.7
39. s
33.7
32. 6
2 3 . s
24, S
24. 4
*? 5.0
15
4G
24
61
43
5 b
4
$2 .j
1 3
:i 3
10
2
38
25
5;
9
9
5
20
14
10
_ _
t .
.-
- -
- -
1v
-.
- _
21
14
13
1.023. 1 90.92 9 . 8
2. 24
3. 76
2. (i 1
2. so
1. S3
2. 71
90. 9!)
8s. 94
90. G 1
!HI. 25
91.1s
90.0 7
89. 88
S9. 48
!IO. 94
90.5G
Sd. 79
no. GG
no.. 3s
99. 74
$9. T,L
39.37
90. 08
X0. 9G
89. s;
89. 7s
89.154
S9. 90
90.16
39.7;
S9.ljO
6.76 . 34 19.0
28. :1,
19.s
21.0
20.0
1 !). 8
19.0
l;:!
10.5
1 - .
*
. 33
Y;
*
2.!)4
3.32
1. 84
2. 15
3.75
1.2;
2 . .!?
.!.;:I
7.29
*
*
, .j3
?;
;.45
7.51
7.40
7. 53
7.4s
7.29
*
, 60
, :,8
*
*
*
*
*
*
-39
5G
3.00 17. 2
12.0
16.4
17.0
1;.0
16.3
18.4
13.1
17.0
14.0
13.6
- _
91
- ....
Other signs used in this table are as follows :
* Salts included with Casein and Sugar.
t Cow seen milked.
$ Creamery milk.
$ Cows kept in Stablee, and fed on Brewers Grains.
THE LACTOMETER. 135
308
343
64
23
19
344
321
32
30
34s
169
22
238
2s
351
346
345
185
1s
294
15
316
328
164
317
352
65
293
223
58
290
162
147
347
6
254
240
I I
94
_ _
_ _
_ -
- _
- -
- -
_ _
95
_ _
96
_ _
_ _
_ _
- -
- _
- -
_ _
- -
_ _
_ _
_ _
97
_ _
_ _
- _
- _
_ _
_ _
_ _
98
_ _
_ _
_ _
99
- -
- _
89.72
89.54
89.22
89.18
59.13
88.92
58.53
88.32
s9.22
89.21
88.95
88.35
91-04
89.80
89.4G
89.40
89.09
89.01
88.78
88.64
58.51
88.44
89.59
89.65
89.57
89.18
89.09
89.05
88.88
88.73
88.26
89.71
89.55
89.41
89.21
89.01
90.49
1.0273 I 2.59
2.3s
3.20
3.00
3.10
3.22
3.31
3.90
2.83
2.72
2.98
3.53
1.37
2.41
2.44
2.55
2.77
2.9G
3.3s
3.16
3.6G
3.32
1-55
2.49
2.51
2.57
3.19
2.75
3.10
3.06
3.36
1.82
2.33
2.48
2.25
2.95
.90
- - - - - I
7.10
7.47
7.04
7.82
7.27
7.29
7.78
7.95
7.47
7.46
8.12
6.98
7. 79
7.49
7.46
7.51
7.49
7.84
7.61
7.83
7. 61
7.92
7.25
7.31
7.G3
7.04
7. 52
7.40
8.21
7.75
7.S1
7.65
7.50
8.54
7.48
7.88
IY p.r r. r3
AN ALYPIS
I / I
.59 14.6 14
-61 10.2 20
.54 15.8 - -
* 13.1 - -
* 18.4 - -
.59 12.7 - -
-57 12.7 - _
* 13.4 _ _
* 11.5 6
.GO 10.3 9
. G l 10.3 _ _
* 9.8 - _
. G1 15.7 54
* 13.4 20
. G l 10.0 19
.59 10.G 15
.e4 9.5 I-
* 1?.8 _ _
.59 8.9 _ _
* 12.7 _ _
. G3 8.5 _ _
- 64 5.2 48
. G 1 12.7 1'7
. G 1 12.0 16
.G2 8.3 21
.cis 14.2 _ _
,135 9.2 8
.G2 ~10.9 _ _
* 8.8 - -
-63 G.9 - -
.G6 5.9 39
.66 7.7 22
.61 10.0 17
* 5.1 25
. 56 10.7 2
.64 5.3 67
. 55 , 10.7 ;
136
m'
.-
h
:a
n
2
c
350
276
298
392
295
163
89
247
1
40
146
251
208
253
100
181
8';
83
226
123
55
299
209
245
297
246
211
331
176
212
228
36
74
191
48
99
7 2
THE LACTOMETEH.
I
I___-
89.06 2.50 '7.83
68.81 2.67 7.91
88.49 1 3.19 7.69
88.18 3.26 1 7. 95
89.42 2.24 7.73
89.20 1 2. 22
89.01 ' 3.40
88.94 2.58
88.89
88.65
88.60
88.55
88.32
88. 19
88.76
90.6G
89.61
69.14
80.05
85.89
88. YO
58.18
90.24
89.17
88.69
88.55
88.55
88.24
90.26
00.04
89.76
89.06
88.15
87.16
88.54
86.1s
85.45
2.06
3. 02
3.11
3.09
3.47
7. 92
6.99
7.87
9.05
8. 33
7.68
7. 70
'7, 60
.61 6.2 17
.61
.63
.61
.61
, 66
.60
,61
*
*
.61
.66
. G 1
3.23 7. 96 I.62
2.78 7, 78 ~ .GX
1-30 7.41 .G:i
2.92
2.85
3.70
1.53
5.52
3.10
2. 78
3.05
2.65
1. 42
1.75
1.83
2.54
3.06
3.74
2. 77
4.55
5.38
n -.
1.33
8.35
7.51
7 . GO
7.76
7. 56
8.04
7. 76
8.45
7.71
7. G5
1 . i G
8: 40
8.13
8.45
8.69
8.60
8.45
r +
* 65
, 64
.70
.64
I 61
,63
. 55
.65
-63
. 64
-66
.61
-59
. 67
.66
,65
,67
. 72
*
*
*
5.3 I 11
7.6 I _ _
5.0 ! - -
7. 3 1 95
4.; 26
15.7 ' _ _
31
7 . g - -
7. 1
8. 8
4. 7
10.7
8.8
10.0
6.7
9.0
7 . 2
9.8
8.3
7.6
8. 8
3.7
6. 7
7.6
8.8
5. 2
6.6
t
$
8
s
t
t
t
THE LACTOIXETER.
d
K
32
E 4
%
150
210
239
31 8
214
341
332
154
155
38
236
282
152
184
233
148
304
180
277
2 30
227
101
302
93
94
53
353
179
214
288
130
243
123
280
286
235
291
90.54
90.2 9
89.45
89.25
88.51
88.48
88.36
88-27
89.48
89.18
88.84
88. 68
88.63
88.38
88.38
88.15
as. 90
89.30
88.83
88.79
88.37
88.48
87.64
87.48
87.25
86.08
91.39
90.01
89.38
89.19
89.16
89.00
88.71
88.52
88.48
88.26
88.22
ANALYPIP.
1.03
1.54
1.77
2.33
2.85
2.53
2.90
3.24
1.97
2.04
2.82
2.74
2.46
2.5s
2.68
3.29
3.41
1.06
2.40
2.18
2.69
2.75
3. 67
3. GS
3.84
4.58
1.50
I. 31
2.02
2.47
2.22
2.14
2.42
2.86
3.03
2.36
2. 61
7.81
8.09
i . 16
8.05
8.35
8.07
7.80
7.96
8.78
7.74
8.01
8.38
8.43
8.31
7. 89
7.97
8.05
8.05
8.31
8.14
8.01
7.98
8. 08
8.25
9.34
6.51
8.06
7.96
I . (2
7.93
8.15
8.20
8.02
7.88
8.70
8.53
N 15P
I . I I
t-15
N15
-
d
"0 m
-
.62
-60
. 69
. G6
* 59
.(i5
. 67
.69
.59
.60
,57
.63
. G 1
.63
.67
.72
.69
.66
.68
.71
.76
.71
, 76
.70
.GO
.62
. 63
.62
.69
.7l
. 67
-60
.61
.68
*
*
. e8
-
&:
c)
f
s
W
4
6. 3
7.0
2.5
6.5
4.0
?
2.9
5.7
5.0
2.5
7.4
4.2
?
4.9
2.9
3.1
2
?
t
2
t
t
t
t
t
t
21.0
3 .G
4.6
7.3
4.2
2
2
4.2
5.7
2
i
137
-
i
i
I
V
66
48
41
22
5
16
31
_ _
34
32
6
9
18
14
10
- -
t
35
18
27
10
t
t
t
t
t
50
5G
33
18
26
29
19
5
21
13
- -
135 THE LACTOUETER.
309
312
313
255
45
59
71
242
232
285
229
151
5
250
54
168
98
60
52
158
132
109
231
25
21
121
225
128
137
75
167
306
311
259
310
215
174
THE LACTOMETER.
87.96
87.93
87.59
87.58
87.08
84.23
89.78
89.03
88.85
88.68
88.66
88.62
88.48
88.21
87.90
87.78
87.34
86.54
85.76
91.25
89.52
89.47
89.04
88.71
88.32
88.27
87.87
87. 78
87.72
86.81
84.27
87.88
87.82
87.31
87.07
89.33
88.82
ANALYSIS.
c
3.10
2.89
3.45
2.99
3.63
5.32
1.38
2.17
2.19
2.37
1.95
2.29
2.71
2.96
2. 78
2.01
3.32
3.58
4.34
-11
1.56
1.68
1.67
2.31
2.62
2.54
2.58
2.93
2.96
3.58
6.03
2.93
2.87
3.46
3.39
1.76
1. 75
-
8.24
8.53
8.29
8.85
9.29
9.74
8.84
8.09
8.31
8.32
8.56
8.44
8.81
8.23
9.32
8.68
8.63
9.28
9.90
7.92
8.92
8.16
8.59
8.98
9-06
8.46
8.88
8.58
9.32
8.92
9.08
8.51
8.68
8.51
8.91
8.29
8.74
-
d
c)
-
m
-
.70
.65
.67
.58
.71
. 71
-65
.63
.70
.65
I 60
-63
.71
.60
.72
I 69
,SI0
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
I73
I 69
*
,69
I 62
,67
I 62
I72
I 63
,62
,69
139
i
I
-
: #
P
3 3 4
t i
t t
t t
t
t t
2.0 54
2.3 27
E
B
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
4.0
I
1 t
t
t
t
1
10
1
r,
i
t
t
t
96
48
44
44
23
12
17
14
2
1
I
t
t
t
t
41
42
-
140 THE LACTOJIETEK.
i
.-
t,
j?
g 4
'4
76
264
79
307
256
119
110
159
24
281
34
355
266
43
26
218
10
224
92
356
357
265
THE LACTOMETER.
5
. a
B"
88.10
88.06
87.90
86.91
86.28
90.55
89.86
90.70
90.69
90.23
88.78
88.23
88.12
86.87
90.73
90.38
88.62
88.53
86.91
80. 65
89.46
89. 61
ANALTPIS.
a-
L
-
2.48
2. $9
2.61
3.65
4.19
-06
.71
.OS
.51
.49
1.83
1.94
2.54
3.39
.18
.06
1.87
2,14
2.13
.26
.49
.55
-
i
0 3
.z t c
I=
be
I
8.71
8.46
8.'76
8.74
8.88
8.70
8. 74
8.50
8.80
8.59
9.39
9.17
8.61
9.84
9.09
8.89
9.51
8.66
LO. 21
9.47
9.39
9.11
-
--
11
m
-
-
. 71
.69
. 73
* ?O
.65
.69
.69
,72
.69
.6G
.73
*
*
*
*
.68
.70
e75
* 62
.66
.73
*
141
-
a
r
E
0
P
0
-
17
13
c
t
t
98
76
97
83
84
39
35
15
94
98
38
29
29
91
84
82
t
142 THE LACTO3TETER.
The percentages of water added and cream removed in the pre-
ceding analyses were calculated from the standards of the States
of New York and New J ersey, namely, over 9 per cent. of solids,
not fat, over 3 per cent. of fat, and less than SS per cent. of water.
For details with regard to the samples taken from cows which
were seen milked, and the names of owners of some of the samples
of adulterated milk, see Report on Fresh and Condensed Milk in
the Fourth Annual Report (1853-4) of the New York State Board
of Health.
I n conclusion : The lactometer is an accurate instrument for
taking the specific gravity of milk. The specific gravity of the
entire quantity of milk given by a healthy cow at her regular time
of milking is rarely, if ever, below 1.049. The specific gravity of
pure milk increases with the quality, that is, with the dccreased
percentage of water ; while it decreases in proportion to the water
added itnd increases with the cream removed, either or both adnl-
terations being apparent to the senses of an expert. If the test is
performed by an expert, it is impossible to tamper with a sample
of milk, to the extent of commercial adulteration, without being
detected by the specific gravity taken in connection with evidence
of the senses.