and Installation AWWA MANUAL M11 Third Edition ~o:k?!~@*\ American Water Works Association Contents 7 , . . - . - : - > ; = . - .. . r < * ..... *. . Chapter 1 1.1 I .2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 History, Uses, and Physical Characteriodcs of SteeI Pipe. ....... 1 History, 1 Uses, 2 Physicai Characteristics, 3 Ductility and Yield S - , 3 Stress and Strain, 4 Smain in Dcsign, 7 Analysis Based on Strain, 8 Ductility in Design, 10 mects of Coid Worlnng on S - and Dudt y, 10 Brite Fracrure Considemtiom in Stnicturiir Dtsign, 12 Good Practice, 15 Chapter 2 Manufacture and Testing .................................... 16 2.1 Manufacture, 16 2.2 Testing, 19 Chapter 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Chapter 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Hydraulics of Pipelines ...................................... 21 Formulas, 21 Caicuiations, 26 Economical Diameter of Fipe, 32 Distribution Sysams, 33 Air En-ment md Release, 33 Good Practioe, 33 Determination of Pipe Waii Thicluiess ......................... 36 I n t e d Pressure, 36 Working Tension Strm in Steel, 37 Tolerante, 38 Corrosion Aiiowance, 39 Externa1 Pressure-Uniform and Radial, 40 Minimum Wall Thicknecs, 40 Chapter 5 Water Hamrner and Pressure Surge. .......................... 51 5.1 Basic Relationships, 5 1 5.2 Checklist for Pumphg Mains, 54 . . 5.3 General Smdies for Water Hammer Control, 54 ' t . - - 5.4 Al l omce for Water Hammer, 55 . - . 5.5 Pressure Rise Calculations, 55 Chapter 6 6.1 6.2 ExternalLoad ............................................... 57 . . c . . - - 4 . &.. . ;?y' :: .;. Load Determination, 57 " - - . - . . Deflsction Determimtion, W -. 1 , 6.3 Buckling, 61 -. ,. 6.4 Extreme Externa1 Loading Conditions, 62 = - . > . . . . - F . , 6.5 Computer Programs, 63 A Chapter 7 Supports for Pipe.. . . . . . . . 7. I Saddle Supports, 66 7.2 Pipe Deflection as ka m, 70 7.3 Methods of Cdculation, 70 7.4 Gradient of Supportsd Pipelines to Prevent Pocketing, 7 1 7.5 Ring-Girder ConstrucUon, 7 1 7.6 Ring-Girder Construction for Low-Pressure Pipe, 77 7.7 Installation of Ring-Girder Spans, 78 Chapter 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 Chapter 9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 PIpeJoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Bell-and-Spigot Joint with Rubber Gasket, 86 Welded Joints, 87 Sleeve CoupLings, 88 Fimges, 89 Grooved-and- Shouldered Couplings, 89 Expmsion and Contraction-General, !M Ground Fnction and Line Temion, 91 Good Practice, 92 Fittings and Appurtenances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Designation of Fittings, 93 Bolt Hole Position, 95 Design of Wye Branches, 95 Testing of Fittings, 95 Unbalanced Thrust Forces, 95 Frictional Resistance Between Soil and Pipe, 96 Anchor Rings, 96 Nozzle Outlets, 96 Connection to Other Pipe Material, 96 Fhged Connections, 97 Valve Connections, 97 Blowoff Connections, 97 Manholes, 97 Insulating Joints, 98 Air-Release Valves and Air-and-Vacuum Valves, 98 Good Practice, 99 Chapter 10 Principies of Corrosion and Corrosion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 10.1 GeneralTheory, 101 10.2 Intemal Corrosion of Steel Pipe, 11 1 - , , . 10.3 Atmospheric Corrosion, 11 1 10.4 Methods of Corrosion Control, 1 1 1 10.5 Cathodic Protection, 11 1 1 Protective Coatings and Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Requircments of Good Pipeline Coatings and Liaings, 115 Selection of the h p e r Coating md Lining, 1 15 1 1.3 Reaommended Cuatings and Linings, 1 17 1 1.4 h t i n g Application, 1 18 11.5 GmdPractice, 119 Chapter 12 Transportadon, Installation, and Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 12.1 Transportation and Handling of Coated Steel Pipe, 121 . - . > - -- 12.2 Trenching, 122 12.3 Installation of Pipe, 123 12.4 Anchors and Thrust Blocks, 127 12.5 Field Coeiting of Joints, 128 12.6 Pipe-Zone Bedding and Backfdl, 128 12.7 Hydrostatic Field Test, 129 Chapter 13 Supplementary Design Data and Detaib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 13.1 Layout of Pipelines, 131 13.2 Calculation of Angie of Fabricated Pipe Bend, 132 13.3 Reiforcement of Fittings, 134 13.4 Collar Plate, 136 13.5 Wrapper-Plate Design, 138 13.6 Crotch-Plate (Wye-Branch) Design, 140 13.7 Nomograph Use in Wye-Branch Design, 141 13.8 Thmsr Restraint, 147 13.9 Anchor Rings, 151 13.10 Joint Harnesses, 151 13.1 1 S pecial and Valve Connections and Other Appurtenances, 15 1 13.12 Freezing in Pipeiines, 162 13.13 Design of Circurnferential Fillet Welds, 168 13.14 Submarine Pipelines, 170 Index, 173 This manuai was first authorized in 1943. In 1949, committee 8310D appointed one of its members, Russel E. Barnard, to act as editor in chief in charge of coiiecting and compiling the available data on steel pipe. The first draft of the report was completed by January 1957; the draft was reviewed by the committee and other authoritiec on sreel pipe. The first edition of this manual was issued in 1964 with the title Steel Pipe-Desi@ und Installation. The 1985 edition of this rgmual was approved in June 1984. The principal changes from the 1964 edition rehted to externa1 loads on pipe, reinforcement of finings, and joint harnesses. Some of the rigorous descriptions, formulas, and calculations included in the 1964 edition were diminated where adequate references to such descriptions, formulas, and . - calculations were available. Some chapters of rhe 1964 edition were combined in the 1985 ,.. edition, thereby reducing the number of chapters from 19 to 13. Also, a comprehensive < --- index wrts added to rhe 1985 edition, and the manual's title was changed to Steel Pip-A Guide for Desi@ and Installation. . . . . . - This revision of the manual was approved in Jwie 1988. In addition to corrections to the , : . - . ... . - , . - text and editing for chrity throughout, major revisions include redefinition of B' in Eq &7; . - .- -. . - - - . - >&Tk - - . - redefinition of h, and Wc in Eq 6-8; revision of Sec. 13.9, including revision of Figure 13- 16 .-. .+.- 3 - - - - <=-: and addition of new tables for ring dimensions and ailowable bearing loads; and revision of .+.?=S,::;- . .- $g=..: --i-.--, : Sec. 13.10, including revision of Figure 13- 17 and addition of new tables for harness .c:?.-'. * .-.--. . -:+: ,<+ - : , dimensions and allowable tie bol1 Ioadings. This manual provides a review of experience and design theory regarding steel pipe used for conveying water, with appropriate references cited. Application of the principies and procedures discussed in this manual must be based on responsible judgment. , . - - . .--' - .. - -- , - -_.. - . * , . : . .- -.. * * $zF:z-; y- ; . . - , . .: - ; . .;<. - - -:L ; -.:.L.>--. , +.-, ; - . , ,=. .. ., .:,. This revision of Manual M1 1 was made by the following members of the Steel Water Pipe Manufacturers Technical Advisor y Committee (S WPMTAC): . :.- :, .rc- 1 Roben E. Gilmor, Task Group Chairman - > - . Frank Corteilessa -.: Gary V. Heatherington D.J. Cowling C.R. McCormick -- - Demis Dechant Gary D. Redrnond . R. Dewey Dickson Edwin N. Seward A.D. Harder George J. Tupac This revision was idso approvtd by the Standards Committee on Steel Pipe and the Standards Council. The Standards Committee on Steel Pipe had the following personnel at the time of approval: George J. Tupac, CIrwrman John H. Bambei Jr., Vice Chaiman Dennis Dechant, Seoetary Consumer Members J.H. Bambei Jr., Denver Water Department, Denver, Colo. G.E. 31wk Jr., GHR Engineering AswSates, Inc., Lakeview, Mass. R.S. Bryant, Department of Water and Bower, Los b e l e s , Calif. D. J. Cowling, US Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colo. J.L. Doane, Portland Bureau of Water Works, Portland, Ore. C.M. Frenz, M o m County Water Authority, Rochater, N.Y. Wesley Kremkau, Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission, Hyattsville, Md. Kemeth Olson, Tacoma City Water, Tacoma, Wash. E.C. Scheader, Bureau of Water Supply, New York, N.Y. G.M. Snyder, Metropolitan Water District of Southem CaIifornia, Los Angeles, f. General Inrerest M&s C.J. Arch, Consulting Engmeer, Covina, Calif. W.R. 3-11, Metcaif & Eddy, Inc., Arlington Heights, 111. R. Dewey Di c h n , J.M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers, Pasadem, Caiif. B.R. Eims*, Standards Engineer Liaison, AWWA, Denver, Colo. L. J. Farr, CH2M fIiU, Inc., Redding, CalZ. R.E. Gilmor, Consulting Engineer, Denver, Colo. . -. ... . G.K. Hickox, Engineering Consultant, Houston, Texas R.Y. Konyalian, Boyle Engineering Corporation, Newport Beach, Calif. -1 - G.M. Kroilik*, Naval Construction Bartalion Center, Port Hueneme, Mf . G.D. Plant, Consulting Engineer, Napa, Mif. . . . . . L.T. Schaper, Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Mo. G. J. Tu- G. J. Tupac & As e t e s , Pittsburgh, Pa. W.W. Webster, Leedshill-Herkenhoff, Inc., Albuquerque, N.M. :.K.G. Wiikes, Consulting Engineer, Escondido, Calif. --.R.E. Yomg, Robert E. Young Engineers, Sacramento, Calif. . _ . Producer Members T.R. Brown, Rockwell Internationai, Pittsbwgh, Pa. Frank CorteUessa, Kaiser Steel Corporation, Fontana, Mf . Dennis Dechant, c/o Thompson Pipe aud Steel Company, Denver, Colo. _ A.D. Harder, Ameron Pipe Division, Portland, Ore. -George Harris, Taipecoat Company, Evanston, iil. C.R. McCormick, CRM Enterpises, Vacaviile, Calif. J.R. Pegues, American Cast Iron Pipe Company, Birmhgham, Ala. E.N. Seward, United Concrete Pipe Curporation, Baldwin Park, Calif. H.R. Stoner, Koppers Company, Newark, N. J. J.A. Wise, Canus Industria, Ltd., Vancouver, B.C. .. . L . ; : AWWA MANUAL un 1 History, Uses, and 5; <,- .. g :- e i - , . T . . . &. .A-.-.Y. cT Physical . . C haracteristics . . , . >>. , -. .-. . . , -- . . -. , . , el pipe has been used for water lines in the United States sin- the early 1850s.' The pipe was fmr manufactured by r o h g steel sheets or plata into shape and riveting the seams. of pipe, continued with improvements thicknesses couid be readily varied to fir the different pressure y low tensile strength of the early steels, and the low efFiciency of . - cold-riveted seams and riveted or drive stovepipe joints, engineers initially set a safe design S at 10 000 psi. Over the years, as riveted-pipe fabrication methods improved and r strength steeh were developed, design s ms e s progressed generally on a 4-m-1 safety factor of tensile strength, increasing from 10 000 to 12 500, m 13 750, and Finally to psi, adjusted as necessary to account for the eficiency of the riveted seam. The pipe -= was furnished in diameters ranging from 4 in. through 144 in. md in thickness from 16 f single-, double-, triple-, md even rying in eficiency from 45 percent to 90 percent depending on d in 1905, had nearly supplanted riveted pipe by 1930. involved planing 30-ft long plates to a width approximately equal to half the cumference, upsetting the longitudinal edges, md rolling the plates imo 30-ft "' long half-circle troughs. H-shaped bars of special aonfguration were applied to the mating edges of two 30-ft troughs aud clamped into position to form a full-circle pipe section. Following the general procedure of the times, a 55 000-psi tensile-strength steel was , used. With a 440- 1 safery factor, this resulted in a 13 750-psi design stress. Lock-Bar pipe tages over riveted pi p: it had only one or two straight seams and no round -s. The straight seams were considered 100-percent efficient as compmed to the 4'S;percent m 70-percent eficiency ge ne dy applied to rivered -s. Manufxtwd in s h s from 20 in. through 74 in., from plate mqhg in thickness from 3/i6 h. to $2 in., Lo&-Bar played an increasingly gram role in the markct riritil the advent of automtic electric welding in the mid 1920s. By the early 1930s, both riveting and --Bar methods grdudly pmsed out of the picture, and welding dominated $he field. Pipe produaed using automtic de&c Eusion welding offered thc advaniages of fewer pieces, fewer operakm, fmter production, smalIer seam protrusion, and 100-permnt oPelded+mm eflkiencp. Fa- of fusion-welded pipe foliowed somewhat the sime initial pduction sequemes as for M- B a r . Thmugh the 193th and into h e 19&, 30-ft fletes were used. By the 19509, some rms had obtained 48-ft dh, mda ii=w f o ~ ~ f t ~ ~ in p - , h h g the developing d.ecstde of welding ip tk i9%, a new approach was mken to des@ stresses. Prior to that time, it had been c&on p d c e to work with a safety factor - & of Pta- 1 b& on the tensiie s t m q i d ~ As w d d pipe came into p r a d o h , the concept - g of ~ ~ ~ - 5 0 w t of the field kmme gemdi p accepted. - -- Spirsiily forrrred oind wclded ppewas devebped In thc early 19309 and was ~ s e d :- . . 'c -- extensivelg in diameters from 4 h. through 36 in. Welding was by ihe e l &~ fusion L- - g-. . - methd. After Worid Wm 11, Ger~ian mcbines were impomd, andsubsequentiy domestic ones were developed t ht could s p a y hrrn and w d h u g h dbekrs of 144 in. E:- -5; 1 3 m& 5-, 5,- << .-c. Steel water pipe me- the requirements of appmpriate AWWA smdards has been found satisfactory for mmy appkatims, same of which are as follows: Aqutduca Treatment-pht piping (Figure 1-1) Supply &S Self-supgodng spam T d s i mma i n s P m lmins Distributiw d m @cuhhg-water k s flZ$#-v -, - P L ~ t d a . Uderwater crossiagg, incakes, md outfds k ..:,cz~-~- M &m OII s ~ ~ & & e notarbb ~td pi pe be ~ b e b p ~ b ~ i ~ h e d . ~ d =la m .- - . &.,-=- - , - . . . - - . numerous others have appbed in t k J md R WWA and 0th~ periodicals, as well eis in - many textbooks and engh&ng hrrndbooks. -. - : .. T h installation of pipe In This plant was made &er k w e d the speeM1y designed fittings and - WW@P~Cte- .- FI-1-1 Sted mpe in Filtratlon Phnt Mer y HISTORY, USES, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 3 The properties of steel rhat make it so useful are its great strength, its ability to yield or deflect under a 1 4 w u e stiii offwing fuli resismce to it, its ability to bend without breaking, and its resistan= to sho&. The water utiZity eagineer s h d d understand these properties, how they are measured, what they wiii do, and to what extent they can be relied - on. - 1.4 DUCTILITY AND YIELD STaENGTH .- Solid mmhis can be differentiated imo two dasses: d u d e and brittle. In engineering ? . r practice, these IWO classes must be mted differentlg b u s e they behave differently under 5 - load. A ductik material exhibits a ~~ pht i c deformatiun or fiow at a faairly definite 5 - 6 The top photwraph shows a section of pipe after it collapsed as a result of Ihe falure of automatic vacuum-relief val-. The r e s t w section, rounded out by water forced through under pressure, is sbown at the botiom. Figure 1-3 Sections of 94-111. Bwquet Canyon Ppeline F 4 STBBL PIPE stress level (yield point or yield strength} and S hows a considerable total elongation, stretch, or plastic defomt i on before final breakage. With a brittle material, the plastic defomtion is not weli defined, and the ulrimate elongation before breakage is s d . Mild steel, such as -- is used in steel water pipe, is typical of the duaile materials. (The behavior of brittle ?materials will not be examined in this manual.) It is because of steel's ductility, its ability to yield or flex but not break, that the Bouquet h y o n pipeline shown in Figures 1-2 and 1-3 still operates satisfactorily in 1983 after 50 years of service. It is ductility that allows comparatively thin-wded steel pipe, even ;. - though decreased in vertical diameter 2-5 percent by earth pressures, to perform - satisfactorily when buried in deep trenches or under high fills, provided the true required "- - - - strength has been incorporated in the design. It is also because of ductility that steel pipe with theoretically high localized stresses at flanges, saddes, supports, md joint-harness lug connections has performed satisfactorily for many years. Designas who determine s m s using formulas based on Hooke's iaw find that the calculated results do not reflect the inregnty exhibited by the structures iiiusmted here. reason for the discrepancy is that the conventionai formulas apply only up to a certoiin s level and not beyond. Many eminently safe stnictures and parw of structuces oontain calculated stresses above this level. A fuli undersmding of tbe performance of sudi ures requires that the designer examine empirically the actual behavior of steel as it is ded from zero to the breaking point. & - The physical properties of steel (yield strength ami ultimste tensile strength) used as - the basis for design and purchase specif~cations are determined from tension tests made ona "standard specimen pulied in a tensile-testing machine. T h e strength of ductile materials, in terms of design, is defined by the yield strmgth as measured by the lower yield point, where one exists, or by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) offset yield stress, where a yield point d- not exist. For steel usually used in water pipe, the yield s t r q g h is fixed by s pecification as the stress due to a load causing a 0.5-percent extension of the puge length. The point is shown in Figure 1-4. The yield srrength of steel is considered to be the same for eithex tension or compression laads. Ductility of steel is measured as an elongation, or stretch, under a tension load in a - testing machine. Elongation is a measurement of change in length under the load and is , - %. .expressed as a percenuge of the original gauge length of the test specimen. . . < ,=.+-: - ,. .. - ' % .- ., ... -< -.: :, +- -. > - - - - , - L.-!. +.- . - . ,- E > , - , ... - ,;- - - =, . <; ; ?. ..:- . - ->. - . - 7 7 . ; .' d . , . t: - - , , . . . , ^.---' - , - - . , . - 1.5 STRESSANDSTMN - : - :-.., - . . ,.= - 1 ; .:. , - p:, , . . , > . - ' . .- ', -+ In engineering, stress is a f w e obtained by dividing a l d by an area. Strain is a length + - . -- 9 . - - <. ..:-y-< .ichange. The relation between stress and strain, as shown on a stress-strain diagram, is of $3 &2%*.. j: : ;*: .- - -.-- . .basic importance to the designer. ;>-- :-- <,,;L<:.;: --.. .- . :. . . . 7L-%. * - : Astress-strain diagram for any given material is a graph showing the strain (stretch per : :. - .. ,. . i,. unit of length) that occurs when the =terid is under a given load or stress. Por example, St. consider a bar of sted being puiled in a testing machine with suitable instrumentation for , % - . measuring the load and indicating rhe dimensional changes. While the bar is under load, it - ,- . -,~stretches. The change in length under load per unit of length is calltd strain or unit strain; it - ,is usually expressed as percentage elongation or, in stress analysis, microinches (~in,) per . . . -( inch, where 1 pin. = 0.000 00 1 in. The vdues of strain are plotted along the horizontal axis of - - - - . the stress-strain diagram. For purposes of plotting, the load is converted into units of stress ...,,..-$e;<[ <U- . D , - . , (pounds per square inch) by dividing the load in pounds by the original cross-sectional area of the bar in square inches. T h e values of stress are plotted along the vertical axis of rhe - , .- , . diagram. The resulr is a conventional stress-strain diagram. . . .,, . . - - c - , Because the stress plotted on the conventional stress-strain diagram is obtahed by :' , dividing the load by the original cross-sectional area of the bar, the stress appears to r a h a , - - , . :. , .i :< peak and then diminsh as the load increases. However, if the stress is calculated by dividing MAGNlFlCATlON T O W MAGNiFiCATtO ELASTIC RANGE REGION OF PROWRT1ONAL LOA0 ECTlONAL AEA , = INCREASE IN LENGTH ORiGINAL LENGTH hape of the test piece of steel, which the test, is shawn by the bar9 drawn HISTORY, USES, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 5 o O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.8 TRUE STRAIN, PERCENT Unlike canventonal stress-strain curves, both true stress and true strain have been calculated for the curves shown. Figure 1-5 True Stress-Straln for Steel rdn Cuwe for Steel m the l d by the actual cross-sectional ama of the bar as it decreascs in cross section under . found that the true stress never decreases. Figure 1-5 is a stress-strain on which both true stress and true sirain have been plotted. Becsuse conventi d sms-srrain di- are used commercially, only conventi d diagrams are used for the remainder of this discussion. Figure 1 4 shows various parts of a pure-tension stress-strain curve for steel such as that wed in water utiiity pipe. The change in shpe of the test piecc d d n g the test is shown by the bars drawn uader the curve. As the bar strettdies, the cross d o n decreases in area maximum tensile smgth, at which point local reduction of ama (neckiag in) toikes Many types of steel used in construction have stress-strain diagrams of the general :,,. form shown in Figure 1-4, whereas many other types used struchidy and for machine pam have much higher yield and ultimate strengths, with rcduced ductiiity. Still other . , . useful eqheer i ng steels are quite brittie. In general, the low-d-ty steels must be used at rehtively low strains, even though they may have high stcength. The ssaending line in the left-hand portion of the gmph in Figure 1-4 is stmight or nearly straight and has an easily recognized slope witb respea to the vertial axis. The break of the curve is rather sudden. For this type of curve, the point whtre the frrst deviation from a straight h e occurs marks the proportional limit of the steel. The yield- strength is at some higher stress level. Nearly al1 engineering formulas involving stress& a lmding such that working srsesses, as calculated, will be below &e: 7 2 STEEL PI W Stresses md strains that f d below the proportional limit-that is, those that fa11 on the straight portion of the ascending line-are said to be in the elastic range. Steel s t ni cms loaded to create stresses or suains within the elastic range r e m precisely to their original length when the load is removed. Exceptions may occur with certain kinds and conditions of loading not usually encountered in water utility installations. Within this range, stress increases in direct proportion to strain. The mdul us ofelasticity, as commonly defined, is ihe slope of the ascending srraight portion of the stress-strain diagram. The modulus of elasticity of steel is about 30 000 000 psi, which means that for each incremenr of load that creates a strain or stretch of 1 pin. per inch of length, a sness of U) psi is imposed on &e st eel cross section (30 000 000 x 0.000 001 = 30). Immediately above the proprtional liihit, between it and the 0.5-percent extension- under-load yield strength of the material (Figure 1-4) lies a portion of the suess-strain diagram that may be termed the elastic-plastic range of the material. Typical stress-strain curves with this portion magnified are shown in Figure 1-6 for two grades of carbon steel used for water pipe. Electric-resistance strain gauges provide a means of studying the elastic-phtic segment of the curve. TRese and associated instruments dlow minute .. examination of the shape of the curve in a manner not possible before their development. The elastic-plastic range is becoming increasingly important to the designer. Investigation of this range was necessary, for example, to determine and explain the -7 . . successful functioning of thin steel flanges on thin steel pipc4 Designs that load steel to - ' 2 within the elastic-pktic range are safe only for certain types of apparanis, structures, or .e- a.- - m parts of structures, For example, designing within this range is safe for the hinge points or yield hinges in steel ring flanges on steel pipe, for hinge points in structures where local yielding or relaxation of stress must occur, and for bending in the w d of pipe under earth load in trenches or under high Fills. It is not safe m rely on performance within this range to - handle principal tension stress in the walls of pipe or pressure vessels or to rely on such - - - . .. O 0,001 0.003 0.005 0.007 STRAIN, INJIN. The curves show the elastic-plastic range for two grades of carbon steel. Figure 1-6 Stress-Strain Curves for Cahon Steel t D UI r t3 t 1 Ii 1 1 1 I I / --I I ,PLASTIC- ]ELASTIC, + STRAIN ' STRAlN 5000 r l ~ . / ~ ~ + Shown are the elastic and plastic portians of a stress-strain curve for a steel stressed to a given level. Figure 1-7 PIastic and Hastic Strains HISTORY, USES, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 7 ACTUAL STRESS - - - t . CO - : , . - B . . (r + - . p . + , * . - . . . .. . . : i- A- Whon the total measured strain is known, the actual stress can be de'ermined by use of the s?essSJswajfi curve. . >. * ? ., figure 1-9 ~eterminat& of Actual Stress . - - .?. +- performance in other situations where the accompanying deformation is unmntroiled or m o t be tolerated. - , si,: --:- e - , : , - - Figure 1-7 shows the elastic and plastic portions of a stress-edn curve for a steel stressed to a given levef. Figure 1-8 shows graphically how a completdy ficritious stress is - I determined by a formula based on Hooke's law, if the totai strain is mdtiplied by the modulus of elasticity. The actual stress is determiued using ody the elastic strain with the mdul us of elasacity, but there is at present no way to separare theoretically the elastic and plastic strains in a structure. The ody dternative is to take the total measured strain as :z . indicated by strain gauges and then determine the actud stress from the stress-strain curve, as shown in Figure 1-9. , 1.6 S W N 1N DESIGN Analysis of a strucnire becames more complete when considered in terms of strain as weli as stress. For example, it has long k n known that apparent stresses calcuhted using classic formulas based on the theory of elasticity aregreatly in error at hinge-point stress levels. The magnitude of this error near the yidd-strength stress is demonstrated in the next paragraph, where the classically calculated result is compared with the measured performatlce. By definition, the yield-strength load of a steel specimen is that load which causes a 0.5-percent extension of the gauge length. As was indicated in an earlier paragraph, in the elastic range a stress of 30 psi is imposed on the cross-sectiod sea for each microinch- per-inch increase in length under load. Because an extension of 0.5 percent corresponds w 8 STEBL PIPEvzec ' 5000 pin./in., the calculated yield-strength stress is 5000 x 30 = 150 000 psi. The measuwd yield-strength stress, however, is on the order of 30 000-35 000 psi, or about one fourrh of the calculated stress. -.- - , - Simikrly varied results between strain and stress analyses occur when the performance of steel at its yield strength is compared to the performance of its ultimate strength. There is a great difference in strain between the yield strength of low- or medium-carbon steel at 0.5-percent extension under load and the specified ultimate strength at 30-percent elongation, a difference which has a decided bearing on design safety. The specified yield strength corresponds to a strain of 5000 pin./in. To pass the specification requirement of 30-percent elongation, the strain at ultimate strength must be not l a s than 0.3 in./in., or : =. . 300 000 pin./in. The ratio of strain at ultimate strength to strain at yield strength, therefore, . . is 300 000:5000, or 60: 1. On a stress basis, from &e stress-strain diagram, the ratio of 2 ultimate strength to yield strength is 50 m 3 0 000, or only 1.67: 1. Actucilly, mild steels such as those used in waterworks pipe show nearly linear stress-strain diagrams up to the yield level, after which strains of 10 to 20 times the , elastic-yieid strain occur with no increase in actual load. Tests on bolt behavior under tension substantiate this ef f e~t , ~ and the ability of bolts to hold securely md safely when they are drawn into the region of the yield, especially under vibration conditions, is easily I 'explained by the strain concept but not by the stress concept. The bolts act sornewhat like extre-me17 stiff springs at the yield-strength level. -- . , ALYSIS BASED O N STRAlN In some structures and in many welded assemblies, there are conditions that permit initial adjustment of strain to working load but limit the action automaticaily, eirher because of the nature of the loading or because of the mechanics of the assembly. Examples are, mspectively, pipe under earth load and steel flanges on steel pipe. In these instances, bending stresces may be in the region of yield, but deformation is limited. In bending, there are three distinguishable phases through which a member passes when being loaded from zero to fdure. In the first phase, ail fibers undergo strain less than the proportional limit in a uniaxial suess field. In this phase, a structure will act in a completely e bt i c fashion, to which the classic laws of stress and suain are appiicable. In the second phase, some of the fibers undergo strain greater than the proportional or elastic limit of the material in a uniaxial stress field, but a more predominant portion of the fibers undergo strain less than the proportional limit, so that the structure still acts in an 3 essentially elastic manner. The classic formulas for stress do not apply, but the strains can be . . . , - r' . 2 1 adequately defined in this phase. c: -: -. 4 In the third phase, the fiber strains are predominantly greater than the elastic limit of -j ' .. . the material in a uniaxial stress field. Under these conditions, the structure as a whole no 4 longer acts in an eiastic manner. The theory and formulas applicable in this phase are being developed but have not yet reached a stage where they can be generally used. . An experimental determination of smin charaaeristics in bending and tension was made on medium-carbon steel similar to that required by AWWA C200, Standard for Steel - ', Water Pipe 6 Inches and ~ a r ~ e r ? Results are shown in Figure 1-10. Note that the proportional-limit strains in bending are 1.52 times those in tension for the same material. - Moreover, the specimen in bending showed fully elastic behavior at a strain of 1750 pin./in., - . - = : which corresponds to a calculated stress of 52 500 psi (1750 x 30= 52 500) when the modulus - of eiasticity is used. The specimens were taken from material having an actual yield of 39 000 .,- -22, ' psi. Therefore, this steel could be loaded in bending to produce strains up to 1750 pin./in. . -; - - - and stiU possess fuii elastic behavior. 'J - - . > Steel ring flanges made of piate and fillet welded to pipe with a comparatively thin wall - . -+- have been used successfdly for many years in water service, and this experience f o m a HISTORY, USES. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 9 O 0.001 0.002 , - 0.003 - . 0.004 STRALN, IN./LN. -. . . _, - - L=! .- ~ p a ~ i ~ ~ a l nmlt (P.L.) strains in bending are 1.52 times t hse in tension for the- material. - ffgme 1-10 Experlmentai Detenninatian of Strain Characterlstfcs . L . . ' _ , > . - - + , , Ti. .. . . ' t- ble 1-1 Mmu r n Strain in Rpe Wall Developed In PractIce - - . - h: M, R.E. k i g n of S e 1 Rhg F k g a for Water Works Serk+A Progress Report. Jow. A WWA, 42 10:93 1 Ig. 1950). .., . - - . . i . .;. . m - a- - 1.. ? _. . r- .- 9 -- &:= good background agoiinst which to make calculations. The fianges ranged from 4 in. through 1- - 96 in. in diameter. Calculations were made to determine the strain that would occur in the ..j- pipe wall adjmnt to the h g e s . Table 1-1 shows the results. Mote from the table that, in practice, the limiting suain was always below the s..-q.: T.-; commody recognized yield-strength strain of 5000 pin./in. but did approach it quite 4. . . dosely in at h s t oae instan=. Al1 of these flanga are suff~ciently satisfactory, however, to 2; -. . warrant their continued use by designers. The idea of desi- a structure on the basis of ultimate i d capacity from test data - rather than entirely on diowable stress is simply a return to m empirical point of view, a w p . point of view that early engiaeers were obliged m accept in the absence of knowledge of the . mathemstics and statin necesssry to calculate srresses. The recent development of r 3 mathemaucal processes for stress analysis has, in some instances, overemphasized the b; . !. impomnce of stress and underemphasized the importante of the o v e d strength of a 4z j.gr. strumre. 1.8 DUCTlLdTY IN DESIGN -. <,.- . . . .. . . . - The plastic, or ductile, behavior of steel in welded assemblies may be especially important. - -. . . Allowing the stress st c e h points in a steel strucnire m go beyond the elastic range is successful current design practioe. For many years, in buildings and in bridges, . . specifications have allowed the designer to use average or nominal smsses due to bending, ' < , -i . . . shear, and bearing, resuiting h local yklding amund pins and rivets and at other points. -... - --- - - This local yield, which rtdistributes both load and srress, is caused by stress aoncentrations e.. ?. - that are neglected in the simpk des@ formuhs. b t i c action is and has been depended on .to ensure the safety of steel strucrures. Experience has shown that these average or nominal imaximum stresses form a satisfactory basis for dese. Dwing the manufamring pms s , el pipe has been forced beyond its yieid strength many tima, and the same thing may happen again in installation. Similar yielding can be permined after instaliarion by design, provided the resulting deformarion has no adverse effect on the fmcrion of the stfucture. Basing des@ solely on approximations for real s m s daes not always yield safe mults. The cohpse of some smcmm has been trriced toa migger action of neglectsd p o i n ~ of high stress concentrations in materials which, for one r-n or another, are not ductile at these points. Even ductile materials may fail in a brittie fwhi011 if subjected w overl d in three p h s at the same time. Careful amt i on to such conditions wili resdt in safer design and d eliminate grossly over-designed struchires that are wmtdul of both material and Plastic deformation, esptcially at key points, sometimes is the real measure of strengtb. For txample, a crack, once started, may be propagad by dmost S, because at the bottom of the crack the material m o t yield a Finite mount in ro distante. E v a in a d d material &e crack wili continue unt the splittbg ' red elsewhere. Plasticity underlies current design specifications to m extent not u s d y realized md offers promise of greater economy in construdon in the f ut ~r e ?~ :.,-s. . ...:*<* - .. - .- EFFECTS OF COLD WORKJNG ON STRENGTH AND DUCTtUN 5- :?y -7 g:..: - In the fabricatim of pipe, the steel phtes or sheets are oftea formed at room temperatura --.: - -. . -- . 'qinto the desired shape.* Such cold-forming opemtions obviously =use inelastic ddor- mtim, since the steei re* its formed s h p . To ilfustratt thc general. tfftcts of such deformation w md ducriiity, tht elemental behavior of a d n - s t t e f msim specimen subjected to pleistic defomtion oind subsequent reloadhgs wili be considered. The behavior of cold-formed plates may bt much more complex. As iiiusiraed in Figure 1-1 1, if a steel spchen of plate materiai is unlaaded after bmng stressed into either the phti c or strain-hardenhg mge, the u n l d h g curve wiU foUow a pth pardel to the elastic porticm of the stras-strai n curve, and a residual strain or permment set will re& after the load is removed. If the specimen is promptiy reloaded, it wiii follow the unloading curvt m tbe stress-stmh curve of the virgin (uostrahad) material. Ifthe amount of phticdeformation is less thm that required for tht oastt of strain hardening, the yield strength of the + - - , - , phticaiiy deformad steel wiii be approximwiy the same as h t of the virgin marmid. . - = , ' . - + . ' Howtver, if the amomt of plastic defomtion is sufficient to cause S& hardenhg, the ., - . - - - ... . . yield strength of the steel will bt increased. In either case, the tensa strength wi U remain . . -. -: , :: . . . . - L . ' tht same but the ductifity mu r e d from the point of rel di ng will Ix d d . As . :. , - '-- =*+-:-- .;. - - - . - . . . - .. , . . - - . . -:-. - . - <- , ; ; . - . - - S - e < . . ' *Thia & wm obeained frmn r c f m 9 with minm editing. , - HISTORY, USES, PHY SICAL CHARACTERISTICS 1 1 STEEL PIPE indiated in Figure 1 - 1 1, the decrease in ductility is approximately equal to the momt of inelastic prestrain. A stetl spcimen that has betn straintd into the 86-hardcning mge, unlmded, and ailowed to agc for several dap at m m temperahut (or for a much shorter time at a moderately elevated tcmptraturc) wili tend to follow the path hdicated in Figure 1-12 during reloading.'O This phehomenm, known as st dn aging, has the effect of increasing yield and tensile strength while dtmasing ductility.ll T h e effects of aold work on the strengch and dudiity of the stniaurai steels can be eliminated Iargcly by t hcmd s ms relief, or ariiaealing. Such tteatment is not oilways possible; fomaattiy, it is not o f b necessary. 1.10 BRilTLE FRACTURE CONSIDERATIONS IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN General, Considerations z . 1- . .., As temperanite decreases, an increase is gcncraiiy nokd in the yield stress, tensile strength, . . . - modulw of elasticity, and fatigue smngrh of tk plate seels.* In conrrast, tbt ductility of . . ,A ,- ' C . .. i, - . these steels, as measurcd by rcduction ia area or by elonption under load, dtmasts with -. decreasing temperanms. Furthmnore, there is a temperarure behw which a smi ctural steei subjected m tensile stresses may fmcture by cleavage, with little or no piastic deformoltion, rather thain by shear, which is u s d y preceded by a considerable amount of plastic defomtion or yieiding.7 Fracture-that occurs'by cleavage at a nominal tensile stress below the yield stress is aommonly referred m as brittie fmctwe. Generaly, a brittle fracture can mxr when there is - - a suffcicntly adverse combimtim of mi l e stress, tempemttm strriin mte, arid geometricai dkoatinuity (such as a notch) present. Other design md fabriatim factors may also have an important innuenct. Because of the interrehtion of these effccts, the exxt combination of stress, temptratuce, notch, and other conditions that will cause brittie fracture in a given : strumre canaot bt xleadily calculated. Consequently, designing against brittle fracture ofm consists mainty of avoiding conditions that temi to cause brittlc fracture mi selecting a steel appropriatc for tbt application. A discussion of thae facton is given in the following pamgmphs. Referaces 12,13,14, aad 15 -ver the sub@ in much more detd. Fracture mechada offers a more direct approach for predidon of crack propagation. For rhis analysis it is assunmed tbat an internai imptrfectim i ddi zcd as a crack is present in the structure. By linearelastic stress d y s i s and hboratory tests on pmxackcd specimens, the applied stress that wiU cause rapid crack propagation is relatd to thc size of the imperfectim. The application of fracture mechanics has become incrcasingly useful in dweloping a fracture-control p h and establishing, on a rationai basis, the interreiated requirements of mareriai selection, design stress level, fabrication, and inspection requirements? Conditions Causing Bnttie Fracture L . 1 : - . :.;, . + Piastic deformation can occur ody in tbe presence of shear srrtsses. Shear stresses are always present in a uniaxial or a biaxid s t a u of stress. However, in a triaxid seate of stress, the maximum shear stress approaches zero as the prinupd stressm approoich a common value. As a result, under equal triaxial tensile stresses, failurc occurs by cicavage mther thm *Tbis gccrion was obtaiacd fmm rrfffenee 9 with minar editing. tShear and chvagt are usad in the mcmliwgki sense (maarisaopically) to denote dificrtnt f m mechanisms. RefmriEt 12, as wcii as most elcmenmry twxbmh on a u r g y , d i i t b c mechpnisms. HISTORY, USES, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 13 by shear . Consequently, trhxial tensile stresses tend to cause brittle fracture and should be avoided. As discussed in the foliowing material, a triaxial state of stress can result from a uniaxial loading when notches or geometrical discontinuities are present. If a transversely notched bar is subjscted to a longitudinal tensile force, the stress concentration effea of the notch causes high longitudinal tensile stresses at the apex of the notch and lower longinidinal stresses in adjacent material. The lateral contraction in the width and thickness direction of the highly stressed material at the apex of the notch is restrained by the smaller lateral contraction of the lower stressed material. Thus, in addition to the longitudind tensile snesses, tensile stresses are created in the width and thickness directions, so that a triaxial state of stress is present near the apex of the notch. The effect of a geometrid discontinuity in a strumre is generaliy similar to, dthough not necessarily as severe as, the effect of the notch in t ht bar. ExampIes of geometrical discontinuities sometimes found include poor design details (sudi as abrupt changes in cross section, attachment welds on components in tension, and square-cornered cutouts) and fabrication flaws (such as weld crack, undercuts, arc strikes, and scars from chipping hammers). Increased strain mtes tend to increase the possibility of brittle behavior. Thus, structures that are loaded at fast rata are more susceptible to brittle fracture. However, a rapid strain rate or impact load is not a required condition for a brittle fracture. Cold work, and the strain aging that noml l y follows, generally increases the Wrelihood of bnttle fractures. This behavior is usuaiiy attributed to the previously mentioned reduction in ductiiity. The effect of ooId work that occurs in cold-forming operations can be minimized by selecting a generous forming radius, thus limiting rtie amount of strain. The amount of strain that can be tolerated depends on both the steel and the application. A more severe but quite localized rype of cold work is that which ocam at the edges of punched holes or at sheared edges. This effect can be essentidy eliminated for holes by drilling instead of p u n c h g or by reaming after punching; for sheared edges, it can be elimhated by machining or grinding. Severe hammer blows may also produce enough cold work to locally reduce the toughness of the steel. When tensile residual stresses are present, such as those resulting from welding, they add to my applied tensile stress, resulting in the actual tensile stress in the member being greater than the applied stress. Consequently, the likelihcad of brittie fracture in a structure that contains high residual stresses may be rninimized by a postweld heat treatment. The decision to use a postweld heat treatment should be d e with assurance that the anticipated benefits are needed and will be reahzed, and that possible harmful effects can be tolerated. Many modern steels for weldd construction are designed to be used in the less costly as-welded condition when possible. The soundness and mechanical pmperties of welded joints in some steels may be adversely affected by a postweld heat treatment. Welding may also contribute to the problem of brittle fracture by introducing notches and flaws into a structure and by causing an unfavorable change in microstrumire of the base metal, Such detrimental effects can be minimized by properly designing welds, a i n g care in selecting their location, and using gwd welding practice. The proper electrde must be selected so that the weld metal w U be as resistant to brinle fracture as the base metal. Charpy V-Notch lmpact Test Some steels will sustain more adverse temperature, notch, and loading oonditions without fracture thm will other steels. Numerous tesrs have been developed to evaluate and assign a numerical vdue indicating the relative susceptibility of steels to brittle fracture. Each of these tests can establish with certainty only the relative susceptibility to brittle fracture mder the particular conditions in the test; however, some tests provide a meaningfd guide to &e relative performance of steels in structures subjected to severe temperature md stress 14 STEEL PIPE conditions. The most commonly used of these rating tests, the Charpy V-notch impact test, .... , . .A: is described in this section, and the interpretation of its results is discussed briefly. Referentes 12 and 13 give detailed discussions of many other rating tests. - . . ... . . T h e Charpy V-notch impact test spediically evdiluates notch toughness-the resistance -. . to fracture in the presence of a notcb-and is widely used as a guide to the performance of , - steels in structures susceptible to brittle fracture. In this test, a small recranguhr bar, with a . . . , . .- , - * V-shaped notch of specified size at its midlength, is supported at its ends as a beam and ' , .., . >. . - ! ' . fractured by a blow from a swiuging pendulum. The energy required to fracture the . ., - - -. = specimen (which can be caiculated from the height to which the pendulum raises after breaking the specimen) or the appearance of the fracture surface is determined for a mg e of - . - . - -.. :.- , :;. . . - - - temperatures. The appeararice of the fracture surface is usually expressed as the percentage - . -: - . r e, - +- - ..- * - :: . . >+ ,!: - . , , of the surface that appears to have fractured by shear as indicated by a fibrous appearance. A . . S - -. .;tL-.c: shiny or crystalline appearance is ascociated with a cleavage fracture. (such as those shown in Figure 1-13) of energy or ion of temperatwe. For the structural steels, the ure decrease from relatively high values to rektively low sing temperature. The temperature near the lower end of the temperahire curve, at which a selected value of energy is absorbed (often 15 ftmlb ), is temperature. The temperature at which the percentage of . shear fracture decreases to 50 percent is often d e d the fracture-appearance transition ition temperamre. Both transiuon temperatures provide a resistance of various steels; the lower the transition the bemr &e resismce to brittie fracture. The ductility transition temperature transition temperature depend on many parameters (such as wmposition, rmomechanical processing) and, therefore, can vary significantiy for a ss of steels used for spec3c applications can be determined " service performance. Fracture-mechanics methods, when used in : study of material properties, design, fabrication, inspection, . erection, and service conditions, have proven useful. In general, where a given stel has been used successfdy for an extensive period in a given application, brinle fracture is not likely to be experienced in similar applications unless unusual temperature, notch, or stress conditions are present. Nevertheless, it is always desirable to avoid or minimize the previously cited adverse conditions that increase the susceptibility to brittle fracture. . . . . . , - . _ BO - NOTE Cunies are for mrbon steel - .. 50 - and are tiken from r ef er en~ 13. 100 - m + .. . . 5 8o -;. - ?2 7 . > P- E ' - 3' ; e- -7. < m - A. Energy Trmsl t h Cuwe E m- 5. Fracture Trandiion CUN 20 - #- 40- W I 10 - m - /- o I I -. I t 1 - o 1 1 1 l l l l l +U 4 0 -20 O 20 40 80 100 120 140 +O 4 0 -20 O 20 40 80 80 100 120 140 TEMPERATURE. 'F -.. : TEMPERATURE, 'F ... :. Source: Btockenbrough. R.L. & Johnsion, B.G. USS Steel Design Manual. ADUSS 27-340044. US Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Fa. (Jan. 1981). Figure 1-1 3 Transition Curves O btnined from Charpy V-Notch lmpact Tests . . HISTORY, USES, PHY SICAL CdARACTERISTICS 15 - - -7. . -. ... . . .'.-.. , -5 2. - 7. , . . . : .- i.ii GOO~FRACTICE The ordinary water pipeline requirts li* stress calcularion. The commonly used internal pressures for stetl water pipe are given in Tables 4-1 and 4-2 in Chapter 4. Suggested design stresses to resist other loadings are given as guides in various chapters on the different design When designing the details of supports, wye branches, and other specials, es pecidiy for large pipe, the engjneer wiii do weU to consider the data in Chapter 13. The concept of designing on the basis of strain as well as stress will shed light on the behavior of steel and other mterials in many cases wkre consideration of stress done offers no reasonabk exphti on. The adon and undesirabk efftcts of stress raisers or stress concentrations-such as notches, threads, hps, and suddw chaages in cross section-will be better understd. The steps to be taken in counteracting advcrse tffects become clearer. References 1. ELLIOT, G.A. The Use of Steel Pipe in Water Worb. Jow. A WWA, 9:11:839 (Nov. 1922). 2. CATES, W.H. History of Steel Water Pipe, Its Fabrication and Dcsign Develop- ment, (Apr. 1971). 4. B mA R D , R.E. Design of Stacl Ring Flangcs for Water Works Service-A ProgmriRepwt.Jm. AWWA,42:10:931 &m Steel Co., B e Wr n , Pa. (1946, 9. BROCKENBROUGH, R.L. & JOHNSTON, B.G. USS Steel De& M a d . ADUSS 27-3400-04. US Steel Corp., Pinsburgh, Pa. (Jan. 198 1). 10. DI^, G.E. JR. Mechanicol MetalIingy. McGraw-m1 h k Cumpany, New York (1%1). 11. CHAJES, A.; B R ~ c , S.J.; & W I ~ , G. EffeCKs of cm- Smi ni t l g on Smictural Shwt Steels. Jour. of the Stnictural Div., Pm., ASCE, 89, No. ST2 (Apr. 1963). 12. PARKER, B.R. Brittle Behapnot of Engi- neering S~ t ur e s . John Wiley ami Sons, Ntw York (1957). 13. Control of Steel Construction to Avoid Bri* Failure. WcIding Regtaxch Coun- ciI, New York (1957). 14. LIGHTNER, M.W. & VANDERBECK, R. W. Factors Involved in Brittle Fracture. Regional TecIinicai Mectiags, Americsin Iron and Steei Insritute, Washington, D.C. (1956). 15. WLPE, S.T. & B~RSOM, J.M. Fracture and Fanngare Control in Structures-Appli- catims of Fracture Mechanics. Praiucc- Hd, Inc., Engl ewd Cliffs, N. J. (1977). i AWWA MANUAL 1 Manufacture and Testing i r' : - ;+-- . . *: - ." I.%_ ' welding md ele& fusiw welding me the most common methods used steel b m , plates, sheets, md strips into tubuloir products. Electric resktmce welding (ERW) is done without filler materioil. The fht strip, with edges previously trimmed to provide a &m, even S& for welding, is formed progressively into a tubular shape as it mveh through a series of mils. Thc forming k done , . cold. Welding is then e f f d by the appliation of herit and pressure. The weldjng heat for -:>. .. the h r b h ed- is generaed by resktance to &e flow of an e&c cunrnt, which can be inuriduccd through eIectrodts or by induction. Pressure roUs force tht hcated edges togaher to effect the weld. The sq- d o n of tht pxtssure roUs forming the weld cause some of the hot weld mcmi to be exmded from tbe joint m forma bead of wtld flash botb. bi de and outside rhe pipe. The flash is wirmally trimmed within tolerame limits while it is su hot from welding, using mechanical cutting tools contoured to the shape of the pipe (Figures 2-1 tbrough 2-5). Electnc fusion weldMg (EFW) differs from ERW in that filler mterial is used and mechanid p-ssure is unnecessary to effect tae weld. Pipe pradud with this process can hriw straight or s pi d Mms. Straight-seam pipe is made from plate with e d p planed prirallel to each other and squrire with the ends. Curving the phte edges with crimping rolls is the first step of the forming prooess. This is foIlowed by presses that form the phte First into a U&@ trough d then into a full O-sboiped tube. The O-shped tube is then fed into a longitudid seam-weiding machint. Spiral-seam pipt is madt from coiied strip or platc by a continuous proas (Figure 26). An automatic macbinc m U s the coa, prepares the edges for wel- amis p i d y fonns the suip into a tubular shape. As thc tubt h v e s the forming elenrtnt, the &es are j o W by fusion welding in the same submergcd-arc proatss as is generally u& in straight-sam pipe ( Fi i r e 2-7). The welded rube is cut to tbt d e s i d length by an auuimatic cutoff device. MANUFAnURING AND TESTING 17 WELDED TUBE PRESSURE-63 1 ROLL STR l P , FROM COlL WELDING ELECTRODES FINAL FORMING ROLL FIRST FORMING ROLL Source: See Figure 2-1 The current ente= the tube via slidlng contacts and flows along Vee edges to and from the weld point. Figure 2-3 Electric Resistance Welding Using High- Frequency Welding Current INDUCTION COlL I POINT SEAM h 1 A 3 WELD WELDED Source: See Figure 2-7 Eddy current flows around the back of the tube and along the edges to and from the weld point. Figure 2-4 flectric Resistance Welding by Inciuction Using High-Frequency Welding Current 18 STEEL PIPE 1. Edge Planing-Submerged are weld plpe begins as a flat rectangular steel plate from the plate mlii. Yhe flrst step i n tmnsforrning it to p i p is planing the edges paraiiei to each ofher and square with ths ends. 2. Edge Crirnping Rolls-Here the edgesrif *e pkt e are curved to Tacl l i tat flnat t ~r r ni ng of the ppe, F&UM die wear. and produce gresrer unllormity at the seam edgea when the plate is pressed to acyiindtical shape. The total s ume of tha plate, both sides edge to edge, is atso inspected ultrasonlcaiiy. ] CLEAN I NO TORCH OuiDE R o L Z 4, Gkrge--The U- *pea'p-eenters thls ;._ p - t k :cj;:'pmkkcular diea open. " 5Tlk-w die, under ;':&&~uIFc pressure, IS - ;.- -%&yd -- &M on the U, :: ::-&Htwrrring it to a g?iWCal shape. 5. Outside Wekiing-The O-formd plate is now fed into a longltudkiai seam wl di ng machine i n which me abuttlnp edges arepropedy igned. firmly p r e s d together. and welded by the submergetd arc process. Two electrodes are used, and the wJd i s completed to within 3 in. of tha pipe ends. 3. U-ing Press-A sernicircular ram descends on the piate. forcing it down between rocker dies to form a U. The plate 1sslightly over-bent to allow for spring-back. WlRE ELECTRODE FLUX / TV CAMERA
1 6. End Wdding-Here a si n. steel plate is i mched to each end of the pipe at the searn,-permlttlng me iast tew inches of the OD seam t o be welded. 1 7 4 DLES GLOSE0 WATER UNDER PRESSURE 7. 8. lnside Welding-Here the welding Expsnding and Testing-TRe pipe is either mechanically or hydrostatically expanded head and a srnali TV camera are depending on t h i mil1 location. In elther case. accurate aiza and straightrtsss and improved mounted on a Iong cant i l mr transverse yleid strength are obtained by expandon. boom. As the pipe is drawn oWr the welding boom, a iV s z m at Mechanical Expander-The pipe is rnechanically Hydrostatic Expander-00th ends the oprator' s control W expanded in24-in. through 27-ln. lncrernents of the pipe are sealed by mandrels. enabies him to keep fhe welding until haH Of the length is completed. The pipe Thesemicircular dios, slightly levger exaaly on the searn. Fi ni shi w up rolis to a second expander die where the than the pipe 00, are ciosed, and the on the tab, the last few inches of remaining half of the length is expanded. The pipe ii hydraulically expanded the seam are welded. The srnall plpe length then proceeds to a hydroatatic unit against the dies. The dles are opend plates are then remowd, and the where a specified interna1 pressure is applied to and a specified interna1 preasure cornpleted weld is inspected test tbe weld for sweats or leaks. applled to t a t the wetd for sweats or inside and out. leaks. Sourm: Carbon Steel Pi p, Strudural Tubing, Line Pipe and Oil Country Tubular Goods. Steei Products Manual. American /ron end Steel lns titute. Washington, D. C. (Apr. 1982). Figure 2-5 Sequence of Operations in a Typical Double Submerged Arc Weld h e s s MANWFACTURING AND TESTiNG 19 Figure 2-6 Sdiematk Diagrm d Process for Making Spiral-S- Plpe G-hmai l r Iiiaaram fnr Maliina Phtn Clirra - . ..- . .= .- - . . . -- ., . - limitations of individual pipe manufacturers. This p m s is esmaiiy suikd for Spe in thod9 . . . , - . . . -Tests of Chemicai Properties The various services to which steel pipe is put require a variety of demical compositions to : produce the necessary characteristia. The chemical compsitions established in the term appiied no the chemical analysis is is the d y s i s reported to the pwdmer. - d&e steel from the U. - , -. . . . . - - . ' Pipe sizes mmufactud using the fusion wciding process are G t e d only by si% ,.&$-wA sted pipe standards are suited to the usud needs d water utility applications. &-er, there are other steel materials tbat may be t q d y suitable, and these can be results are determined by testing for such elemeats as h i e been specif&d, using a ~mi pl e obtained from the first or middle p m of the heat or blow during the 20 STEEL PIPE It is common practie in most steel melting operations to obtain more than one la&-test ingot sample from each heat or bIow; often three or more are taken, representing the fmt, middle, and last prtions of the heat or blow. Drillings taken from the first or middle sample are used in determining the ladle analysis because experience has shown that these locations most closely represent the chemical analysis of the entire heat or blow. The additionai samples are used for a survey of uniformity and for control purposes. Check analysis. Check andysis, as used in the steel industry, means analysis of the metal after it has been rolled or forged into semifmished or fmished forms. Such an analysis is made either to verify the average composition of the heat, to verify the composition of a lot as represented by the ladie analysis, or to determine variations in the composition of a heat or lot. Check analysis is not used, as the term might impIy, m confirm the accuracy of a previous result. Check analysis of known heats is justified only where a high degree of uniformity of composition is essentid-for example, on material that is to be heat treated. Such analysis should rarely be necessary for water pipe, except to identify or confirm the assumed adys i s of plates or pipe that have lost identity. The results of analyses representing different locations in the same piece, or taken from different pieces of a lot, may differ from each other and from the M e anaiysis owing to segregation. These permissible variations from the specified ranges or limits have been established in the applicable specification or by common practice. me variations are a natural phenomenon that must be recognized by inspectors. The methods of anaiysis commonly used are in accordance with the latest edition of ASTM ~ 7 5 1 > those approved by the National Bureau of Standards, or others of equivalent accuracy. Tests of phydcal properties. The methods of testing the physi d properties of steel pipe are established in ASTM ~ 3 7 0 2 The physical properties required are containd r in AWWA C200, Standard for Steel Water Pipe 6 Inches and ~arger? or are as otherwise - i specified by the purchaser. . Hydrostatic test of straight pipe. Straight lengths of pressure pipe md tubing are customarily subjected to an interna1 hydrostatic pressure test. This operation is conduaed " as a part of the regular mil1 inspection procedure to help detect defects. It is not intended to bear a direct reiationship to bursthg pressures, working pressures, or design data, although 1 test pressures sometimes influence design pressures. AWWA C200 contains a formula for . . determining hydrostatic test. It is customary to make hydratatic tests at the pressure required by the standard - during the course of manufacture of the pipe. The requirements for hydrostatic testing in ; the presence of the purchaser's inspector involve additional handling, unless tfie inspector is present during the course of manufacture. The producer, on request, customarily furnishes a certificate confirming such testing. Tests of dimensional properties. The diameter, length, wall thickness, straight- - ness, and out-of-roundness of pipe are checked as part of the normal manufacturing procedure. Such dimensions are subject to the tolerantes prescribed in the appropriate standards or sptcifications. . .- Referentes 1. Methods, Fractices, and Definitions for 3. Steel Warer Pipe 6 lnches md Larger. Chemicd Andysis of Steel Products. 2 - , AWWA Standard C200-80. AWWA, ASTM Smndard A751-77. ASTM, Phil- Denver, Colo. (1980). adelphia, Pa. (1977). 2. Methods and Definitions for Mechanical - . - Testing of Sted Prcdum. ASTM Stand- - , . - . , .. .. . . ard A370-77. ASTM, PhiIadelphia, Pa. : . , (1977). ' L.: . 3% . - - AWWA MANUAL - -Hydraulics of Pipelines E > : - : ,. .: - .: . .-,~,&E-A .+ : This chapter is p r i d y cace& wirh the flow of water in transmission conduits; it is not intended to cover flows through the complicated networks of distribution systems. &cause this manual is a pi de to p d c e rather thm P textbook, historid md theoretid development of the many hydraulic flow formulas has been omitted, as has discussion of universal or ratiod formuias. The discussions d data in this chapter are therefore restricted to the three formulas bebeved to be most commonly used in water flow d d t i o n s in the westem hemisphere. Definitions of the hydraulic md other symbols used in the following formulas are given at the end of the chapter. The Hazen-Wllliarns Formula Probably the most popular formuia in cumnt use among waterworks engineers is the Hazen-Williams formula. This formula, fmt pubtished in 1904, is: V = 1.318 c # ~ ~ - The head l a s hf may be caiculated from: 4.72Ql.852 L hf = ~ 1 . 8 5 ~ ~ 4 - 8 7 Tests hsve shown that the vdue of the Hazen-Wiiliams roughness coeficient C is dependen1 not oniy on the surface roughness of the pipe interior but also on the diameter of 22 STEEL PIPE the pipe. Flow measurements show that for pipe with smooth interior linings in good condition, the average vaiw of C may be appmximated by the formula: C = 140 + 0.17d (3-3) However, in consideration of long-term lining deterioration, dime buildup, etc,, a Iower design value is recommended, as follows: A graphical solution of the Hazen-Wilhns formula for C= 150 is presented in Figure 3-1 for pipe sizes 6 in. through 144 in. The multiplying factors in Table 3-1 provide a convenient means of changing the flow capacities shown in Figure 3-1 to the flows for other vaiues of C. The Scobey Formula The Scobey formula for steel pipe, used perhaps more commonly in irrigation work than in the waterworks industry, is: or for determining head 105s: The recommended K, vdue for new bare steef pipt or pipe with iiaings confocming to current AWWA smdmds is 0.36. A graphid solution to the Scobey formula for K,= 0.36 is shown in Figure 3-2. Mdtiplyiag factors for odier frictim d i c i e n w are given in Tabk 3-2. The Manning Formula <.-. - - The nilanning formula is: For design, an n vdue of 0.01 1 is mmmended for steel pipe with iinings conforming to current AWWA standard$. A graphid solution to the Manning fomuia for n = 0.01 1 is shown in Figure 3-3. Multiplyhg facu)rs for other values of n are @ven in Tabk 3-3. .- . HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINES 23 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.0 1 2 4 6 10 20 40 60 100 200 4 0 0 6 0 0 1000 2000 4000800010000 1 , . , , , i HYDRAULIC GRAOIENT PER 1000 FT, FT Flgure 3-2 Solution of Scobey Fiow Formula for K, = 0.36 (See data ln Table 3-2 for other K, values.) Table 3-2 Muitipiying Factors for Friction C&dent Vnlue- Base Ks= 0.36+ K, vaiw 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40 -tive discharge 1.125 1,059 1.000 0.946 0.900 *Data for use with Figure 3-2. Figure 3-2 Solution of Scobey Flow Formula for K, = 0.36 (See data In Table 3-2 for other K, vrilues.) T&le 3-2 Multiplying Factors b r Frictlon Coealdent Vaiue- Bace KS = 0.36* K, value 0.32 0.34 0.36 0,W Rektive discharge 1.125 1.059 1.000 0.946 *Data for use with Figure 3-2. n vaiue 0.009 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.013 Relative discharge 1.222 1.100 1.000 0.917 0.846 *Data for use with Figure 3-3. 26 STEHL PIPE Computations for Fiow Through Pipe . - . . . . - . - . The quantity of water that will pass through any given pipe depends on the head (pressure) producing the flow, the diameter and length of the pipe, the condition of the pipe interior (smooth or rough), the number and abruptness of bends or elbows, and the presence of tees, brmches, valves, and orher accessories in the line. - The total head, or pressure, affecting flow may be divided into four parts: velocity head - loss, entrance head loss, loss of head through friction, and minor losses due to elbows, fittings, and valves. Velocl ty H ead Loss ( v '/zg) Velocity head loss is defmed as the height through which a body must faH in a vacuum to acquire the velocity at which the water flows in the pipe. This loss is u s d y considered to be unrecoverable at the outlet. Numerical values are given in Table 3-4. . . i . . . Entrance Head Los , . , L. . . . . . . Entrance head loss is the head required to overcome the resismce at the ennance io the pipe; it is usually less than the veiwity head. When the conditions are not specified, it is ordinarily considered equal to one-half the velacity head, on the assumption of a sharp-edge entrance. Safe values for the ordinary entrance head loss may be obtained from Table 3-4 by 5 taking half the velocity head corresponding to the velocity in the pipeline. Head losses for -E other rhan sharpsdge entrances may be found in treatises on hydraulics. . - d. " Loss of Head Through Friction g-:>L Friction head loss may be detemned by one of the formvlas duit have been discussed previously . (Data are given in this chapter to aid in solving the formulas.) - . &+i: - Minor Losses Duet o Ubows, Fittings, andvalves .. .. . . 2.. - . . . - >. . - In long lines, minor head losses due to bends and fittings are occasionaiiy ignored. In any ,. . - . , - given line, however, it is best to consider di losses so that no important factors will be . . overlooked. The minor losses should always be recognized when evaluating flow tests. Total 1 Table 3-4 Theoretid Head Corresponding to Wven ~elocity -v '/tg . - Vekooty Head Veiocity fps ft fP5 1 0.02 2 0.06 3 0.14 4 0.25 22 5 0.39 24 6 0.56 26 7 0.76 23 8 1 .O 9 1.3 32 10 1.6 34 14 Somce: hmard, R.E. Dcsign Standards for Steel Water Pipe. Joirr. A WWA, 40: 124 (Jan. 1948). m HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINHS 27 head loss in long lines with low velwities, the s u m of ve1wity head loss and entrance head . . - - -- *- loss, may be relatively insignifiant; in short lines with high velocities, this sum becomes very important. Ordinary tables and charts showing flow of water in pipe usually give only the fiiction head loss in straight pipe. In long lines, this is the largest loss. In tht fid correct solution to a flow problem, the sum of ali losses must eqmi the available head, or pressure, prducing the flow. The foregoing formulas determine H or V, and the volume of fiow Q is found from: The information contained in Tables 3-5 through 3-9 wiIl be useful when making hydraulic calculations. Flow Through Fittings-Ecluivalent-Length Method Experiments have shown that the head lms in bends, fitrings, and valves is related to flow velocity and pipe diameter in a manner somewhat similar to that in straight pipe. Drop per 1000 of Pipe F LRngthofEpe 1-ft Drop S for Sacl Water Pipe. Jm. A W WA, 40: 1 :24 (Jan. 1948). STEEL PIPE Tabk 3-6 Flow Equivalents 16 11 111 24.77 62 - 43 056 95.98 . 17 *-- 11 806 -26.31 M ' 44 444 " 99.08 < _ . - A &.-F. - ' , 18 12 500 27.86 66 45 833 102.17 - 19 13 194 29.41 68 47 222 105.27 E-:- , . 3 . a 1 3 889 30.96 70 48 611 108.37 :<S+-+ 21 - -14 583 32.51 n 50000 111.4 22 15 278 34.05 74 51 389 114.56 23 15 972 35.60 76 52 778 117.65 24 - '- 16 667 37.15 78 54 167 120.75 25 4 17 361 38.70 80 55 5% 123.85 O 26 . 18056 40.25 82 56 944 12h.94 n 18 750 41.80 84 5s 333 130.04 28 19444 A 43.34 86 59 722 133.14 29 20 139 44.89 88 61 111 136.23 30 20 833 4-44 90 62 500 139.33 31 21 528 47.99 92 63 889 142.43 94 65 278 32 22 222 49.54 145.52 33 22 917 51.08 % 66 667 148.62 34 23 611 52.63 98 68 056 151.71 35 24 306 54.18 100 69 444 154.81 S-: h n a d , RE. Des@ Stadards for Steel Water Pipe. Jour. A WWA, 4&1:24 Qa i ~ 1948). Consequently, it is possible to determine the le@ of a theoretid piece of straight pi which the head loss due to friction would be the ame as for some fitting. This method of equivoilent lengths is reoognized by seved authorities!12 By developing ihe total equivalent Length (piping plus bends, fi-, valves, etc.), the total head loss in a piping system can a ] easily be determined, The chssi d equation developed by Darcy-Weisbach for energy loss of flow in a pipeline is: v2 HL =f (+) (%) In the equation, Ht is the head (energy) l a s due to friction in the l e n e of pipe L of inside : diameter D for average velocity V. The friction factor f is a function of pipe mughn HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINES 29 Table 3-7 Pressure (pd) for H&s (a) -. Additional Heads O +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 Head Bressure ft PS O - 0.43 0.87 1.30 1.73 2.16 2.60 3.03 3.46 3.90 10 4.33 4.76 5-20 5.63 6.06 6.49 6.93 7.36 7.79 8.23 20 8.66 9.09 9.53 9.96 10.39 10.82 11.26 11.69 12.12 12.56 30 12.99 13.42 13.86 14.29 14.72 15.15 15.59 16.02 18.45 16.89 40 17.32 17.75 18.19 18.62 19.05 19.48 19.92 20.35 20.78 21.22 50 21.65 22.08 22.52 22.95 23.38 23.81 24.25 24.68 25.11 25.55 60 25.98 26.41 26.85 27.28 27.71 28.14 23.58 29.01 29.44 29.88 70 N31 30.74 31.18 31.61 32.04 32.47 32.91 33.34 33.77 34.21 80 34.64 35.07 35.51 35.94 36.37 36.80 37.24 37.67 38.10 38.54 90 38.97 39.40 39.84 40.27 40.70 41.13 41.57 42.00 42.43 42.87 4: C Source: W r d , R.E. Dcsign Standards for S ~ e l Water Pipe. Jour. A WWA, 40: 124 (Jan. 1948). .-. ,'. , .. Tabk 3-8 Head (ft) b r Pressures (psi) Additional Htads - 2.3 4.6 6.9 9.2 11.5 13.9 16.2 18.5 20.8 23.1 25.4 27.7 30.0 32.3 34.6 3.9 39.3 41.6 43.9 46.2 48.5 50.8 53.1 55.4 57.7 60.0 62.4 64.7 67.0 69.3 71.6 73.9 76.2 78.5 80.8 83.1 85.4 87.8 90.1 92.4 94.7 97.0 99.3 101.6 103.9 106.2 108.5 110.8 113.2 M e w r ~ Water in. k. Pi 13.6 0.49 27.2 0.98 40.8 1.47 Mercury Water in. fn. N 13 176.8 6.38 14 190.4 6.87 15 204.0 7.36 16 217.6 7.85 : Bamard, R.E. Design Standards for S t d Water Pipe. Jour. A WWA, 40:1:24 (Jan. 1948}. 30 STEEL PIPE SHEAR GATE Source: John F. Lenard. President. Lenard Engineerrng, Inc. Figure 3-4 Resistance Coefficients of Valves and Fittings for Fluid Flows , . - . . . i . . . t ' VALUES OF Vd FOR WATER AT 60" v."- -\ 108 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 0 ' 2 3 4 5 6 010' 2 3 4 5 6 810' 2 3 4 . 5 6 8 1 0 ' ~ - * 2 . 3 3 - 5 . 6 , B l O b REYNOLDS NUMBER (RI O.% Soutce: Pipe Friction Manual. Hydraulic Institute, New Vork (1 954). Figure 3-5 Momly Diagram for Friction in Plpe 32 SSTI3EL PEPE velocity, pipe diameter, and fluid viscosity. Values for f have been developed by ~ o o d ~ ~ and others. With a known f and L/D, the Darcy-Weisbach formula can be expressed as: .Y In this equation, K is the resistance coefficient. Figure 3-4 shows values for K based on a summary of experimental data. Examples to determine head loss HL for fittings and vdves and equivalent pipe Iengths using Figure 3-4 are as follows: Pipe = 6 in. C= 100 Flow = 450 gpm V = 5.12 fps CalcuIaitaon~: . , - - 5.. , ,- - .., ..,. - . Velwiry head: .. . <.L . := -?;:'a .: - ($)=0.41ft :: . . -- Y , . , 7 ' - S:" . . - 1. 6411. gate valve, fuiiy open: HL = 0. 2x 0.41 = 0.08 ft 2. 6-in. swing check valve, fully open: - - . : HL=1.4x0.41= 0.57 ft + , . enlargement from 6 in. to 8 in.: HL = 0.18 x 0.41 = ' 4. 6411. elbow: .. - > K = 0.6 HL = 0.6 x 0.41 = 0.25 ft +: f_ - Total head ioss 0.97 ft -- m .. i Using the Hazen-Wiliiarns formula, the equivalent pipe length for 6411. pipe, C = 100 with a HL = 0.97 ft, equis 35.3 ft. . ' - . ' ECONOMICAL DIAMETER OF Pt PE , . , . .- Hydraulic formulas will give the relation between flow rate and head loss in pipes of various - diameters and interior surface conditions. When a limited amount of head loss is available, the usual design prmedure is to select the smallest diameter that will deliver the required flow when utilizing the available head. This results in the least construction cost. her re head is provided by pumping, a part of the cost is for energy to provide head to overcome E friction. The cost for energy decreases as pipe diameter increases and friction losses , decrease; however, the cost for the pipe increases. The objective is u s d y to minimize totai . cost (inixial cost, operation, and maintenance) by selecting the pipe diameter t ht results in least Iife-cycIe cost. Energy costs may prove to be the most significant cost. However, when making an assessment of future energy costs, care must be taken to reduce such costs to the present worth on which dl other costs of the comparisons have been predicated. HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINES Aqueducts Economic studies of large aqueducts are frequently cornplicatcd by the desirability of combining different means of carrying water-for example, through open conduits, pipe, and tunnels-in the same system. Hinds4> demonstrated the use of grapbical rneans in making such studies in the design of the Colorado River Aqueduct. The methedoffinding economical slopes elaborated by Hinds had been csd previously in &e desi of rhe Owens River Aqueduct of Los ~ n ~ e l e s ~ and the Catskill Aqueduct of New York. P Penstocks An economic study to determine penstock size generally requires that the annual penstock cost plus the value of power lost in friction be minimai. The annual pwstock cost includes amortization of al1 rekited construction costs, operation and maintenance costs, and replacement reserve. A precise analyticai evduation, mb g al1 facuirs imo account, may be neither justified nor practical, since ali variables entering into the problem are subject to varying degrees of uncertainty . Figure 3-6, which is used to determine the economic diameter for sreel penstacks and pump lines, was derived from the method presented by Voetsch md res en.^ 3.4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Methods of determining economical sizes of pipe for disrribution systems have been published.9 5 AIR ENTRNNMENT AND RELEASE Air entrained in flowing water tends to form bubbles at or near the summits in a pipcline. If not removed, such bubblcs become serious obstades to flow. The formation of a hydraulic jump in a pipe at the end of these bubbles is an importan1 reason to remove rhe air. Possible air entrainment and its removai must be considered and remedies applisd if needed. The ability of the hydraulic jump to enuain the air and to carry it way by the flowing water has been investigated. Quantitative data have been published10 rehting b c t e r i s t i c s of the jump to the rate of air removal. Removal of air through air valves is discussed in Chapter 9. COOD PRACTICE Waterworks engineers should use hydraulic-friction formulas with which they are most familiar and with which they have had experience. Three of the common conventional formulas have been discussed in this chapter. In any particular case, the results c a l h t e d using the different conventional formulois can be compared. Engineers should, howwer, recogniae the increasing use of the rational or universal formulas, become familiar with them, and make check calculations using them. A practica1 d ~ c i w r value for the formulas should ix conservatively selected. The results of flow tests will generaiiy be more usefui if related to the rational concept of : . - fluid flow. This entails more attention to relative surface roughness, water temperature, nolds numbers, and an amlysis of test results aimed at fitting them into the frame of the ' fluid-mechanics a p p d to flow determination. Definition of Syrnbols Hydrauiic symbols: A = asea of pipe (sq ft) C = Hazen-Williams coefficient D = diameter of pipe (ft) d = diameter of pipe (in.) ; . f = Darcy fiiction factor 34 STEEL PIPE a : Coat o f pipa p i r lb., i nst i l l i d, dol l ors. n = B * Oiometir muitiplisr from Groph 8. b - olus d !ast powt r in dollar, pw k wh. D : Economic di omi t i r ir f i i t . Ks ' n = o : Ovarotl plant eiieraney. 9 = e) : Joint lffieieney. r : I : Lpss factor trom G w h A. p = t, = Wsightld ovi mpi hi od i ml udi i q wot i r hammar. (bid m dmign haad) Frictim c~l f f i ei ont in Seabiyh formulo (R34). Ratio oi owrwmight b wi gM o pt pi s h l l . Flow in tubi e f& ver sacmd. (ai M p n hMd at turbina 1 Rotio of onnuol cost tobm( $me i xol anot i onl Al l owi bl i ti nri on, p r l Wrightid w t r i g i pl #i thi ckni sr( oi dnipn hi ad 1 f or t ot al Iingth. Avsraga pl at l thi cknns for frnpth Lo. E X P L ANAT I ON ANO L XAY PLE Eaomplo for pl nstotk Q = le6 CFS L ,= 2 6 L*. 1% ~f &, L*:loo' 625 r: ~ o ~ + o . ~ ~ + ~ o ~ I ~ : o . ~ T ~ saar = %#a 0.0119 +, L,t,*C,t,*L,t,* ... tkk K: sit%qb: ~x465i aSl or&twi oxasoxaopg, , , L , + L I * L I * . . +Ln prt I+n) R27 a D. N70 i 1.15 0 : 1.281 Ifron m 61; 6. 3 7 ( h BUpk C) i EeoooiiTc &O. I.ZBS ~ 3 . 7 ~ 475 I m i 4'IOm0'dip.l n: L, + C2 + Li * . +Ln &ME: Cdeuldad 0- d i gpdd k v * r ~ cbsi tp msrmd di- m it 8 r f wt k m this i ~ampl i . Thi wbl ni shosiid k nwor kr d mt i l tkir mi* m ! o s t y " p ~ ~ ~ P t o f ~ ~ Oi pri ci ati m ir k r t d on t hi mmiiptiwi ot m a m l ihhing f d iarninp 3* i nt i r i st roquired b npluce 50% o thi pi pi in 45 pi ri . Thi onnwl 0.8 M : Cwt ot mpiniuininp inhriar and mterior surfoet wymi nt nqui r t d 13 quai to 0.M5135 timar t hi t i r i t cort. mi o f E r I w r i i r i o w o r w f o r ~ p ~ r , nridt wd whidt s&w ama kr i t p o n d ppi I por p a r . Dapriciotim : Si0 Redamtion Ymuil, MI. m mr , poqi 2,4,llD. t:liihrest+[kpracioti~n+ % O B Y Adaptd from Steel Penstocks and Tunnel Liners. Steel Plate Engineering Data Vol. 4. American lmn and Steel lnstitute cooperation with Steel Plate Fabricators Assoc., lnc., 1982. Courtesy of AISI. Figure 3-6 Economic D i e t e r for Steel Penstocks and Pump Unes HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINES 35 g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 fps/s) hf = head loss (ft) in pipe length L (ft) H = head loss (ft) in 1000 ft of pipe Ks = Scobey constant L = length of pipe (ft) n = Manning coefficient Q = discharge (cfs) r = hydraulic radius of pipe (ft) s = T = 1O~0=slopeof hydraulicgradient V = mean velocity (fps). Other symbols: ' b = value of power ($/hp/yr) Qa = average discharge (cfs) S = allowable unit stress in steel (psi) t = pipe thickness (in.) a = cost of steel ($/lb) i = yearly fixed charges on pipeline, expressed as a ratio Ha = average head on penstock including water hammer (ft). References The following referencesare not cited in the text. - ALDRICH,E.H. Solution of Transmission Problems of a Water System. Trans. ASCE, 103:1579 (1938). - BARNARD,R.E. Design Standards for Steel Water Pipe. Jour. AWWA, 40:1:24 (Jan. 1948). - BRADLEY, J.N. &THOMPSON, L.R. Fric- tion Factors of Large Conduits Flowing Full. Engineering Monograph 7, US Bureau of Reclamation (1951). - CAPEN, C.H. Trends in Coefficients of Large Pressure Pipes. Jour. AWWA, 33:1:1 (Jan. 1941). - CATES, W.H. Design Standards for Large- Diameter Steel Water Pipe.Jour. AWWA, 42:9:860 (Sept. 1950). - CROSS,HARDY.Analysis of Flow in Net- works of Conduits of Conductors. Bull. 286. Engrg. Expt. Stn., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (Nov. 1936). - DAVIS, C.V., ed. Handbook of Applied Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill BookCo., New York (2nd ed., 1952). - FARNSWORTH, GEORGE, JR. &ROSSANO, AUGUST, JR. Application of the Hardy Cross Method to Distribution System Problems. Jour. AWWA, 33:2:224 (Feb. 1941). - HINDS,JULIAN.Comparison of Formulas for Pipe Flow. Jour. AWWA, 38:11:1226 (Nov. 1946). - KING, H.W. Handbookof Hydraulics. Mc- Graw-Hill Book Co., New York (4th ed., 1954). - MOODY, L.F. Friction Factors for Pipe Flow. Trans. ASME, 66:671 (1944). - PIGOTT, R.J.S. Pressure Losses in Tub- ing, Pipe, and Fittings. Trans. ASME, 72:679 (1950). - Pipe FriccionManual. Hydraulic Institute, New York (1954). - Pipeline Design for Water and Waste- water. Report of the Task Committee on Engineering Practice in the Design of Pipelines. ASCE, New York (1975). - Report of Committee on Pipeline Friction Coefficients and Effect of Age Thereon. Jour. NEWWA, 49:235 (1935). I ~ 1. CROCKER,SABIN,ed. Piping Handbook. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (4th ed., 1945). 2. Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe. Tech. Paper 409, Crane Co., Chicago (1942). 3. MOODY, L.F. Friction Factors for Pipe Flow. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York. 4. HINDS, JULIAN. Economic Water Con- duit Size. Engineering News Record, 118:113 (1937). 5. --- Economic Sizes of Pressure Con- duits. Engineering News Record, 118:443 (1937). 6. BABBITT,H.E. & DOLAND,J.J. Water Supply Engineering. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1927; 1955). 7. WHITE, LAZARUS. Catskill Water Supply of New York, N. Y. John Wiley and Sons, New York (1913). 8. VOETSCH,CHARLES& FRESEN, M.H. Economic Diameter of Steel Penstocks. Trans. ASCE, 103:89(1938). 9. LISCHER,V.c. Determination of Econ- omical Pipe Diameters in Distribution Systems. Jour. AWWA, 40:8:849 (Aug. 1948). 10. HALL, L.S.; KALINSKE, A.A.; & ROBERT- SON,J.M. Entrainment of Air in Flowing Water-A Symposium. Trans. ASCE, 108:1393(1943). Chapter 4 AWWA MANUAL M 1 an Determination of Pipe Wall Thickness - . - , The wal thickness of steeI pipe is dect ed by a number of factors that will be discussed in this and succeeding chapters, including the following: 1. Interd pressure a. Maximum &sign pressure (Chapter 4) b. Surge or warer-hammer pressure (Chapter 5) .' . . 2. E x t e d pressure ,.. , a. Trench Ioading pressure (Chapter 6) b. Fwth-fili pressure (Chapter 6) c. Uniform oollapse pressure, atmospheric or hydrauIic (Chapter 4) d. Vacuum underground (Chapter 6) '." . 3. Special physical loading . . a. Pipe on saddle supports (Chapter 7) b. Pipe on ring-girder supports (Chapter 7) 4. Fhcticoil requirements (Chapter 4) . - The thickness selected should be that whic'h satisfies the mom swere requiremei When desi- for internai pressure, the minimum thi- of a cyhder shouId be selected to h i t the circumferential tension stress to a c e h kvel. This stress is frequwtly termed hoop stress. The internal pressure used in design should be that to which the pipe may be subjmed during its lifetime. In a transmission pipeline, the pressure is m the dismce between the pipe centerline md the hydroiulic gmde line. If there valves, the h u m pressure on the pipe between them wiil be measured by the dis i .' PIPE WALL THICKNBSS 37 between the pipe centerline and the elevation of the static leve1 with the valva closed. Surge or water-hammer pressures must also be considered. These are discussed in Chapter 5. In a ... pump-discharge pipeline, rhe internai pressure is measured by the distance between the pipe and the hydradic grade line created by the pumping operation. Ressure at the outlet and the loss due to friction enter into this determination. If it is possibie to impose a pressure equal to the shutoff head of the pumps, the pressure is measured between the pipe and the shutoff grade line. Figures 4- 1 and 4-2 show typical pipeline and hydraulic grade profiles for gravity and pumped flow. With pressure determined, the wail thickness is found using Eq 4-1: Where: . . +, t = minimum specifed wall thickness (in.) -:. p = pressure (psi) d = outside diameter of pipe (in.) steel cylinder (not including coatings) s = allowable stress (psi). -- . m STATIC TEST HGL ) - - m- - - - - - - 4 STATIC TEST HGL 1 - - m- - - - - - - 4 STATIC HGL - .&&i figure 4-2 Relation of Various Heads or Pressures for Selection of Design Pressure (Pumped Flow) .. . WORKING TENSION STRESS IN STEEL Tension Stress ancl Yield Strength Modern steel technology has dowed increases in the allowable working stress for steel, with . xhis working stress determined with relation to the steel's yield strength rather than its * ultimate strength. A design stress equal to 50 percent of the speci f ~d minimum yield strength is often accepted for steel water pipe. Design criteria for penstocks h v e been - adopted by the Bureau of ~eclamation' that base design stress on 93the minimum tensile strength or 2/3 the minimum yield strength, whichever is least. With the use of given methods of stress d y s i s and proper quality control mesures, hese ailowable design stresses are considered conservative for the usual water-transmission pipelines. Table 4-1 illustrates grades of steel used as a basis for working pressure and the design stress as to minimum yield point and minimum ultimate tensile strength for common steel as referenced in AWWA C200, Standard for Steel Water Pipe 6 Inches and - 38 STEEL PIPE Table 4-t Grades of Steel Used in AWWAC200 as Basis for Working Pressures in Table 4-2 Table 4-2 gives the designer working pressures corresponding to 50 percent of the specified minimum yield strength for several types of steel commonly used in waterworks pipelines. The designer is cautioned that the diameters and wall thicknesses listed in the table are for reference only and do not represent engineering or manufacturing limits. Modern steel-mill capabilities permit the manufacture of almost any diameter and wall thickness of pipe; in practice, however, most pipe manufacturers fabricate pipe to standard diameters and wall thicknesses. Pipe with thick linings such as the cement-mortar l~nings specified in AWW A C205, Standard for Cement-Mortar Protective Lining and Coating for Steel Water Pipe-4 In. and Larger-Shop Applied,3 and AWWA C602, Standard for Cement-Mortar Lining of Water Pipelines-4 In. (100 mm) and Larger-In Place,4 is usually fabricated to the individual manufacturer's standard diameters to accommodate the required lining thicknesses. It is, therefore, recommended that the pipe manufacturers be consulted before final selection of diameter and wall thicknesses. . Pressure Limits High quality in the manufacture of both the pipe and the steel used in its manufacture is required by AWWAstandards. Therefore, hoop stress may be allowed to rise, within limits, above 50 percent of yield for transient loads. When ultimate tensile strength is considered, a safety factor well over two is realized. For steel pipe produced to meet AWWA standards, the increased hoop stress should be limited to 75 percent of the specified yield strength, but should not exceed the mill test pressure. 4.3 CORROSION ALLOWANCE At one time it was a general practice to add a fixed, rule-of-thumb thickness to the pipe wall as a corrosion allowance. This proved to be an irrational solution in the waterworks field, where standards for coating and lining materials and procedures exist. It is preferable to design for the required wall-thickness pipe as determined by the loads imposed, then select Design Stress Minimum Ultimate Specifications for 50%of Yield Point Minimum Yield Point Tensile Strength Fabricated Pipe psi psi psi ASTM A36 .18000 36000 58 000 ASTMA283GR C 15000 30 000 55 000 GRD 16500 33 000 60 000 ASTM A570 GR 30 15000 30 000 49000 GR33 16500 33 000 52 000 GR36 18000 36 000 53000 GR40 20 000 40 000 55 000 GR45 22 500 45 000 60 000 GR50 25 000 50000 65 000 ASTM A572 GR 42 21 000 42 000 60 000 GR50 25 000 50000 65 000 GR60 30 000 60 000 75 000 Design Stress Minimum Ultimate Specifications for 50%of Yield Point Minimum Yield Point Tensile Strength Manufactured Pipe psi psi psi ASTM A53, A135, and A139 GRA 15000 30 000 48 000 GRB 17500 35 000 60 000 ASTM A139 GRC 21 000 42 000 60 000 GRD 23 000 46 000 60 000 GRE 26 000 52 000 66 000 PIPE WALL THICKMESS 39 linings, coatings, and cathodic protection as necessary to provide the required leve1 of corrosion protection. . .. 4.4 EXTERNALFLUIDPRESSURE-UNIFORMANDRADIAL The proper wall thickness must be selected to resist external loading imposed on the pipe. Such loading may take the form of outside pressure, either atmospheric or hydrostatic, both of which are uniform and act radially as collapsing forces. Buried pipe must be designed to resist earth pressure in trench or fiil condition. These considerations are discussed in Chapter 6. Atmosphere or Fluid Environrnents A general theory of collapse-resistance of steel pipe to uniform, radially acting forces has been d e ~ e l o ~ e d . ~ Any unreinfoxced tube longer than the nitical length can be considered a tube of infinia length, as its collapsing pressure is independent of further increase in length. The foliowing formula applies to such tubes: - . : :: . . . - .. _ .'*A. _ .,I Where: .. .-- -. - .. . - .5 : -. , - ; iL.<+ -- -- ' 3 - . L, rdn = d i a r n e w m n e w W ~ a f t M - w (for thin pipes, the difference ----- -- between inside diameter, outside diameter, and neutral-axis diameter .. : C is negligible) - . - -. .:-.- : . - . , $ ' - r = wail thickness (in.) ! , , - , - . .,=,-. :.- ,.., .- - . - . Pc = collapsing pressure (psi) . . , .= E = modulus of elasticity (30 000 000 for steel) !? -.. . u = Poisson's ratio (usually taken as 0.30 for steel). Substiming the above values of E and v: Applied Calculations Circular cylindrical shels under external pressure may fail either by buckling or by yielding. Relatively thin-wded shells fail through instability or buckling under stresses that, on the average, are below the yield strength of the material. In the waterworks field, the thickness-diameter ratio is such that there is usually a buckling failure. A number of theoretical and empirical formulas have been promulgated to provide for the effect of instability due to collapsing. They include the formulas of ~irnoshenko? Love, ~ o a r k , ~ Stewart, and Bryan. Stewart developed two empirical equations for the collapsing pressures of steel pipes. The Stewart formula, which automatically accounts for wall thickness variations, out-of- roundness, and other manufacturing tolerantes, is: For buckling failure, where Pc = formula is considered more is 0.023 or Iess dn conservative than and PC is 581 psi or less: the previous formulas. STEEL PIPE Equation 4-4 is predicated on the pipe being mmmerciaiiy round, made of steel with a minimum yield of at least 27 000 psi, and having a length six diameters or more between reinforcing elementc. - - . t . . . . r - - - . .. . -. . - 4.5 MlNIMUM WALL THICKNESS Minimum plate or sheet thidmesses for handling are based w p o formulas adopted by rnany specifying agencies. They are:' D t = - 288 (pipe sizes up to 54 in. ID) .- . t = + (pipe sizes greater than 54 in. ID) 400 In no case s W the sheli thickness be less than 14 gauge (0.ll747 in.). Ir should be mted that for pipe diameters smaller than 54 in., the use of Eq 4-5 (Pacifc Gas and Electric formula) will result in a rhinner pipe wdl than the use of Eq 4-6 (United States Bureau of Rechmation formula). For 54411. and larger pipe, the opposite is t r u ~ 4.6 WOD PRACTICE ' > X ! Interna1 pressure, external pressure, special physical loading, type of Iinq and coating, and other practicd requirements govern wall thickness. Good practice with regard to internal pressure is to use a working tensile stress of 50 peraent of the yield-point stress under the influence of maximum design pressure. The stress of transitory surge pressures, together with static pressure, may be taken at 75 percent of the yield-point stress. The daigner should, however, never overlook the effect of water hammer or surge pressures in design. It is more positive and economical to select a proven coating or linhg for protedon against corrosion hazards rhan to add sacrificial wall thickness. I r ' --a. ' 1 ' = -- C' -S ir'. " PIPE WALL TIfICKNHSS 41 Table 4-2 Working Pressures For Allowable Unit Stresses* Stress pa' m WdI Wcight FipeAxis Sccaon m T'MuEB$ per Foot DJt h 4 -dUS 15000 16500 17500 18000 21000 Table 4-2 WorWng Pressures for Allowabie Unit Stresses* (continued) y . , . 42 STEEL PIPE Stress psi wall waght Pipe& 15000 16500 17500 18000 21000 Diameterf Thicknesst per Fmt t in.' Modulus m. in. M R a t i o (S) Worlung rssure prix 18 OD .O747 14.30 240.96 168.96 18.77 125 137 145 149 1 74 -10% 19.99 172.08 235.41 26.16 174 192 203 a)9 244 -1345 25.67 133.83 301.m 33.47 224 247 262 B9 314 .1563 29.79 115.16 348.74 38.75 261 287 304 313 365 .1793 34.13 100.39 398.53 44.28 299 329 349 359 418 .2188 41-56 82.27 483.12 53.68 365 401 425 438 51 1 .2500 47.40 72.00 549.14 61,02 417 458 486 500 583 30 OD .1M6 33.40 286.81 1 097.51 73.17 105 115 122 126 1% -1345 42.91 223.05 1401.02 93-80 135 148 157 161 188 .1%3 49.82 191.94 1 631.50 108.77 156 172 182 188 219 *Vd= have km ampt ed by e k a m k -puta. See agt for formulm u d . ~S~undu45in.~outsi&~sizcs,~45in.andoverartinsidediamoersk. $Mmuf ar cr s can f uma wall thiche3scs 0 t h thm shown. $WorlMg press- may be interphed or exn-aplated for other wall thic$Qesses or messe. PIPE WALL THICKNESS 43 Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Un& Stress* (cmtinued) - - - . - - . . . . m WaIl Weight PipeAxis Scction DiameterT Tbicknessf m FOO~ Do/t h? Mddus 15000 16500 17500 18000 21000 k OD .1793 57.11 167.32 1 867.28 124.49 179 197 209 215 251 .21# 69.60 137.11 2 269.64 151.31 219 24 1 255 263 306 .2500 79.44 120.00 2 585.18 172.35 250 27s 292 300 350 3 - 99.10 96.00 3Sll.28 214.09 365 /' 375 438 . --4375- 138.15 68.57 4439.73 295.98 438 48 1 5 10 525 613 .5000 157.55 60.00 5 042.20 336.15 500 550 583 600 700 32 OD .lo46 35.64 305.93 1 332.85 83.30 98 108 114 118 137 45.78 237.92 1709.04 106.81 1% 139 147 151 177 53.16 204.73 1 981.98 123.87 147 161 171 176 205 60.94 178.47 2 268.73 141.80 168 185 1% 202 235 74.28 146.25 2 758.28 172.39 205 . 226 239 246 2J37 84.78 128.00 3 142.37 196.40 234 258 273 281 328 3125 105.77 102.40 3 904.95 244.06 293 322 342 352 410 .4375 147.50 73.14 5 403.00 337.69 410 45 1 479 492 574 .5#0 168.23 64.00 6 138.62 383.66 469 516 547 563 656 37.87 325.05 1 599.62 94.10 92 102 108 111 129 48.65 252.79 2051.45 120.67 119 131 138 142 166 56.50 217.53 2 379.37 139.96 138 1 52 161 165 193 64.77 189.63 2 723.95 160.23 158 174 185 190 221 78.95 155.39 3 312.46 194.85 193 212 225 232 270 90.12 136.00 3774.37 222.02 221 243 257 265 309 .3125 112.45 108.80 4 691.95 276.00 276 303 322 33 1 386 F sures may be interpokd or exPapolared for 0 t h wd thicknesses or strcsses. 44 STEEL PIPE Table 4-2 WorWng Pressures for Ailowable Unlt S - * (continud) Moment of Inertia About Stress gs Pipe wau WeigIlf PipeAxis Scction Diamc~rt ThicknessI rier Foot Dn/t inP Mdulus 15000 165MJ 17500 18000 21000 57 ID .2500 152.88 230.00 18421.89 640.76 132 145 154 158 184 .3125 191.31 184.40 23 103.11 801.84 164 181 192 197 230 .3750 229.82 154.00 27 814.90 963.29 197 217 230 237 276 ,4375 268.41 132.29 32 557.37 1 125.09 230 253 269 276 322 .5000 307.09 116.00 37 330.a 1 287.26 263 289 307 316 368 Values h v e been computed by ekcwinic computer. See text for formulas used. TSizes under 45 in. are outside diametcr sizes; those 45 in. and over are inside diameter sizes. SManufmurm furnish w d thiicimesses otkr than shown. SWorking pressures may be kiterpolated or extrapolated for other wall thiclumses ox smsscs. PIPE WALL THICKNESS 45 Table 4-2 Working Prwsures for Ailowabk Unit Stressec* (continued) . ' . - - .. . . . . . stress psi pipe Wd weight PipeAxis Section Diamttert Thichmd ncr Foot Dn/t in? 15000 16500 17500 18000 21000 m - 46 STEEL PIPE 84 ID -3125 281.43 270.80 73551.47 1738.29 112 123 130 134 156 .3750 337.97 22.00 88 458.73 2 087.52 134 147 156 161 188 .4375 394.59 194.00 103 432.09 2 43728 156 172 182 188 219 *Val= have k n computed by ekcamic oomputer. See text for formulas u d . unda 45 in. art outside dhmm sizes; those 45 in. d ovcr m inside diameter si=. $Manukhms furnish d r ' ' r other tfian s h . $Workiq pmsures m y be interplated or extrapokd for other wall thiclmesses or suesses. BIPE WALL THICKNESS 47 Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Ailowable Unlt S&-* (contfnued) stress psi RF Waii Weight Pipe AKi s Section Dimead Thicknessf per Foot Da/t , + hladdUS 15000 16500 17500 18000 21000 iw. iR. (bare) ht i o ( I ) (S) Working Pnssuit psi3 STEEL PIPE i $ i J < . < Table 4-2 Working Pressures For Aliowable Unit Stresses* (continued) , _ . .. -, . , .. i Moment of Irleda About Stress pss' P i ~ e Wd Weight Pipe Axis Section Diameaq ThicknessS per Foot Dd t i n ~ lModulUa 15000 16500 175M) 18000 21000 m. zk. (bare) &ti0 (1) wokhg Pressure psi$ 102 ID A875 754.08 150.36 292 350.87 5 656.12 202 222 236 243 .7500 823.14 138.00 319513.64 6174.18 221 243 257 265 - 309 .a125 892.27 127.54 346 774.99 6 92.88 239 263 279 287 -8750 961.49 118.57 374 135.14 7 212.24 257 283 300 309 .9375 1030.80 110.80 401 594.41 7 732.26 276 303 322 33 1 1.0000 1100.18 104.00 429 152.98 8 252.94 294 324 343 353 108 ID .3125 361.54 347.60 155 936.84 2 871.10 87 95 101 104 .37W 434.10 290.00 187 449.05 3 447.34 104 115 122 125 .4375 506.74 248.86 219 070.05 4 024.25 122 134 142 146 .S000 579.47 218.00 250 S00.20 4 601.84 139 153 162 167 .S625 652.28 194.00 282 639.72 5 180.1 1 156 172 182 188 .62M 725.17 174.80 314 588.81 5 759.06 174 191 203 208 A875 798.14 159.09 346 647.75 6 338.70 191 210 223 229 .7500 871.20 146.00 378 816.75 6919.03 a18 229 243 250 .S125 944.34 134.92 411 096.20 7 500.04 2a6 248 263 27 1 .87M 1017.57 125.43 443 486.19 8 081.75 243 267 284 292 .9375 1090.88 117.20 475 987.02 8 664.15 260 286 304 313 1.0000 1164.27 110.00 508 599.07 9 247.26 278 306 324 333 114 ID .3125 381.57 366.80 183 313.25 3 198.49 82 90 % 99 , - 7 .3750 458.13 306.00 220 337.67 3 840.31 99 109 115 118 r -.- . . - . ,4375 534.78 262.57 257 483.24 4 482.84 115 ln 134 138 si .HXIO 611.51 230.00 294 750.26 5 126.09 132 145 154 158 .E -5625 688.32 204.67 332 139.01 5 770.06 148 163 173 178 <..L *. . - . - .6250 765.22 184.40 369 d9.79 6 414.75 164 181 192 197 - - -- - - , . ..Li - . > -6875 842.20 167.82 407 282.80 7 060.16 181 -- - 199 21 1 217 <?%-+;,-. . -: - .. . . -i- te:k -, .7500 919.27 154.00 445 038.33 7 706.29 197 217 230 237 <E .8125 996.42 142.31 482 916.58 8 353.15 214 235 249 257 ! ! - L . .8750 1073.65 132.29 520 917.94 9 000.74 230 253 269 276 . . - . .11 .9375 1150.96 123.60 559 042.60 9 649.06 247 27 1 288 296 B . 1.0000 1228.M 116.00 597 290.87 10 298.12 263 289 307 316 120 ID .3125 401.60 386.00 213 719.72 3 543.54 78 I.; 86 91 94 .3750 482.17 322.00 2% 864.35 4 254.48 94 103 109 113 .4375 562.82 276.29 300 143.19 4 966.17 109 120 128 131 S000 643.55 242.00 M3 556.43 5 678.62 125 138 146 150 .5625 724.37 215.33 387 104.47 6 391.82 141 155 164 169 .62W 805.28 194.00 430 787.49 7 105.77 156 172 182 188 .6875 886.26 176.55 474 605.90 7820.49 172 189 201 206 .75M S7.33 162.00 518 559.88 8 535.96 188 206 219 225 S125 1048.49 149.69 562 649.73 9 252.21 203 223 237 244 .S750 1129.73 139.14 606 875.67 9 969.21 219 241 255 263 306 .9375 1211.05 130.00 651 238.16 10 686.99 234 258 273 281 328 1.0000 1292.45 122.00 695 737.31 1 1 405.53 250 275 292 300 350 126 ID .3125 421.62 405.20 247315.39 3906.26 74 82 87 89 104 -3750 506.20 338.00 297 220.04 4 689.86 89 98 104 107 125 .U75 590.86 290.00 347 272.54 5 47425 104 115 122 125 146 .HWK) 675.60 254.00 397 473.19 6 259.42 119 131 139 143 167 5625 7M.42 226.00 4-47 822.27 7 045.38 134 147 156 161 188 .6250 845.33 203.60 498 320.19 7 832.14 149 164 174 179 208 .6875 930.33 185.27 548 967.03 8 619.70 164 180 191 1% 229 -7500 1015.40 170.00 599 763.30 9408.05 179 1% 2CM 214 250 .8125 1100.56 157.08 650 709.09 10 197.20 193 213 226 232 271 r other wall thiclrnesses or smsscs. PIPE WALL THICKNESS 49 = "" ~-.- Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses* (continued) Moment of Inertia About Stress psi Pipe Wall Weight Pipe Axis Section 15000 16 500 17500 Diametert Thicknesst per Foot Dolt in.4 Modulus 18000 21 000 tn. tn. (bare) Ratio (I) is) WorkingPressurepsi 126 ID .8750 ll85.80 146.00 701804.90 10987.16 208 229 243 250 292 .9375 1271.13 136.40 753050.81 II 777.92 223 246 260 268 313 1.0000 1356.54 128.00 804 447.32 12569.49 238 262 278 286 333 132 ID .3125 441.65 424.40 284259.12 4 286.66 71 78 83 85 99 .3750 530.23 354.00 341 595.49 5 146.45 85 94 99 102 119 .4375 618.90 303.71 399 093.85 6 007.06 99 109 ll6 119 139 .5000 707.64 266.00 456 754.99 6868.50 ll4 125 133 136 159 .5625 796.47 236.67 514578.70 7730.76 128 141 149 153 179 .6250 885.39 213.20 572 565.57 8 593.85 142 156 166 170 199 .6875 974.39 194.00 630716.01 9457.78 156 172 182 188 219 .7500 1063.47 178.00 689030.01 10322.55 170 188 199 205 239 .8125 ll52.63 164.46 747508.16 II 188.15 185 203 215 222 259 .8750 1241.88 152.86 806 150.65 12 054.59 199 219 232 239 278 .9375 1331.21 142.80 864 957.68 12921.87 213 234 249 256 298 1.0000 1420.63 134.00 923 929.84 13 790.00 227 250 265 273 318 138 ID .3125 461.68 443.60 324710.23 4684.73 68 75 79 82 95 .3750 554.26 370.00 390 181.56 5 624.24 82 90 95 98 ll4 .4375 646.93 317.43 455 830.18 6564.61 95 105 III ll4 133 .5000 739.69 278.00 521 656.30 7505.85 109 120 127 130 152 .5625 832.52 247.33 587660.13 8447.94 122 135 143 147 171 .6250 925.44 222.80 653 842.24 9390.91 136 149 159 163 190 .6875 1018.45 202.73 720202.83 10 334.75 149 164 174 179 209 .7500 1111.53 186.00 786742.10 II 279.46 163 179 190 196 228 .8125 1204.70 171.85 853 460.45 12225.04 177 194 206 212 247 .8750 1297.96 159.71 920 358.44 13 171.50 190 209 222 228 266 .9375 1391.29 149.20 987436.10 14 ll8.84 204 224 238 245 285 1.0000 1484.72 140.00 1054693.80 15067.05 217 239 254 261 304 144 ID .3125 481.71 462.80 368 827.58 5 100.47 65 72 76 78 91 .3750 578.30 386.00 443 169.18 6 123.24 78 86 91 94 109 .4375 674.97 331.14 517703.79 7 146.90 91 100 106 109 128 .5000 771.73 290.00 592431.62 8 171.47 104 ll5 122 125 146 .5625 868.57 258.00 667 352.85 9 196.94 117 129 137 141 164 .6250 965.50 232.40 742467.87 10223.31 130 143 152 156 182 .6875 1062.51 211.45 817777.28 II 250.59 143 158 167 172 201 .7500 1159.60 194.00 893281.08 12278.78 156 172 182 188 219 .8125 1256.78 179.23 968 979.66 13307.87 169 186 197 203 237 .8750 1354.04 166.57 I 044 873.60 14337.89 182 201 213 219 255 .9375 1451.38 155.60 I 120962.90 15368.81 195 215 228 234 273 1.0000 1548.80 146.00 I 197248.20 16400.66 208 229 243 250 292 *Valueshave been computed by electronic computer. See text for formulas used. tSizes under 45 in. are outside diameter sizes; those 45 in. and over are inside diameter sizes. tManufacturers can furnish wall thicknesses other than shown. Workingpressures may be interpolated or extrapolated for other wall thicknesses or stresses. STEBL PIPE Referentes 1. Weided Stcel Penstocks. Engnr. Mono- graph 3. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, C h . 2. Sttcl Water Pipc 6 Inches and Largr. AWWA Standard C200-80. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1980). 3. Cemnit-Mortar Protective Lining and b t i n g for Steel Water P i p e 4 In. md --Shp AppW. AWWA S ~ d d C205-80. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1W). 4. Cemcnt-Morter Lining of Water Pipc- lincs-1 In. (100 mm) and Larger-In Place. AWWA Standard C602-83. AWWA, Dmvcr. Colo. (1983). 5. R u k for Constniction of Udued PPes- sure Vcssels. Sec. VIII, ASME Soiler and Ressure Ve s d Cadt. ASME, New York. B. TIMOSHENKO, S. Strmgrh of Matm'als. Part 11. D. Van Nos- Co., NEw York (1940). 7. ROARK, R.J. Formulas fur Smss and Strah. McGmw-Hill Book Co., New York (4th ed., 1965). 8. PARMAKIAN, J. Mnimum Thickness for Handling Pipcs, Water Power and D m Constructim. (june 1982.) References :.L . 1. Welded Steel Penstocks. EJngnr. Mono- graph 3. Bureau of Rechti on, Denver, Colo. 2. Steel Water Pipc 6 Inches and Lwrger. -;. .-i_;;AWWA Standard C2W-80. AWWA, Dtnver, Colo. (1980). 3. Ccment-Mortar Protective Lining md Cuating for Swtl Water P i p e 4 In. md h g e ~ - S b p Applied. AWWA Standard - C205-80. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1980). 4. Ctment-Mortar Lining of Water Rpc- lines-1 h. (100 mm) md Largcr-ln : - = PIace. AWWAStandardC602-83. : . A-A, Denver. Cob. (1983). - * .: . . -4 . . ... . . , - . -- . ' . .-. , - . - - - . - - l..'- . . . . . . . . > -. . p; .= ... .; ;: - - .. .. . - ,:: -,; -: ; . . . . , , - - . . , ,. i?. $-. .- I . L... - - 7 : - 5 1 . . . - . 4 . - > . - - . . . . . . . :.! . . -. . - .:. - ' C . . . 2. - -2 . -- . . - 2- i- .... a?: .- . . . - > - -. 2 ; - . . . - > > ,,-:- . . ,. - , . . . . - - ' - < - - .. . - -, . . - -. . ,. , . . - . . - ,. - 1 -.- : - - , <: - - . - - 7 , . . 5 ,- . . . .: . =?d.. *...-. . . . --?, --:- .,-,;, .- * '- . . . . . . . ..-Y *. . - - - - . . < - - - - , ?.,. - -. . . , - - - +- -, = .... . - - . . . . . . . .: <. ..- , . . - . , . . , . -- , - . - . . , -, - . sure Vesgels. Sec. VIIf, ASME Soikr and Aessure V e s 4 Cede. ASME, Ncw York. TIMOSHENKO, S. S m h of Mar&. Part 11. D. Van Nos- Co., New York ( 1 W . ROARK, R-J. Fortttulcu fm Smss and Strai. McGraw-Hill Book GJ., New Yo& (4th ed., 1965). PARMAKIAN, J. Minimum Thickncss for Handlmg P i p , Water Power md -Dam C w s d c i n . u~ne 1982.) -. - . .-. - -. . , . - , ' L . . ; . V. - - . - .- ; -. ; - . . . - . . ; . - - . - + . -- . :Y?- 7 -- . !: ..... -. - . 1 . - . - . . 'r . : =: .. .. , . .: - . - -,. . . :.j< ..- .-.= - - , -- - .? 2 . . . . .. , . J . .. , - .,.; :-.y . '. . ., 3 : - . -. i . ' . - - >, : . * , .: .-, ... . . . . ---.._ .. . ',> ..=. ..- . - - - + - y . - - . r= . . 6 . . - . . + - ; . 7 , ' . . . . . . .... . . - -- - , . i - T p - < . . , . . :- ., . , . - . - 4.- . . - . . - . i . . , . - . - * . ' < : 2 . . , - - - > . . :. - 7- -4 . \: . - - . + .7 . - - - w. A - " - ...S : . . 1. .p. ... 9; , 1.. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., 2%-. :* '+ . . - , A ->. . , - - , -, o.--,<:; . .- .-: - .- .- , - - , -, .-.. . . . . . . <-, .,:- - , ., > . ., z . 2,s- .-: ri; . . . : ;i:. . . ., ,. , --1% - . . - . - - , - ! . .. -. - - . . ,.: ;f.. - - f , - 4 . - . . - . . , . : >.Lt9 ' , 2.- 2 ..: .>k :. . < - . >. , . . - ,--!y - - - ,--- AWWA MANUAL MI 1 O Water Hammer and Pressure Surge .:-:.: >-.' . - b:. .E < +=- >. T.- m. : - . F. E .. S; Water hammer is the result of a change in flow velocity in a closed conduit causing elastic wava to travel upstream and downstream from the point of origin. The elastic waves, in turn, cause increases or decreases in pressure as they mvel dong the line, and these pressure changes are variously referred to as water hammer, surge, os uansient pressure. The phenomenon of water hammer is extremdy complex, and no attempt will be made to cover the subject in depth in this manual. Only the fudamentals of elastic-mve theory and specific data pertaining to the properties of stael pipe will be discussed. For a more detoiiled understoinding of water hammer, thc refemes listed at the end of this chapter shouid be consulted. , - . .- '=2 - -.:-. . , -. . - - . . IC RELATiONSHIPS . - . . The following fundamentd relationships in surge-wavc theory determine thc magnitude of pressure rise and its distribution along a conduit, Thc prcssure rise for instantmmw closure is diredy proportional to the fluid v w t y at cutoff and to the magnitude of the wave veiocity; it is indepwdent of the ltngth of the conduit. Its value is: aV h = 52 STEEL PIPE In the above equatiom: a = wave velacity (fps) h = pressure rise above normal (ft of water) p = pressure rise above n o d @si) V = velocity of flow (fps) W = weight of fluid (lb/cu ft) sp gr = specifc gavi t y of fluid (water = 1.0) k = bulk modulus of compressibility of liquid (psi) E = Young's modulus of elasticity for pipe wali material (psi) d = inside diameter of mdui t (in.) t = thickncss of conduit wall (h.) g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 fps/s) L = length of conduit (ft) 2L - a = criticai time of conduit (S) For steel pipe, Eq 5-3 reduces to: using k = 300 000 psi and E = 30 000 000 psi. 2000 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 ~ 6 0 7 0 O W INSIDE DIAMETER (o'ls) WALL m The nurnbers at the rlght of the curves represent the rnodutus of elasticty ( 1 in 1 000000-psi units for various pipe materials.4 Figure 5-1 Surge Wave Velmity C hart for Water WATER HAMMER / PRESSURE SURGE 53 Figure 5-1 gives values of pressure wave velocity for various pipt materials with d/f ratios up to 90. For steel pipe, higher ratios are frequently encountered in kg e sizes, and Table 5-1 gives mmputed values up to d/ t = 400. When the flow ratc is changed in a time greater than zero but less than or equal to W a scmnds, tht magnitude of the pressure rise is the same as with instantaneous closure, but the duration of the maximum value decrease as the time of closure approaches W a seconds. Under these conditions, the pressure distribution along the pipeline varies as tht time of closure mi es. T h e pressure decreases uniformly almg the line if closure is in Waseconds. The maximum pressure at the control valve exists along the fuli length of &e line with insmtaneous closure, md for slower ram mvels up the pipe a distance equal to L-(Ta/2) feet, then decreases uniformly. T h e surge pressure distribution along the conduit is independent of the profile or p m d contour of the line so long as the wtd pressure remaIns above the vapor pressure of the fluid. Table 5-1 Veldty of Pressure Wave for Steel Pipe Wave VeWty a For valve closing times greater than Wa seconds, the maximum pmsure rise will be a function of the maximum rate of change in flow with respect to time, dV/d T. Nonlinear closure rates of a vdve can be investigated, and the proper valve closing time determintd to hold the maximum pressure rise to any de s i d limitiq value. The effea of pumps and quick-closing check vdves or control vaives can be investigated using the graphical mcthod or numericai method through use of a computer. The profile of the conduit leading away from a pumping smtion may have a mjor influence on the surge conditions. When high points oocur along the lk, the surge hydraulic-grade elevation may fail below the pipe profde ctiwing negative pressures, perhaps as isow as the vapor pressure of the fluid. If thi s occurs, the liquid column may be sepmted by a zone of vapor for a short time. Parting and rejoining of the liquid aolumn can prdtlce extremely high pressures and may cause failure of the aonduit.' The effect of friction can be accounted for in any surge probkm. When friction losses are less ttian 5 percent of the normal static or working pressure, they cm u s d y be neglected. The greater the degree of a m c y desired for the resdts of a surge analysis, the more must be known aibout the various hydradic and physical chmacteristics of the system. The velmity of the pressure wave a is a fundamental factor in any surge study, as the surge pressures are directly proportional to its value. l X s vtlocity dtpends on the pipe diameter, wdl thickness, materiai of the pipe d s , as wdl as the density and compressibility of the fluid in the pipe. 54 STEEL PIPE Knowkige concerning the physid characteristics of the pipe material s fairly complete. Young's moduius for steel iines can be mken at 30 000 000 psi, since ir avcrages between 29 000 000 and 3 1 000 000 psi, depending on the steel used. Ifthe mtio of diameter to thickness is known, it is nccessary to know ody the density and the compressibiiity of tht liquid within the pipe to determine the surge wave velocity a. Within the range of or- opemting t emperam for water, 32-lWF (0-M0C), and for pressures in the range of O- 1 psi, the s pecific gravity can be t akn at 1 .OO. In the same range, the moddus of compressibility, or bulk moduius, has been found by measurements md veried by field tests to be approximately 300 000 psi with a wiation of 1 3 percentm2 - - . - , 5.2 CHECKLIST FOR PUMPING W N S A few famrs can be c hde d to indicate whether surges of serious proportions will occur in my given system, once the physid, hyhulic, and operating ckackr i st i cs are established. For most mnsmission ma h supplied by motor-driven ctntcifugal pumps, the followhg 12 questions wili give a clue to the seriousness of thc surge p~oblern:~~ 1. Are there any higb spots on the profile of the transmission main where the . occurrence of a vacuum can cause a parting of the water colurna when a pump is cut OE j 2. Is the length of the transmissiw main h s than 20 tima the head on the pumps Wth ' values expressed in feet)? 3. Is the maximum velocity of flow in the transmission main in excess of 4.0 fps? 4. b the factor of safety of the pipe less than 3.5 (related to ultimate strength) for - normal operaring pmsures? 5. What is t ht natural rate of slowing down of the water column if the pump is cut off ? Will rhe column come to rest and reverse irs direction of flow in l e s than the critica1 - surge-wave time for &e transmission main? 6. Will the check vdve dose in l a s than the critical time for the transmission moiin? 7. Are there any quickdosing automatic valves set to open or close in less than 5 s? 8. Would the pump or its driving motor be damaged if dowed to nrn backward up to - ... . . fuil speed? . . . . . . . . 9. Will &e pmp be tripped off before the discharge vdve is fully closed? . - . . ..- 10. WU the pump be started with the discharge gate valve open? 11. Are there booster stations on the system that depend on the operation of the L . , ..- - pumping station under consideratioa? - . - 12. Are there any quick-closing automatic valves used in the pumping system that become inoperative with the failure of pumping system prasure? - - - .. . If the answer to any one of these question is affirmative, there is a strong psi bi l i ty i . * -- that serious surges wiil occur. If the mswer to or more of the questions is oiffirmative, :-- surges will pmbably be experiencsd with severity in r o p d o n m the numbtr of &-tive - , - . , .-. -. -. . - answers, , L . . - - > - ..- . . . - - , . . . ::::.- ? , , ---A- - . -1 :-- . . . . - i . > - - 5.3 GENERALSTUDIES FOR WATER H~MMERCONTROL - - .. . --- 3 Studies of surges can be undertaken during the design stke. Once the general hyout 7--- - ,.-.::*. . -' system has been completd, the kngth,,diameter, tbickness, material, and cap . J . . ,-. ! -, pipe, as weli as the type and s h of pumps, cm be established. The normal pressures at various points in the system can be computed and the allowabk pressures fixed. By this means, the margin for water hammer can be found, should then be adjusted to provide either safety factors large enough to withstand s conditions as might be encountered or suitable remedid or control devias. WATER HAMMER / PRESSURE SURGE 55 method is usually l es costly .1t is important to note that there is no single device that will - - . - cure di surge difficulties. Only by a study of both normaloperating conditions and possible . , emergency conditions can methads be determined to provide proper control. It is not feasible to make general recommendations on te type, size, and appliation of surge-control equipment for al1 plants. Several possibk solutions should be considad for any individual instaliation, and one selected that @ves the maximum protection for &e least expenditure. Surges can often be reduced subst&tially by using bypasses around check valves, by cusbioning chtck valves for the last 15-20 percent of &e smke, or by adopting a two-speed rate of valve smke. Water hammer resulting from power failure to centrifugal pumps can sometimes be held to d e limits by providing flywheek or by dowing the pumps . , to run backward. Air-inlef valves may be needed, or the preferred solution m y be to use a . . surge m&, a surge damper, or a hydropneumatic b b e r . Under certain opera* A .>- conditions, no devices wiii be required to hold the pressure rise within safe iimits. - - c: It is essentiai m coordinate di the elements of a system properly and to ascertain that . . opemting practices conform to the requirements for safety. As changes take place in the C . ?. . - . system demand, it may be necessary to review and revise the surge conditiom, poirticuhly if the capacity is increased, additionoil pumpage or storage is addcd, or h t e r stations are phned. If a competent investigation is made during the design stage and the remmmeendations arising from it m a r i e d out, the final plant will almost always operate without damage due to water hammer. The agreement between te theoreticai analyses, properly applied, and the actual tests of installations is esremely close. When a surge study was not undertaken aud dangerous conditions existed, tbere have almost invariably been serious surge, and sometimes mt l y damage has raulted. The time and efort spent on a surge study in advance of the fuial design is the least expeasive means of ensuring agahst surges. The elastic-wave u r y has beea complettly proven in acnial pmxice, and design engineers should take the initiative in making surge snidies and i nsmbg surge-control dwices without waiting for . a : ' . serio- failures to oacur. - . -. . , .. 5.4 ALLOWANCE FORWATER HAMMER Mmy conditions have choinged since the standard, niiesf-thumb empiricai allowanms for water hammer originated. Automatic stop, check, and throttling valves were not then as widely used as they are today. Valve closures measured in seaonds and motor-driven centrifugd pumps were practically unknown. New types of pipe have since been introduced and used. Consequently, it is questionable whether standard allowanws for water hammer should be appiied universoilly to al1 types of instailations. Nor can it be said that such dloweuices will provide full security uoder alt circumstances. Potential water-hammer problems should be investigated in the dcsign of pumping-station piping, force mains, and 10% trouismission pipehes. Suitable meam sfiould be provided to reduce its effect to tht :mhimum that is practicable or economical. ' ' . , +: 'i It is not withia thc scope of t hi s manual to cover an analysis of pressure rise in a complicated piptrine. Some basic data are, however, provided for simple probkms. The pressure rise for instantaneous valve dosure is given by Eq 5- 1. Vdiies of the wave velocity a may bt read fcom P i 5- 1 for diameter-thicknecs ratios of 90 md less, d from Table 5- 1 for higher ratios. Por solutions to more mmplex problems, it is recommended that referenm be made to the many publications avaihble (see, for example, referentes 5,6,7, and 8 at the end of this chapter). Computer progmns are available t h t indude &c effecw of pipeline friction and 56 STEEL PIPE give accurate results. There are several means of reducing surges by the addition of devices or revising operating conditions, but these are outside the scope of this manual. Most of the available computer programs permit evaluation of the various means of reducing or controlling surges. (Reference 8 describes some of these means.) References 1. RICHARDS,R.T. Water Column Separa- tion in Pump Discharge Lines. Trans. ASME, 78:1297 (1956). 2. KERR, S.L.; KESSLER,L.H.; & GAMET, M.B. New Method for Bulk-Modulus Determination. Trans. ASME, 72:1143 (1950). 3. KERR, S.L. Minimizing Service Inter- ruptions Due to Transmission Line Fail- ures-Discussion.Jour. AWWA,41:7:634 (July 1949). 4. --- Water Hammer Control. Jour. AWWA, 43:12:985 (Dec. 1951). 5. RICH, G.R. Hydraulic Transients (Engi- neering Societies Monographs). Mc- Graw-Hill Book Co., New York (1951). 6. PARMAKIAN, JOHN.Water Hammer Anal- ysis. Dover Publications, New York (19 ~ . 7. KINN H. Water Hammer Control in Centrif al Pump System. ASCE. Jour. Hydraul. Div., (May 1968). 8. STREETER, V.L. &WYLIE,E.B. Hydraulic Transients. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1967). The following references are not cited in the text. - ALIN, A.L. Penstock Surge Tank at Dennison Hydro Plant. Civ. Eng., 14:296 (1944). - ALLIEVI, LORENZO. Theory of Water Hammer. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., New York (1925; out of print). - ANGUS, R.W. Water Hammer in Pipes, Including Those Supplied by Centrifugal Pumps; Graphical Treatment. Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs., 136:245(1937). - --- Water Hammer Pressures in Compound and Branch Pipes. Trans. ASCE, 104:340 (1939). - BARNARD,R.E. Design Standards for Steel Water Pipe. Jour. AWWA, 40:1:24 (Jan. 1948). - BENNET,RICHARD. Water Hammer Cor- rectives. Wtr. & Sew. Wks., 88:196 (1941). - BERGERON, L. Water Hammer inHydrau- lies and Wave Surge in Electricity. John Wiley and Sons, New York (1961). - BOERENDANS, W.L. Pressure Air Cham- bers in Centrifugal Pumping. Jour. AWWA, 31:11:1865 (Nov. 1939). - DAWSON, F.M. &KALINSKE, A.A. Meth- ods of Calculating Water Hammer Pres- sures. Jour. AWWA, 31:11:1835 (Nov. 1939). - EVANS,W.E. &CRAWFORD, c.c. Charts and Designing Air Chambers for Pump Discharge Lines. Proc. ASCE, 79:57 (1916). - KERR, S.L. Practical Aspects of Water Hammer. Jour. AWWA, 40:6:599 (June 1948). - --- Surges in Pipe Lines-Oil and Water. Trans. ASME, 72:667 (1950). - --- Effect of Valve Action on Water Hammer. Jour. AWWA, 52:1:65 (Jan. 1960). - PARMAKIAN, JOHN. Pressure Surges at Large Pump Installations. Trans. ASME, 75:995 (1953). - Proceedings Second Intern. Conf. Pres- sure Surge. Fluid Engineering, British Hydraulic Res. Assoc., London (1976). - Second Symposium on Water Hammer. Trans. ASME, 59:651 (1937). - SIMIN, OLGA.Water Hammer. (Includes a digest of N. Joukovsky's study.) Proc. AWWAAnn. Conf., St. Louis, Mo. (June 1904). - Standard Allowances for Water Ham- mer-Panel Discussion. Jour. AWWA, 44:11:977 (Nov. 1952). - STEPANOFF, A.J. Elements of Graphical Solution of Water Hammer Problems in Centrifugal-Pump Systems. Trans. ASME, 71:515 (1949). - STREETER,V.L. Unsteady Flow Calcu- lations by Numerical Methods. ASME. Jour. of Basic Engrg. (June 1972). - Symposium on Water Hammer. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., New York (1933; reprinted 1949). - Water Hammer Allowances in Pipe De- sign. Committee Report. Jour. AWWA, 50:3:340 (Mar. 1958). II II1II AWWA MANUAI . - - , . Externa1 L o a d s . . , . +: !:, 1.1, 5 . 5 . Extemal loads on buried pipe are generally comprised of the weight of the backfill together with live and impaci I d s . T h e Marston theory' is generally used to determine the Icds imposed on buried pipe by the soil surrounding it. This theory is applicable to both flexible and rigid pipes instded in a variety of conditions, including ditch md projecting conduit installations. Ditch conduits are stnictures instaiied and completely buried in narrow dtches in relatively passive or undisturbed soil. Projecting mnduits are s ctures instalid in shallow bedding with the top of the mnduit projecting above the surfa of the natural gronnd and then covered with the embankment. Por purposes of calculo 1 g the extemal vertical loads on projecting conduits, the field conditions affecting the loads are . conveniently grouped into four subclassifications based on the @tude of settlemtat of ' the interior prism* of soil relative to that of the exterior prismt and the height of embankment in relation to the height at which settlements of the interior and exterior prisms of soil are equaL2 Steel pipe is considered to be flexible, and the Marston theory provides a simple pmdure for calculating externa1 soil l d s on flexible pipe. If the flexible pipe is buried in a ditch less than two times the width of the pipe, the load may be computed as follows: - - <! - - .I -. . . *The backfii prism dircctly above the pipe. = - --.. : , , . TThe b d d l prism between the trench walls d vertical linw drawn at the OD of the pipe. 58 STEEL PIPE Whcre: Where: C, = coeficient for embanlrment conditions, a function of soil properties. For flexible pipe, the setclement ratig may be msumed to be zero, in which ase: Where: and Bd is defined btlow w = tmit weight of fili Qb/cu ft) Bd = width of trench at top of pipe (ft) If the pipe is burid in m e m b h n t or wide trench, the load may be computed from: Wc = C c w ~ c 2 -- . .. - - - , :%- -- - , . , . - . . , The d e d l d calculation in Eq 6-4 is the weight of a prism of soil with a width equd to that . - , .. . of the pipe md a height e q d to the depth of fill over the pipe. This prism load is convenient . . ,- . -.- . ,. to calculate and is usually used for all instalhtion conditim for both trench md .. ; . y .-TI,. - , embmkment wnditions. For use in the Iowa defltctioa formula, divide Eq 6-4 by 12. :,,:.., ,;-.+.e: ., ,! . In ddition to supporting dead loads imposed by earth cover, buried pipelines m also , . - . be e x p e d to superimposed concentrated or distributed iivt loads. Coactatrated Eve loads , are generally caused by tnick-whetl loads and railway-car loads. Distributed live l& are 1 r. - .- caused by surchrges such as pila of material and temporary strucnrres. The &ea of live . . , . . loads on si pipeline depends on thc deptb of cover over the pipe. A method for determinhg "I . . . ,. . the live l d using moaed Boussinesq equations is presented on pp. 224-235 of refererice 3 of this chapter. 6.2 DEFLECTION DETERMINATION The Iowadeflection formula was fmt propod by M.G. ~pangler? It was hter md f k d by Watginc and S&& and has frequently been rearranged. h one of its most commw forms, deflection is calcuhted as follows: - HXTERNAL LOAD 59 Where: : - . Ax = horizontal deflection of pipe (in.) - , .-. - ! . . . - . . . .. . 4 = deflection lag factor (1 .O- 1.5) ?- . . - K = bedding oonstmt (0.1) . . , ,. , . R . , . . . ii- -. E . . - . - . W = load per unit of pipe length (lbfin in. of pipe) i - r = radius (in.) - . . , . . . . EI = pipe wail stiffness (in.-lb) , : . - ., -. - . .. , , . where E_=~modulus of e l a J t i ~ t y ~ 3 O~ OQ~ O psi for steel and 4 000 000 psi for - . -' m >. . . . .. . cement mortar) , . . . . I = transverse moment of inertia per unit length of pipe wall* - - F = &dulus of soil reaction (lb/ine2) (Tables 6- 1 and 6-2). -. - ; ::. . .: , . . - . . - , . - - . > -. . . ,. , . - - . - . - . . ,- . *Under Imd, t ht individual elemenm-Le., mortar lining, sreel shell, and mortar mating-work together as laminated rings (E,[, + EI I ~ + Ec 1, -sheI1, lining, and coating). Strumrally, the combiied action of thesc clements increases the moment of inertiaof tthe pipe smion, above that of the shell alone, thus incrcssing its abidity to resist 1 4 s . The pipe wall stiffness EI of these individual elements is additive. Table 4-1 Average Values* of Modulus of Sol1 Reaction (E') ( For initial flexlble pipe detlettion) E' for Degree of Cornpetion of edding, psi (MPa) Sligllt Moderate m& Soil Typmimmy Pige Zwie Backf-dl Aburid a5% P m r 8595% Pmo r ~ 9 5 % M o r (Unified Chssific~tion System)? 40% A, den. &?O% rel. dtn. ~ 7 0 % reL den. Soils in this megory require s@ai engineering analpis ta determine requi d density, moisnim mtent, compactive effort. Fine-grained soils (LL<M)/Soils with medium to no 200, 400 lo00 phticity CL, ML, MLXL, CL-CH, ,MGMH, with les6 ?han 25% coarse-grained particks . - soil beginning with one of diese symbols (i.e., GM-GC, GC-SC). appkbie d y for fa I e s than 50 ft (15 m). 60 STEEL PLPE Allowable deflection for various lining and coating systems that are often accepted are: Mortar-lined and coated = 2 percent of pipe diameter Mortar-lined and flexible coated = 3 percent of pipe diameter Flexible lining and coated = 5 percent of pipe diameter Live-lmd effect, added to dead bad when applicable, is generally based on AASHTU HS-20 truck loads or Cooper E-80 railroad loads as indicated in Table 6-3. These vdues are given in pounds per square faot md include 50-percent impact factor. It is noted that there is no live-load effect for HS-20 loads when the earth cover exceeds 8 ft or for E-80 loads when the earth cover exceeds U) ft . ' L Modulus of soil reaction E' is a measure of stiffness of the embedment material, which surrounds the pipe. This modulus is required for the calculation of deflection md critica1 buckling stress. E' is a d y a hybrid mdulus that has been introduced to eliminate the spring constmt used in the origrnal Iowa formula. It is the product of the moduius of passive resistance of the soi1 used in Spangler's early derivation and the radius of the pipe. It is not a pure material property. Table 6-2 Unlfleci Soil Classification Well-graded pvel s, gmvel-sand mbmrq li& or no fines -A- . - .. k l y grrtded gravels, gravd-sand miimues, 8& or no fines Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand-silt mixnires a y e y graveis, powly gradad gravel -sd4ay mixnueS Well-graded sands, pve i i y sands, link or no fines Pwrly g d f d sands, gravelly d, link or no fines Silty aands, poorly graded sanddiit mixnires Chyey sands, p r l y grad sandxlay mixturcs ML Inorganic silts md vcry fmc s d , silty w &ycy fmc sands CL. Imrganic clays of hw to medium phticity MH lnorganic silts, micaceous or diammaceous fine sandy or silty soils, elastic silts CH * > lnorganic clays of h i i plasticity, ht &ys . . . OL m c dts and organic silt-ciays oflow pkiciry OH Or@c ciays of medium to high pkticity R Peat and other highly orgmic soils . S O U ~ : C b d h t i ~ 1 of Soils f ~ r Engir~ee.~ Purposcs. ASTM Standard Da4874, ASTM, Phiiadelphia, Pa. (1969). i L . Table 6-3 Uve-Load k t Highway HS-20 Loadiug* Railroad E-80 Mi n g * HeightofCover h a d Height of Covtr Load fi Psf ft 1 1800 2 3800 2 800 5 2400 3 8 ... 1600 4 10 1100 5 250 12 800 6 200 15 6Cm 7 > : 176 20 300 8 100 30 100 *Negiect live load when lcss than 100 psf; use dead load oniy. EXTERNAL LOAD 6 Values ofE' were originally determined by measuring deflections of actual installations of metal pipe and then back calculating the effective soil reaction. Since E' is not a material property, it cannot be uniquely measured from a soil sample, thus determination of E' values for a given soil has historically presented a serious problem for designers. In 1976, Amster 3oward6 proposed a comprehensive table of recommended E' d u e s . E' is given as a function of soil type and leve1 of compaction. The values proposed by Woward, as shown in Table 6-1, are bmed on measurements of a large number of pipeline installations. This table provides the designa with guidelines for E' that have been heretofore unavailable. To circumvent the problems inherent in working with the hybrid modulus E', there has been an increasing use of the constrained soil modulus The constrained modulus is a constitutive material property, which is d e n as the slope of the secant of the stress-strain diagram obtained from a confmed compression test of soil. I t may also be calculated from Young's mcdulus Es md Poisson's ratio u of the soil by: The soil modulus can be determined from common consolidation tests, tri&iai lahratory tests, or from fieldplate-bearing tests of the actual soil in which the pipe will be embedded. Since M, is taken as the secant modulus, it accounts in part for nonlinearities in stress-strain response of soil around the pipe. Determination of M* is b a d on the amial load applied to a pipe. ~ e c r e a s i n ~ the load mults in a decreased value for M,. Many vsearchers h v e studied the relationship bemeen E' and M,, with recommendations varying widely (E' = 0.7 to 1.5 Ms). This is understandable, since M, is a "pure" soil property, whereas E' is empirical. It appears justified to assume the two to be thesame, E'= 6.3 BUCKLING Pipe emkdded in soil may coiiapse or buckle from elastic instability resuiting from loads and deformations. The summation of extemal loads should be equal to or kss than the allowable buckling pressure. The allowable buckiing pressure may be determined by the following: - 3 . > _ - Where: qa = allowable buckling pressure (psi) - -- FS = design factor = 2 5 for (h/ D) 22 = 3.0 for (WD) (2 where h = height of ground surface above top of pipe (in.) D = diameter of p;ipe (in.) R, = water bouyancy factor = 1 -0.33(hw/h), O lhw Sh where , = height of water surfac: above top of pipe (in.) B' = empirical cwfficient of elastic supporr (dimensionless) = 1 1 + 4e(-.065H) where3 = height of fill above pipe (ft) (Referente ANSI/AWWA C950-8 1, Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Thermosetting-Resin Pressure Pipe, Appendix A). 62 STEEL PIPE Nomal Mpe lnstallations +' ._ .-. For determination of external loads in normal pipe in~tallations~use che following equation: . .. . - - -- . . .. . . .. .,. _ -. - - ... . . . . > <, . - -- - - e . < .. . ,,- : L> . -- . . ., - ,_ ' hw = height of water above ninduit (in.) -.. .:.& ..- ..,5 z , .,;. - . .- y, = specific weight of water (0.0361 l b / ~ ~ in.) . . , >-+ - Pn = kteId V~CUUm Pr~sUre (@) -. 7 - r . , ,lf . , - - : ,. . . = atmospheric pressure less absolute pressure uiside pipe (psi) Wc = vertical mil load on pipe per unit fength (lb/ui.) In some situations it may be appropriate to consider live loa& as weU. However, simultaneous application of live-lmd and inted-vacuum uansients need not normally be considered. Therefore, if live loads are dso considered, the buckling requirement is satisfied - +:>-r: - -,> . - - ... - -- M=, - - , - ? - .- ' - -. Where: :. , -- . . -. . . - WL = live load on the conduit (Ib/lin ui. of pipe) ., , -;. -.. . .- --,a, - - A '-. - - - - r - &$;!::: \ S-: 7: -.- 5.2. -6.4 EXTJEME UCTERNAL LOADING CONDlTlONS . - ._ _q - Ari occasional need to calculate extreme extemal loading conditions arists-for e . determine off-highway 1- from heavy wns&on equipment. A convenie - > . . . . , ? :.-.. .- ' of solution for such load determination using modi f~d Boussinesq -. , equations is p - :;$"c 'j" pp. 356361 of referente 3 of this chapter . As an example: ': .. ..:, . . . - *: : , . - - . 1' - . , . r * . . As&: Live iod fmm a Euclid I d e r Total weight = 127 000 lb Weight on one set of d d wheels, P = 42 300 lb Tire pattern is 44 in. x 24 in. CdcuEata'm: Using Figure 6-1 as reference: 44 24 Tire pattem: - x - = 3.66 x 2.0 = 7.33 sqft 12 12 Surface presswe is: 42 = 55768 paf 7.33 If height of cover H is 2.0 ft, then: 2 o A - 1.83 B= - = 1.0 2 2 . , -* *- - . . . - - - - - - - . . - . . . . . . < , , ..: > - - , . , .. . - , . -. - . - . - . h. . . . - . .- - $ &$ . . - . . :. . Wme : Spangler, M:G. & ~ a d y , ' ~ . ~ . Soll-Engineerlng. Harper & Row, Pubiishers. &w York (4th ed.. 7982). - 7 . . . Coefficient from Table 6-4 = 0.1 17 &:Y- - . - - . -. .. .- - = = .- P = 0.1 17(4)(5768) = 2700 psf -. . . - - . . % - , . -- t.- ' y. . Lf hcight of mver is 3.0 ft, then: .... -- fX.?! ' ,: - . m = 0.610 n = 0.333 f.::% .- , - - p = 1615 H. '.-- c ' - t ?+-: ; , .: b : , . . . Using the Iowa formula (Eq 6-5) to calculate deflection for 54-in. pipe and 60411. pipe, g7.w. -. 3;:: - wall thickness '/4 in. for .$ach size, lj' = 1250, DI = 1 .O, md soil weight of 120 pcf, &e mults gs . - are: . _ 9 , : . -. Total l d ( de d and live I d ) : p- , 3 ft cover: Using Spangler's formula, deflection = - . =. . s., < , * < 7 *- . - . . , S- 60 h., 2 ft cover: = 1.58 in. = 2.6% I-c: 3 ft cover: = 1.06 in. = 1.8% ; . - - .L. .. . . AA-< , . : "' 54 in., 2 ft cover: = 1.41 in. = 2.6% d'r =: -i . - I 3 ft cover: = 0.95 in. = 1.8% k:.,., 1 , - . - ' r ,<. . . - - .- < - -. I , 6.5 COMPUTER PROGRAMS . . . . . . . - -L- . , - , Traditional procedures dependmg on weight and the elastic modulus of soil w determine d. However, computer programs that permit a k:.;= more r a t i d deteminati011 in the design of pipe are now avaihble f r m miversities, consulting engineers, and manuacturers. 64 STEEL PIPE *S-: N m 5 N.M. Simplified Compmah d Vertial Rasures in Ei d c F o u d a h . Ck. 24. Engrg. &p. Sm Univ. of Illinois (1935). 1. M A R ~ N , ANSON. The Theory of Ex- ternai Loads on Closed Conduits in the Light of tht Letest Expcriments. Proc. Ninth Annual hetting Highway Res. Board (Dee. 1929). . . +. 2. SPANGLER, M.G. Underground Con- duits-An Appraisal of Modmn -. , Proc. ASCE (Jum 1947). '- 3. -- & HANDY, R.L. Soil Etigi'm'ng. - 7' Hitper & Row, Publishers, New York (4th Ed., 1982). 4. -- The Structural Designof Flexible Pi p Culvem. Iowa Scatc Collcge Bull. 153, Ames, I A (1941). 5. WATKIWS. R.K. & SPANGI.RR. M.G. p. r . Some Chamct&stics .of thc Modulw of - . Passive esismnce of Soil: A Study in Similinide. Highway Research BoardPm., 37576 (1958). 6. HOWARD, AMSTER. Md d e s of Soil M o n Vdms for Buried Fkxible Pipe. EXTERNAL LOAD 65 7. ~ R I Z E K, R.J.; PARMELEE, R.A.; KAY, J.N.; & ELNAGGAR, H.A. Stnictural I Analysis and Design of Fipe. HCHRP Rept. 116 (1971). - PROUDFIT, D. P. Performance of Large- Diameter Steel Pipe at St . Paul. Jour. A WWA, 55303 (Mar. 1963). - REITZ, H.M. Soil Mechanics and Back- fiiIing Prmices. Jour. A WWA, 48:1497 (Dcc. 1956). - ; . - Report on' Steel Pipelines for Under- The follming refmences are mr cired in ground Water Service. Special Investi- the texs. :. gation 888, Underwritcrs' Labs., Inc., - BARNARD, R.E. Design Standards for Chicago (1936). .. Stael Water Pipe. Jour. A WWA, 40:24 - SOWERS, G.F. Trench Excavation and ;i- (Jm. 1948). 3-Hing. Jour. A WWA, 48:854 (July - -- Behavior of Flexible Steel Pipe 1956). Under Embadcments and in Trenches. - SPANGLER, M.G. Underground Con- Bull. Armco Drainage & Metal Products, duits-An Appmisal of MDdern Research. Inc., Middlctown, Ohio ( 1 955). Trans. ASCE, 1 13:316 (1 948). - --- Design and Deflection Control of - --- Protective Casings for Pipelines. Buried Stwl Pipe Supporting Earth M s lowa State College Engr. Rpts. 1 1 md Live Loads. Proc. ASTM, 57:1233 (195 1-52). (1 957). - --- & PHILLIPS, D. L. Deflections of - BRAUNE, CAIN & JANDA. E&-th Fressure Timber-Struttcd Corrugared-Metal Pipe Experiments on Culvcrt Pipe. Public Culverts Under Earth Fas. Bd. 102. Roads, lO:9 (1929). Highway Research Board; Pub. 350, - BUMISTER, D.M. The Importmcc of National Acaderny of Sciences-Natiod Maniral Controlling Conditions Upn Tri- Research Council, Washington, D. C. axial Compression Test Conditions. Spe- (1955). cid Tech. Pub. 106, ASTM, Philaddphia, - TERZAGHI, KARL. TReoreticai Soil Me- Pa. (1951). chni cs. John Wiley and Sons, New York - HOUSEL, W.S. Interprctation of Triaxial -. . . (1943). Comprcssion Tests on Granular Soils. . * - WAGNEK, A.A. Shear Characteristics of .- - :, .. Special Tech. h b . 106, ASTM, Phila- , - y - Remolded Earth Marerials. Special Tech. del phi Pa. (1951). , . . . . , Pub. 106, ASTM, PhiladeIphia, Pa. - - Lusmn?, U. Buckling of Soil Surrounded T . . (1951). 2 . Tubes. Jout. Soil Mechanics and Forrn- ; : , - - WIGGIN, T. H.; ENGER, M.L.; & datim Diei. -ASCE (Nov. 1966). SCHLICK, W. J. A Propwed New Method PROCTOR, R.R. b i g n and Construdon : - - - :" -- 2 '- for Determining Barre1 Thickntsses of of Rolled-Earth Dams. E n g i ~ ~ n g News 2 i';;!: - - : Gst-Iron Pipe. Jour. A WWA, 31:811 Record, 1 1 1245 (1933). . . ' (May 1939). ; , An Approximate Method for Pre- . . . . . . the Smlement of Foundauons ': - r - . . - ., - , - ' c . - L. . . h , ? - - , otings. Second Intexn. Conf. Soil a ' -' ,:; . .. . .. I - . ' ? ' . - . , - . nics & Foundation Engr. The - : ,:-- . .- =. . . . . --, . ' - .- > ,- -, .- L .-: - . , .. , . - Hague, Netherlands (1948). . + . I- , - .q. >- - , , , ., I . , - . , .:,. ;: - y , . -. .'.*. , . - . - ->. -. i' . . . ' . . i . . - ' * , ,. . ,, -.. . - .f , Y . - ' : . * , . . . .. ' - 2.. .*. - ' ' ..,! 'F. . . . - * - .-1- . - : . : - ' . . ! . > , : There has been very little uniformity in the design or spacing of saddie supports. The spans have k n gradually increased, however, as experiwce has shown that such increases were safe and practical. In general, the ordinary theory of flexure applies when a circular pipe is supported at intervals, is held circular at md between the supporw , and is compktely fillsd. If the pipe is only partiaily fded and the cross section at poinrs between supports becomes out-of-round, rhe maximum f&er stress is considerably greater than indicated by the ordrnary flexure formula, being highest for the haif-fiiied condition? In the case of a pipe carrying intemd pressure where the ends are fully restrained, &e Poisson-ratio effect of the bmp stress, which produces lateral tension, must be added to the flexural stress to obtain the total beam stress. Excessive deflection should be avoided when the pipe acts as a beam. A maximum deflection of ' h o of the span is suggested as gmd practice. This is the same recommendation used for beams carrying plastered ceilings. SUPPORTS FOR P I E 67 -> -2 ::, . . - , - SEVERAL LAYERS OF FELT Wl f H QRAPHITE BETWEEN . . - : . uyce: Barrilird. RE. h i g n Siandards tw S h l Water Piw. Jour. AWWA. 40:1.24 (Jan. 1948t - ure 7-1 Detaiis of Concrete Saddle ,y-2 Saddle Supports for 78-111 Pipe Saddle supports cause high locd stresses both Iongitudidly md circumferefltially in unstiffened, compmtively t h - wd i pipe at the tips and edges of the suppwts. Stresces v q with the l d , the diameter-wdi thickness ratio, and the angle of contact with the pipe. In stresses are less for a large contact angle than for a smdl one, and interestingly, their intensity is practidly independent of the width of tbe saddle (Dimension B, Figure 7-1). The width of the saddle may thcrefort be that which is most desicable from the stadpoint of good pier design. Because saddie supporw =use critica1 points of stress in the memi adjacent to the - saddk alg&, it is frequcntly more economical to &ase rhe wall tbickness of the pipe when 1 a,. . . 68 STEEL PIPE it is overstressed than to provide stiffening rings. This is especially true where pipe sizes are 36 in. in diameter and smaller. Even a small increase in wall thickness has a great stiffening effect. The whole length of the span may be thickened, or only a length at the saddle support-equal to about two pipe diameters plus saddle width-need be thickened. When pipe lengths resting on saddles are joined by flanges or mechanical couplings, the strength and position of the joints must be such that they will safely resist the bending and shear forces while remaining tight. Ordinarily it is advisable to place joints at, or as near as practic~ble to, the point of zero bending moment in the span or spans. Manufacturers of mechanical joints should be consulted regarding the use of their joints on self-supporting pipe spans. The pipe should be held in each saddle by a steel hold-down strap bolted to the concrete. Secure anchorages must be provided at intervals in multiple-span installations. The ability of steel pipe to resist saddle load has sometimes been greatly underestimated by designers. Unnecessary expense has thus been entailed, because more supports have been provided than may have been necessary. According to one report, 1the maximum value of the localized stresses in a pipe has been greatly underestimated by designers. The same report states that the maximum value of the localized stresses in a pipe that fits the saddle well probably does not exceed that given by the following formula: S =k ~ loge (~ ) t (7-1) Where: S = the localized stress (psi) P = the total saddle reaction (lb) R = the pipe radius (in.) t = the pipe wall thickness (in.) k = 0.02 - 0.00012 (A - 90), where A is in degrees (see Figure 7-1 for A). The maximum saddle reaction a pipe can stand is about twice the value of P (Eq 7-1) when Sf equals the yield point of the steel used. Equation 7-1 does not account for temperature stresses. Certain other stresses must be added to the localized stress to determine the total stress. Let: Sf = flexure stress in span with pipe having unrestrained ends Sp = ring stress due to internal water pressure Sb = Sf+ 0.25Sp =maximum beam stress in span with pipe having restrained ends Sb = Sf for pipe with unrestrained ends Sf = localized stress at saddle* Sc = maximum stress at saddle. Then, for single or multiple spans of uniform thickness: Sc =Sb + Sf (7-2) It should be noted that Scis the maximum stress at the saddle. Any pipe selected must meet two requirements: the maximum beam stress Sb in the span must be within the allowable limit, and the maximum stress at the saddle must also be within the allowable limit. One or the other will govern. *A reference by Pablo Arriaga3 gives a more realistic stress than previous reference by Schorer2 and reference by Wilson.4 ~- III II SUPPORTS FOR PIPE 69 .-- The flexure stress Sj should be calculated in the usual manner. In single spans, this stress is rnaximum at the center between supports and may be quite small over the support if flexible joints are used at the pipe ends. In multiple-span cases, the flexure smess in rigidly 3 joined pipe will be that indicated by the theory of continuous beams. For pipe with diameters of 6 in. to 144 in., Table 7- 1 gives practica1 safe spans that may E - be on the conservative side for pipes supporting their weight plus that of the contained water. Other live loads such as earthquake, wind, or the like should also be calculated. Data for calculating spans for kirge pipe on saddles have been publis hed.2 .., . . . . -, -. . . . . -. . . . - - , . Table 7-t Practical Safe Spans for Simply Supported Pipe in 1 20Contact Saddles* ..- -+-, ., --. W d T h i h S s - - - - = . . t are US ca pipe dimeter mtainer water. (in and L . feet; fiber stress = 70 STEEL PIPE 7.2 PIPE DEFLECTION AS BEAM - In the designof free spans of pipe, it may be desirable to determine the theoreucai deflection in order to judge flexibiIity or ascertain that the defiection dms nor exceed a desirable upper limit, Freely supported pipe sometimes must be hid so that it wili drain fully and containno . : - pockets between supports. The allowable deflection or sag between supports must be found to determine the necessary grade. In any given case, the deflection is influenced by conditions of instdation. The pipe may be a single span or may be continuous over several supports. The ends may act as . though free or fned. In addition to its own weight and that of the water, the p ' the weight of insulation or other uniform load. Cuncentrated loads such as , . , , , : =, appurtenances, or fittings may be present between supports. .-.- ...-- . The maximum theoretical deflection can be determined using : - . - W L ~ = 22.5 - EI . , . - . , , * - -. .- . - . - Where: . . . . . - - . y = maximum defledon at center of span (h.) W = total load on span (lb) L = length of span (ft) E = modulus of elasticity (psi) (30 000 000 for steel pipe) I = moment of inertia of pipe (in.4) (values of I are given in Table 7-2, page Except for some changes in unit designation, this is the standard textbook formula for uniformly distributed lmd and free ends. It can be used for concentrared loads at the center - of the span, and it can be applied to other end conditions by applying a correction factor described later in this chapter. Tests conducted to determine the deflection of horizontal standard-weight pi filled with water1 have indicated that with pipe larger thm 2 in. and supported at intervals greater than 10 ft, the deflection is less than that determined theoretically for a uniformiy loaded pipe fmed at both ends. The actual deflection of s d r pipe appmched the theoretid deflection for free ends. ; - . L . 7.3 METHODS OF CALCULATON - -, - The foliowing methods of calcuhting deflection are based on the formulas commonly foun in textbooks for the cases given. Maximum deflection in a given case can be c a l d t e d b first assuming that the load is uniformly distributed and the ends are free. This is case below. Later this result can be modified if the bad is concentrated or the ends [cases 2,3, and 4 below). The deflection for case 1 may be calculated using Eq 7-3. Note in cases 1 and 2 the load W is the total uniformly distributed load on the span, but in cases - and 4 it is the load concentrated at the center of the span. 4 . ~ The four most commonly enaountered conditions, with their corresponding deflection - factors, are: Case 1: If the ioad W is uniformly distributed and the ends are free, the defle calculated using Eq 7-3. Case 2: If the load W is uniformly distributed but the ends are fixed, the deflecti 0.2 times that for case l. Case 3: If the load W is abncentrated at the center and the ends are free, the deflection i 1.6 times that for case 1. SUPPORTS FOR PiPE 71 Case 4: Xf the load W is concentrated at the center and the ends are fmed, the deflection is 0.4 times that for case 1. The deflections caused by different loads are additive. Therefore, if a uniformly loaded pipe span contains a concentrated load, the calculated deflection for the latter is added to that for the uniform load, and the total sag in the pipe is the sum of the two deflections. r .: . - - ---& ;- -. ,.T. y , .- : +t . - - :- *;2? -. . 7.4 GRADIENT OF SUPPORTED PIPELINES TO If intermittently supported pipelines are to drain freely, they must contain no sag pocketc. To eliminate pockets, each downstream support leve1 must be lower than its upstream . neighbor by an amount that depends on the sag of the pipe between them. A przticd average gradient of support elevations to meet this requirement may be found by using the following formulad :ir:.-- - .:-,.- - (7-4) >, - - . . .: . . . - , .-y.. ? =. , - . .- L ;: - . - = -' ,: , ; ., 3>*= - .... - -* . . - ;:-<;.:7: G = gradient (in. per ft) , 2 . 5 ' -. : . - :- l. ' In other words, thc eleiatiogof one end should be higher than the other by an amount equal to four times the deflection calculated at midspm of the pipe. Example: If the deflection of an insuhted, 20411. OD, 0.375-h. wall thickness pipe -;c.. r carrying steam is 0.4 in. in a simple, free-ended 50-ft span, what should be the grade of a - -. .. .. ..-. . Solurh: G = - = . , . . . . , ; -.! .ter 4(u'4' 50 . O . .:!: 032 T. .. k f t .. .. - . - , * . .- , &, . - It has been s&estedl h t , in the interest of satisfactmy operation, it is well to doubk the calculated theoretical deflection when det ehi ng the shpe of the pipcke gradient . If le, the @e ussd wodd be 0.064 ia./fi. a downstream s u p r t aad its upstream neighbor of the pipebetween them to establish the @e is eight -times the deflection if the suggestim . 2 -' ! =' ; : :;- :: ;:. 2 --, . -: . - - GRDERCONSRUCTION - ' y - ' - - - or across ravines or streams, rigid ring . girders, spaced at- reiatively long infervals, b v c been found to be very efZctive supports. : These girders prevent the distortion of the pipe at&e pdnw-of supporr anii thus mainth its 7-3 through 7-9. ased on the elastic theory, . ,m interpreted by ~i gure 72 STEEL PIPE D. Doiaii (Altemate) EQUIVALENT FIANGE WIDTH fi A. Section Through Pipe 8.8seion Through Rlng See Sec. 7.5 for explanation of symbols. Figure 7-3 Pipe and Rlng Wrder Support 7-3, is used in the designequations. Units must be aoasisrent-for cxample, h&s, pounds, - pounds per sqmre inch, or pounds per cubic inch. Q a = e~fentricit y of the reaction from tarigent to centroidal axis of stiffener ring fiaving radius R (h.) C = contact width of circuIar girder rjng of reamguh cross sedon (in.) - -. :? C' = 1.56 fi+ r, (see Figure 7- 8~) ifshell is used as combincd sedon with stiffener gicder web or if additional phte reinforcement is used at contact face f, = maxhum combined ring stress in sheil (psi) fL = combined mrirrimum longitudid b m stress fh = h u m longitudinal rim-bendiag stress in sheii h = head above bottom of pipe (ft) , L . p = variable pressure on inside of pipe circumference - - , . . q = unit weight of fluid flowing in pipe (lb/cu ft) . . r = mem roidius of pipe shell (h.) .: t = thiclmess of pipe shell (in.) . ,. t , = thickness of girder web (in.) . ., . . ... . .. . .. w = weight of pipe shell per unit of arta (psf) A, = m of supprting ring (sq h.) (sce Figure 7-88) D = diameier of pipe = 2 r (h.) , L = length of span from -ter to ccnter of ring-gder suppom (ft) Q = total lmd of pipe sheU transmitttd by shear to one rhg mer(lb) y = distance from neutral mis to extreme ftber (in.) @ i f - I = moment of inertia (in.9. Stress in Pipe Shell The h u m combined ring stress2 is: t 4,k FILLET WELD FULL N-'--"- IFERENCE . IRTS FOR PIPE 73 SPAN L SPAN L SUPPORTS C. TO C. OF SUPPORTS mi: Bafnam: R.E. DesJgn Standard$ tor Steei Water Pipe. Jour. AWWA, 40:1:2# (Jan. 1948). :se girders prevent the distortion of the pipe at ths points of support. ure 7-4 Details of Ring Cirder Support for Smail Ppe 1 : - , :& .-- 35- ',' The combined maximurn longitudha1 stress (for free-end beam conditions) is: FA I. . The maximurn rim-bending stress in the sheii due to internal pressure is: - +' i - ., . 1.82 (Ar - Ct) pr .,' fbo = A, + 1.56t 6 (7) i . - . A ;: - .,:; .Q . - . i. -S{ ' - -. -=> - .. & , ~This equation was developed on the assumption that the stiffener ring is integral with the . . pipe shell and that the rim ioad is S ymmetrical. As the rim load is not symmetrical, bemuse - &P' .. of the weight of the water, a g w d approximation of the maximum value of& is obtained by e,-:.?:- substituting the value of f, from Eq 7-5 in place of p/t. !g@+# , If the girder ring is fitted to the pipe in a loose manner, the rim-bending stress due to p r L , the reaction at the supports should be &en into account, because the load will be transmitted mostly by direct bearing on the lower hdfof the ring rather than through shear distributed around the pipe. 5 - . . . 7 The total combined Iongitudinal shell stress f is: A,-- K. 3. - $ i<: - " ?Stress in Ring Girder -a b>:-:.? >< 'L. ; The minimum possible value of the maximum bending moment in the ring girder occurs when a = 0.04R-outside the neutral axis. When this is &e, the maximum bendmg moment &' . M in !he girder is: . .. The &um bending stress fi (general bending formula) is: . . . . - - . . ..>. - -. - , , - . - . .. . . - . IPE The maximum ring stress fi due to shear forces is: i1- Q f 2 = q The ring stress f3 due to radial forces is: As al1 of these stresses are combined at the horizuntal diameter, the total maximum stress f in . . the ring girder is: . C.. ' f*j -+j 2+b5 (7.'14' . j , , .. < - ,I - , . 3. sI&+ - - & $ - - .. * 3 ; ~ ~ * ~ ~ ~ ~ k ~ & ; i i P g g i t d c i ~ 6 ~ r h c p ~ * ~ U w t v n t a e pipskf&y 2 I d i d "*i o s d y 10000 psi, or 18000 psi .If'Mloacicd, - - T m - I - ~~~e r , ~&m~b~~. s i QR. &~s l ?r ~~mn- hc dt o& -$ SUPPORTS FOR PIPE 75 Figure 7-5 Ring Glrders M d e Support b r 54-in. iameter Pipe The rings are supporting a 54-ln. diameter plpe laid on a slope. Figure 7-6 Expnsion Joints Betwen St i ke r RIngs T h i block anchor~ a Wn . dlameter pipe agairmt fongitudinal movement. Figure 7-7 Anchor Block SUPPORTS FOR PIPE 75 figure 7-5 Ring Cirders Provlde Support for 54-in. Mameter Pipe f he rings are supporting a 54-in. diirneter pipe laid on a i l op. Figure 7-6 Expansion Joints Betwen S t i h r Wn g s This btock anchor~ a W n . diameter plpe agalnst tongitudinal movernent. Figure 7-7 Anchor Blodr 76 STEEL PIPE beam stress fL for a simply supported full pipe (Eq 7-6; w = o ) . ~ The corresponding stress ratios designated by nL and n, become functions of a pure number k defined as: In actual cases, the vaiue of k varies from about 0.20 to 1.20. Within this range: The half-full condition causes higher stress than the full condition when k is less than unity. The ratio n~ remains the sarne for canti~uously supported pipe. The value of fL (Eq 7-6; w = O) multiplied by n~ gives the maximum longitudinal stress for the half-full condition; likewise, if multipiied by n , it gives the maximum radial bending stress in the pipe sheii. As the rim bending stress fb, from Eq 7-7 is zero in Eq 7-8, relatively high langitudiaal stresses may be ailowed for rhe half-full condition. A value of 10 000 psi has been suggested by Cates7 for the full condition and 18 000 psi for the half-full condition. In the Bng girder, the maximum moment for the half-fuU condition is 3.88 times the moment value for the fuli pipe when a value of 0.04 for a/ R (the value that gives the minimum moment for full condition) is used in design. This is notas serious as it rnay appear at first, because the assumptiom leading to the vdue 3.88 are conservative. Also, severa1 of the forces and conditions present when the pipe is full are not present when it is halffull. For these reasons, stresses near the yield point may be dowed for the relatively infrequent conditions of filling and emptying the pipe.13 The pipe shell and ring girder should, however, be investigated for the half-fuU condition. T h e references should be consulted. Design-aid coefficients for analyzing stiffener rings for fuii, partly full, and earthquake forces have been p~blished. ~. Other useful data have aIso appearedb3* '*12. l4 Exam ple of Calculation, Continuous M pelines Condira'ons: Consider a case in whichD= f 20 in.; t=0.25 in.; L = 100 ft; C= 1 in.; A, = 1 in. x 12.25 in.; a = 0 . M; h = 100 ft; w = 12 psf (including weight of stiffener); q = 62.5 lb/cu ft. ShelI strdss: From Eq 7-5, the maximum ring stress: -. f r = + (W +9h) 1 - - 120 [12 + 62.5 (LOO)] (=) 2 (0.25) = 10 440 psi The maximum longitudinal srress (Eq 7-6) for continuous pipeline: Zw+& f ( 2) (5) 10o2 (12) ( 2(12)(12) + 62.5 - - 4(0.25) 120 2 = 18 690 psi SUPPORTS FOR PIPE 77 - - The maximum rim-bending stress (Es 7-7): , - . . - . . ; . - .- . .. - ; F -:-:.. ' -< , . . , 4. .c.- .,.Y -, .L.. - . . . . . , . -.- - . . , . '. , ..<S . - -. . ... > --. -- , , 2 L.?--. . .,i .-S - . .- . , . -<<+-': - --<- - - - , .- . .-, --., -. -. - 2.; . . : .- - -:. - ,. - . : . . . , . - . . . .. . .: ..., - .... - - - . - 5 - . . .. . =18690+16540=35230psi - . - . . - --,:.:A>, - - - . - * =. . . 1. - - - .-, . , :;y- -: .-.; p . . - , , . . ., .- .-A- - ... . - - - 7; ; . , - , .- - .. . .. . . . . . - T. - . . #. --; ,-. iG: . - -.+ - 2- -- - -. . ' By changing L = 100 ft to L = 60 ft, the value of f b mmi i 16 650 psi. ' = , R= _, - = . -GIRDEK CONSTRUCTION FORLOW-PRESSURE PIPE General designs for four types of long-$pan pipe of the flow line variety are shown in Figure 7-8. Ty p l . UsuaUy recomrnended for crossing canals and other Iow places where a s@e le@ of pipe for spans up to 60 ft can be ussd, type 1 pipe may be d e and shipped from - - - the factory in one length or in two lengths; in the latter case, a welded joint must be d e in the field at the time of instalhtion. Type 2. Used in aossing highways, canals, or rivers, where the length of the crossini makes necessary two intermediate supporting columns, typt 2 pipe is designed in three lengths with flanges welded to the ends of each length at points of contraflexure, together with expansion joints for both intake and outlet. This type is normally used for crmsings fmm 60 ft to 132 ft, with end spans haif the length of the center span. Type 3. Type 3 differs from rypc 2 in that each end span k 80 percent of the length of the center span. Type 3, therefore, can be used for longer crossings rhan type 2. It requires two expmsion joints md five lengths of pipe with flanges welded m ends of ea& Iengrh at points of contrafiexure. Type 3 may be used for overall crossing lengths from 104 ft to 260 ft. Figure 7-9 Ill-in-PipeonRingGirders - < * - - . .A . . - . :.. -- - Type 4. Type 4 is designed for mditions where it is necessary to support a wntinuous series of long, clear spaus. The smcture may be made io lengths to suit my fieid c ondi h. Any number of intermediate spans may be used, with as m n y expoinsion joints as needed for the ove d length of the installation. - .- - NSTALLATION OF RiNG GIRDERSPANS In addhion to proper design, long-span, ring-girder-supprted steel pipelines ctquire d u l f~id e d o n , pmicularly in regeird to digmm~t md mnber, avoidanoe d movement aused by tempmture differences on opposite sides of the pipe, and coma wclding m u r e . The foiiowing suggest i m wiil be helpful, d more informatia has . . beem published? Pipes such eis these that may be exposed ta low temperatures can &ect the ability of &e sml to mist brittle fracture. (See Sec. 1.6.) Steel should be properly d e c t d , demiid, aad, welded to mitigate tbis effect. SUPPORTS FOR PIPE 79 , i ; d i - 80 STEEL PIPE Concrete Footings -, - - --:- - Before assembling the pipe, concrete footings (but not the intake or outiet boxes) should be r- poured. If the pipe is to be supporkd on rollers, a pocket is ieft at the topof the hotings as a - base for the roller bed phtes. If steel bents are to be used, anchor bolts are set in concrete . footings for holding the lower end of the pin-ended steel bents or the base plates. The concrete footings should be finished a little iow to do w for grouting these suppodng members to their proper height. -+ 2- - . > , Expansion Joints ' . . - > Expnsion joints are installed in lhg-spoiii steel pipe to aliow for expansion or contraction caused by temperature changes . These joints are placed near the concrete headwaiis and should be left entirely loose until the concrete has been allowed to set for at ieast two weeks. - ..- Ifexpansion jaints are tightened before concrete is poured, the pipe may pull loose frorn the green concrete. After concrete has set thoroughly, expansion joints are tightened and al1 danger of damage fmm pipe movement is eliminated. To protect the expansion joint during shipment, it may be necessary for the manufaaurer to tack-weld steel ties to the inside of the pipe, tying the two pieces of pipe . . together across the joint. NOTE: When this is done, the steel ties must by hccked loose from -- the pipe as soon as it is set in place and before concrete is poured. Assembling Pipe , . Pipe being assembled should be supported by temporary framework between piers. Al1 . . - bolts except expansion joint bolts should be tightened. When pipe is in place, concrete intake and outlet boxes should be poured. Bed plates for the rollers or pin-ended steel bents can then be grouted in place to the proper height. Temporary supports and blocking should be removed before the pipe is fiiied with water, otherwise the structure will be subjected to . .. undue stress. -,. -. -. . .. - :. '=% , ..< - , - - . .. ...- ;t , . 2 .- - ,;- - - . . . -' -0:" 82 STEEL PIPE '-+ Tabie 7-2 Values of Moment of Inertia and Sedion Modulus of Steel PIpe (continued) - Nominal Sizt* Wd Thicluiess Weight of Pipe and Water Moment 9 Znema S"c'on qdulu9 in. h. lwft in. m O. 188 5Q4 3 390.87 188.38 0.250 524 4 485.86 249.22 0.312 545 S 569.M 309.42 0.375 566 6 658.W 369.94 0.438 586 7 736.,68 429.82 , A .. L : 0.500 607 8 786.13 488.12 * S i m under 45 in. are outside diameter s e thcise 45 in. and wer are imih diatnetcr sizes. 84 STEEL PiPE Tabk 7-2 Values of M m t of Inertia and Sedan Moduhis of Steei Hpe (continued) 0.625 5188 369 669.79 6415.09 0.79 5345 , W062.21 7 706.7 1 0.500 5545 343 575.02 5 678.93 0.625 5706 430 8 10.89 7 106.16 0.750 5869 518 58823 8 536.43 0.m 6079 397 494.49 6 259.76 0.625 6249 498 34695 7 83257 0.750 6119 559 79537 .. . 940%56 6638 :' , - :. 456 779.50 6 %S87 0.625 6816 ' 572 596.56 859432 0.750 6994 689 067.4 10 323.1 1 0.500 7221 521 -34 7 m25 0.625 7407 653 877.33 9 391.42 0.7% 7593 786 784.58 I l zsO.07 0.m 7a29 592 463.77 8 17191 : *S& under 45 in. are ourside diameter sizes; time 45 in. and over m inside diameter si=. Referentes 1. ROARK, R.J. Form~las for Stress and 9. --- Siphon Sclf-Supporting in Long Srmtn. McGraw-Hiii b k Co., New Spans. EtigitigineerriPg News-Record, 124:852 York (1954). (1940). 2. SCHORER, HEMAN. Des@ of Large 10. FOS~ER, H.A. Formulas Facilimte Design .. Pipeiines. T m . ASCE, 98: 101 (1933). of Ring-Supporred P i p . Ch. Eagrg., - 3. ARRUGA, P.M. The Infiuence of Cir- 19: 629 ( 1949). cumferentiai Tensiw w the Trmverse f l. GARRETT~ G.H. Dcsign of Long- Sp 1 - Bending of a Pressure Cd u i t on Con- Self-Supporting Steel Pipe. Jour. mete Masonry Supports (Saddlt Sup AWWA, M1197 (Nov. 1948). poxrs) in thc Vicinitg of the Supprt. 12. BARNARD, R.E. Design Standards for Technid Library, US BUREC, Denver, Steel Wat r Pipt. Jour. AWWA, M2 4 (Jan. 1948). 4. WILSON~ W.M. & NBWMAEK, N.M. The 2- 13. C R O C ~ , SABIN, ed. FipUng Hd b o o k . Su.ength of Thin C y W d Shells m McGmw-HiU Book Co., New York (4th Columns. Bd. 255, Engrg. Exp. Stn., Univ. of iilinois, Urbana, N. (1933). 5. FOSTER, H.A. Formulas Indicate Earth- - ' Graw-Aill Bwk Co., New York (1st ed., 6. Penstock Analysis and Stiffener Design. The folIoamoamng refmences are nur cited in t k texr. Bull. 5, Pan V. Tech. Inwst., Final Rept., Boulder Canyon Project, US BUREC - Steel Pensmks and Tunnel Lim. AISI. Steel Plate Engnecring Data Vol. 4, Lmge-Diameter Steel Wam Rpe. Jmr. - YOUNGER, J.H. SmmraiDesigm of Metal AWWA, 42860 (Sept. 19%). Airplams. 1LieGmw-Hill Book Co., New 8. BIER, P. J. Welded Sacl Pensmks-De- -. Yo& (1935). , , signandConstnictimi.Engrg.Monmph. - . 3, US BUREC, Washington, D.C. (July , - > .- . -:- . . > . . . -: ' AWWA MANUAL .: :. . .. ' Y ;- ; -*"-.+--+. -. . . - -. - . * . - , -. . . .- . -. - - - . > . , ,.. .., - - '+_ A ' - - - .. . -. ..i< , .: 5 - 4- ' *:y":: -':- ., - . . - . . . . - ,. - . 4 . . - . -. . - . - - . - - - . Pipe Joints - L. . ?.>L. The pipe joim selected and the care with which it is instdied are important consideratims for the design engineer md inspeaor. Many kinds of joints are used with steel water pipe. - Common t y p are bell-md-spigot rubber-gasket joints, field-welded joints (both Uus& - . in Figure 8-11> sleeve couplings, grooved-and-shouldered coupiings, and fhges. Aii of p- - . these joints are covered in tbis chapter. Patented joints obtainable from some pipe - - mmufacturers include, among others, the integral mechmid-compression gasket of sMing-box type and the r o l l a gaslret type. Remmmended use and des& data for patented joints may be obtained from the mmufacnmr of the joint. 8.1 BELL-AND-SPIGOT JOINT WITH RUBBER WK E T '-" Seved types of mbb-gasket field joints (shown in Figures 8 1 % 8-1 8-11] havt been developed for steel water-pipe M c e . We t e d j instdiation in the f d d md, when properly mmufactured d watertight joint that wiii give long service without rnaintenanm allows flexibility in the line, permitting certeiin angular and long settiement of the ground or other conditions while dowing the joints to remain Thc joints are easy to assemble md comquently reduce he cost - - - . of mting can be applied to the pipe in the shop and not be m e d at the j operations. T h e joint is self-centering and economicoil. 3e - - . maintaining joim integrity, caution should be exer- in joints to maintain tight &arame between the be11 md spigot. The rubber goisket should d o r m to AWWA standards. to thrust at elbws, tees, hteds, wyes, reducers, valves, and dead ends. Joints be restrained by welding (Figure &1), by harnessing, by anchors, or by thrust (Chspter 13). Cllculations shouId considcr the anchoring effect of soil friction (Ss. 8 . ~ mI . Sec. 13.81. -1 PIPE JOIMTS 87 0. Single-Butl Weld Jolnt A Lap-Welded Stip Joint BUTT STRAP E. Fabrieated Rub D. Bun Strap Jolnt . . .. . - - Gasket Jolnt F. Rolled-Groove Rubbr Gisket Joint RUBBER GASKET h H. Carnegie-Shape Rubber Gasket Joint CARNEGIE SHAPE \RUBBER GASKET ' U. I leu nuouar uuiiret auiiii l. Carneaie-Shaue Rubber Gasket Joint With Weld-On Bell Rlna A -. , ,r-- -: -. . - . 11 Welded and Rubber-Gasketec( Field Joints - - . - ., . C 6. - *, . .. .- - - . - -. .- :<*, - ---& . -- ,> - . .. - . '. . . . c..- . . : . : . . - . l - , U-- . - - . ..., , - - . . ,-, ,.-. . ., -y, -, :. -. . .>i . - I ' ' ! ' . .- . ., . . . - . .- .,. ! . =Y* ; . 2 :,a , . . - - . ., thelimit of pipe-wali strength, longitudinai extension loading that may be caused by - settlement, washouts, and other disjointing forces. No other common water-pipe joint will withstand such loading. Where welded joints are used, the pipe shodd be left bare a sufficient distance back from the ends ro avoid damaging the protective coatings by the heat Field welding of joints in steel water pipe 24 in. in diameter and larger is a frequently used -., jointing method that results in strong, permanently tight joints. Slip joints for lap welding _.,-: having a single fillet weld (Figure 8-1A) have proved satisfactory for most installations. , '; ..,. Singie-butt welds (Figure S l B ) and double-butt welds (Figure 8- lc) should withstand, to : y - - dproduced during welding. These joints should be field-coated after welding. Field-welding in the interior of steel pipe with hi ng is ordinarily limited to 24411. or hger pipe, kcause a worker must enter th &e after welding to apply lining to the inside at the welded joints. - -. , . Forced ventilation must be provided to ensure adequate air exchange when men are working - - inside the pipe. -. .. The slip joint is commonly used because of its flexibility, ease in forming and laying, i:-:,-. . watertight quality, and simplicity. S d l angle changes can be made in this joint, It rnay be - welded on the outside only, or if the diameter permits, on the inside only. In certain special -A- F_. conditions, it may be desirable to weld both on the inside and outside, in which case a ..., e3% method of field testing described in A m A C206, Standard for Field We1ding of Steel L=- F: - Water Pipe, ' may be ernployed advantageously . 7.. -. - g:: . AWWA C206 fuiiy covers the requirements and techniques for satisfactory field * = , ~3 .. welding. Whare the pipe wall is thicker than y2 in. and the pipe is subject to temperatures +. .. 5: - ' U - , - .' ,, , beiow 40F (4OC), the SEA md weidhg pracedures should be carefiiy sel& to . . aacommadate these adverse conditions. =. . -e - ..:. .= . . . , , 8.3 SLEEVE COUPUNGS Sleeve couplings are used on pipeiines of al1 b e t e r s and especially on lhed pipe tao s d for a person m enter. Very complete technical data have betn publjshed? A typid sleeve coupling is shown in F i 8-2. Sleeve couplings provide tightness md strwgth with flexibility. They relieve -ion md c o n d o n f o m in a pipeluie and prwide sufficient flexibility so that pipe =y be laid on long d u s curves and g m h without thc use of s p d . The mbber gaslets are firmly held between the coupling prts md tht pipc, and they join thc lengths securely @nst high pressure, iow pressure, or mcuum. The compkteiy endosed mbber gaskts m pro- from -e ami h y . These joints h v t been used s d u l i y sin= 1891. Acceptabk axid movement inflexible sleeve couplings rcsults from shear di spkment of the rubber gaskets rather from si i di ng of the gaskets on ihc niating S& of the pipe. If greamdispiace.ment is needed, true expmslon joints should be prwidad r a k $ Y . sleeve muplings. Skve couplings trmsmit only minor tension or shear smsses acms pipe joints, rind . - - they wii not mtMerentid setteement at the j h t s when usad done. However, a degree of aegi bi h is psi bl e when used in c o n j d m with an~ther adjacent flexible joint. Skeve couphgs are suitable for joining buried or exposed anchored pipe that are M on curves tstablisked using defkdcms up to the d m u m pmitted at &e thupiing. discusd in Sec. 8.7 and Scc. 13.8. Details of joint haraess are @ven in Chaprer 13. - PipeLayoutWhen UsingSleeveCouplings centerline should be determhd u s a data suppbd by thi: wupling manufacrurer. Extreme uamq is nmssary only in p h t layout work md other very specid pro*. -. When these cases [Kxur, tbe data supplicd by the coupling manufacmer wiU aid t e c h n i k and checkers in rcaching agreement on dimensions. Data for Pipe Layo~ts i ; The profile and oilignmeat of pipeiines is frequently s m k d on a curve. It is useful to know * . ' . Figure 8-2 Sleeve Coupling PIPE JOINTS 89 loca= properly the free end of the pipe seaion behg laid. Tables showing d w of curves, pipe lengths, and offset defkctions, as well as formulas and sketches showing dimensions, are avaiiable from ooupling manufacmrers. F h g e s commonly used for steel water pipe ase d the slip-on typt welded to thc pipe. k g e s m y be of two das=, as follows: steel rhg, hubless fIange, which is made from miid plate, biet, or curved flat; forged steel, md e with a low hub, or with a welding neck, by a rolling or forging pmcess. The more costly welding-neck type of flange ordinarily is not justifitd for the comparatively low pressures usuaiiy found in w a m r k s serviae. Steel Ring Flanges Carefd studies and experiment~~~ a o n d d on full-size specimens demonstrated that satisfactody-tight joints can be obtained using steel ring h g e s with lho-in. thick txtending at least to the bolt holes. Referente should be made to AWWA C207, Standard for Sml Pipe Flanges for Watemrks Service-S* 4 in. Through 144 in.? for dimensions and other d d l s concernhg the series of steel ring flanges and hub flanges as developed by an ASME- A m A committee. - Steel ring m e s conforming to AWWA C207 have b4Fa designe. for use with rubber or asbestos ring giiskts that are either h6 ia or l/a h. thick, at the purchaser's option. The gskexs should occupy the s u b of the f h g e between the bolt holes and the inside diameter of the pipe or m e . Buth the size of the gasket and the type of gasket material are iutegrai d &trohg factors in the design of a boltcd joint. Recommendations of the gasket manufactwer should be observed. - > ->- In waterworks service, it is frequtntly ne c e s s a q to use b g e s for amching pipe to pumps, - - valves, or other appurtcnanm having staadard ASA drrlling. Fianges of lesser t h i h s , but having the same dril- tempiate, are obtabbk from pipe and fiange mmufmrers, . u > i I who wili provide dimensional data. Pressure Ratings S in AWWA C207 are for cold water. Working pressure should s.: include water hammm. Test pmsurts of flanged fatings should nevm ex& 1 '/a times &e .: flrmge pressure rathg, or mesmay be dama@. When wor hg pressurts require flanges heavier than Class E (275 psi) in AWWA ~c C207, other ASA m may be ~s e d. ~ The cold-water (lOOF [3aC]) rsting of an ASA it m e - & greatly in excess of.the rating of an AWWA C207 ciass flan&. For example, the for &e 300-psi ASA m e is 720 psi. Whm heavier flringes are selectal, data on sizes above 24-h. must come from the flange mmufaccamr. D-AND-SHOULDERED COUPLINGS coupling is a bolted, segmentd, clamp-type, mechanical encloses a U-shped rubber gasket. The housing Imks the end movement, yet dows some degree of flexibility and COUPLING GASKET COUPLING GASKET / v GROOVES alignment. The rubber gasket is tight under either pressure or vacuum swvice. The coupling is shom d o n e d in F i 8-3 ami 8-4. Errds of pipe must be spckdiy prepard to - dat e grooved-and-shouMered .: coupihgs. Thk is done by grooving, bmding, rolling, or welding adapten to pipe enh. .: Careful stmtim must be &ven pipe-end prepamion so h t the c~luphgs wi i i fit properiy. -2 Some typi d groovcd-8nd-shouldcred joints are demibed in AWWA C606, Standard for Groovcd and Shoutdcred Type ~oints? +> 8.6 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION -GENERAL * h The coefficient of expansion of sttel is 6.5 x 186 per degree (F) of temperaturc change. The changc in length of an unrestrained s t d pipe can be determined using: - .., . 1 - . . . .- T , . - - 4 Ai = c h g e in length (in.) L = length (in.) At = c h g e in tempature (OF) - , he cqmsionor contraceion of an unrrsuaincd steci pip is about 3/4 in. per 100 ft of ' . pipe for each 100F (56OC) change in ttmperam. . .., , - :.- i>..:j Expansion and Contraction-Underground . .-... . Ordinarily, a buried pipeline under o - conditions will not experienct signjfic8nc.- chmges in temperature, and t h e d stresses will be minimal. However, during the . constniction periad prior m completion of b a c k f l l , -me changes in ambitnt temperatures may atuse excesive expnsion or conmction in the pipe. These extreme tanperature chmges md the resulting expmsion md contradon may be avoided by W d h g the pipe as isconstruction progresses. Por f~ld-wcldcd lines, AWWA standard describes a me- b i t has been used satisfactorily to reduce the t h e d stresses r e s u l a from kmperature variations. This . mtthod utilizes a speciai closure hp joint at 400-t to 500-ft intervds. The S - closure is set so tbat the pipe is stabbed deepcr tban the normal dosed position, d joinis are welded cxcept tht dosure, poirtial Wi 1 1 is p M over al1 pipe cxccpt tht dosw joint to aid in cuoling and aonmdon of the pipt, and the closure weld is made during the coolest part of ' the day. (See Chaprer 12.) PIPE J Oi mS 91 Forces due to expansion and oontmction shodd not be dowed to reach vaives, pumps, or other appurtenances that might be damaged by these forces. Appurtenances can be protected by making the connection between pipe ami appurtenance withan expansion joint or sleeve coupling, or by providing anchor rings and thnist bloclts of suff~cient size and weight to prevwt the forces from reaching the appurtenance to be protected. Expansion and Contraction-Aboveground Expansion and contraction of exposed lines must be pmvided for where individual pipe sections are anchored and sleeve couplings are used for field joints. The joints wi l l ordinarily aliow enough movement so that expansion or contraction is not cumulative over several lengths. On exposed field-welded lines, expansion joints m a y be lacated midway between the anchors if the pipeline is laid ievel. On slopes, the joint is usually best placed adjacent to or on the downhill side of the anchor point. Pipe ordinarily offers great resistance to movement uphill; therefore, the strength of the pipe at the anchor block should be investigated to be -.*- sure that it is adequate to resist the downhiU thnist. The coeficienf of s l i d i n g friction for - bare pipe bearing on supports should be determined. Spacing and psitioning of expmsion -' r joints should be governed by site and profde requirements. Expmsion joinrs in pipe on bridges should be at points where the bridge structure itself contains expansion joints . T h e sMng-box type of expansion joint is sometimes used. These joints permit linear movement of the slip pipe relative m the pachng. Details ofa stuffing-box type of expansion joint (slip joint) are shown in Figure 8-5. The p d mg of expansion joints may consist of . - .: , . .. ? 'I- , .. . - '2. . -. . . - 3 : .1. . . , . -,. - -.- , . :+ .. - .-.- - -.-: - - - - . 5 Expansion Joint - , - - The sMmg-box expansion joint is sometimes made doublesnded. Limited-move- .7 GROUND FRiCTiON AND LlNE TENSION 92 STEEL PIPE The change in longitudinal stress in a pipe with fmd ends due to a temperature change may bedetermined by: . -. -i - - - - . : : A S = change in stress (psi) :',. ' E = rnodulus of ehsticity of steel, 30 x lo6 psi . . c = coefficient of expansion of steel, 6.5 x lo4 per degree (OF) At = change in temperature (OF) . . , A temperature change of 30F (17OC) causes a theoretical smess of 5850 psi in the pipe ! 1 , . ,- wall if ends are restrained. The stress in ail-welded buried steel pipe has been investigated? . ,. . . i . . with the resdt that some measured stresses were found to be higher md sorne lower than theoretical. It was fomd in aU cases, however, that the soil restraint was sufkient to absorb I the longitudinal stress in a length of approximately 100 f t of pipe. Chapter 13 includes discussion and design aid on frictional resistance between the pipe and ground. .- . .. .. . 8.8 &00D PRACICE . >A-;: . .- . .;--, . . .. , . . . . , . - The requirements of installation and operation of a pipeline may dictate the use of more than one type of field joint. The type of inte facton in joint selection. Bell-and-s installed-cost basis. Flanges are co other flanged accessories. Thermal stresses may be a consideration, and these can be accommodated by sleeve couplings, grmved-and-shouIdered couplings, special we1de.d joints, or expansion joints. References 1. Field Welding of Steei Water Pipe. AWWA Standard C206-82. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1982) 2. KILLAM, E.T. Mechanical Joints for Colo. (1978). Water Lines. Jour. A WWA, 35:11:1457 6. Pipe Flmges and Flanged Fittings. ANSI (Nov. 1943). Standard B16.5. ANSI, New York (1977). 3. Steel Ring Flanges for St ed Pipe. BuU. 7. Grooved and Shouldered Type Joints. 47-A. Armco Steel Corp., Middetom, AWWA Standard C606-81. AWWA, . . . . .. ., Ohio. Denver, Colo. (1981). 4. BARNARD, R.E. Design of Steel Ring 8. MCCLURE, G.M. & JACKSON, L.R. Slack Flanges for Water Works Scrvice, A Pro- - ' . . -..: . , I gress Repon. Jour. AWWA, 42:10:931 (Oct. 1950). . , *, - . ,. - . - . . . - ... - - Fitting AWWA MANUAL CO S and tenan k y The wide range of design made possible by the welding and fabriuition procases applicable to steeI pipe provides the mems of solving almost any problem involving fittings and specials. The design of pipe layouts, especidly intricate mes, ic greatly facilitared by having standardized dimensions for the center-to-face dismnce or the center-to-end dismce of b fittings. AWWA C208, Standard for Dimensions for Fabricated Steel Water Pipe Fimngs,' provides dimensions for welded steel pipe fimngs in sizes 6 in. and larger. AWWA C200, Standard for Steel Water Pipe 6 Inches and Larger; specifies the manufacturing requirements for fittings and special joints. The standard dimensions of fittings for screwed-joint pipe can be found in the catalogs of many manufacturers. Manufacturers can also furnish the dimensions of compression fittings for use on standard plain-end pipe in the smaiier sizes. SNATION OF FI1 Fittings should be designated using standard methods to prevent misunderstandings. Figure 9-1 is diagrammatic and refers to smooth as well as segmental fittings. T h e desired deflection angle of the elbow or lateral should be shown on the diagram. On ordinary elbows, both ends are numbered the same because both are the same size. Thus, only one diameter need be given for a standard or nonreducing elbow, together with the deflection angle. (Example: 54-in. OD, W0 elbow.) Reducing crosses and elbows are always identified by first giving the size or outside E diameter of the largest openings, then following with the sizes of the openings in the i numerical sequence shown. (Exarnples: 48411. OD x 36411. OD 90 elbow; 24411. OD x t 22-in. OD x 8%-in. OD x 6%-in, OD crms.) Tee 90" wye ? . . > Y +: 80P Note 3: : 'This dimension should be adiusiid to su! condltions. - . . . , Three-Plece Elbow (N-90') , -Note Four-Pleee Elbow (45-90') Five-Pise Elbow (6-9O0) -, 7 - , . - - Tangent-Type Outlet , - NOTES: 3. "a" rnay be extendd beyond tangent line lf necessary to sult jolnt requirernents. . . . . <- . =. - - , 2. Refer to AWWA C208 for additional information. ,, . .,; - .:.? . - . - . .. Figure 9-1 Recommended Dlmensions for Water Ape Httings I , . . ' : , . . . ,. - complete specifiation for the types of ends or flanges desired. FITllNGS AND APPURTENANCES 95 . Tees and laterals are specified by giving the size of the largest opening of the run first, the opposite opening of the run second, and the size of the outlet or branch last. (Example: 72-in. OD x 66-in. OD X 24411. OD tee.) The size of side outlets on firtings should be specified last. When specifying side-outlet tees in reducing elbows, particular care should be exercised to show whether they are right or left hand. In addition to designating the size of the Mng, the purchser should give a HOLE POSITION - - - - DESlGN OF WYE. BRANCHES It is standard practie to attach flanges to pipe lengths so that the bolt hol a straddle the vertical centerline. If W e d pipe is to be instailed at various angles to the vertical, this 5- - standard practice should be mcdf ~ed and the proper data shodd be given on drawings md ; in seecifications so rhat thc flanfie wi i l be attached as needed. .&- A full treatise on the design of wye branches for steel pipe, including a nomogriiph design &- method, is covered in a paper prepared under the auspices of the Department of Water and SK Power, City of Los ~ n ~ e l e s ? The design using this nomograph method is presented in 3; Chapter 13. Examples are given for single-plate, two-plate, and three-plate design. Larger $ wye branches (up to 144411. diameter and up to 150-psi pressure including safety factor) . Z may be designed by extraplation beyond the limits of the graphs and tables in the referente. C" Other data on the subject also have been published? AWWA ~ 2 0 0 ~ provides for nondestructive testing of weld seams on fitting$ and special sections. Special sections fabricated from previously hydrostatically tested straight pipe require testing of only those welded seams that were not previously tested in the straight pipe. Nondestructive testing methods include dye penetrant, magnetic particle, ultriisonic, x-ray, or other methods as agreed on by the manufacturer and the purchaser. AWWA C2002 also permits hydrostatic testing of specials in lieu of other nondestructive testing. Maximum test pressure should not exceed 1% times the design pressure. This maximum should be observed in the interest of design economy because fitting tests are costly. If higher test pressures are d e d for, it may be necessary to provide expensive reidoremen1 for the fittings, even though the anticipated operating pressure may not require reinforcement. This is particularly me in the case of flanged fittings, wbich would be anchored in actual service, but which, if unresnained, would be subjected to much greater mpturing forces when shop tested to higher pressure. Flanged joints should never be tested in excess of 1 l/4 times the rated fiange pressure if subsequent installation troubles are to be avoided. IANCED THRUST FORCES Piping systems are subject to unbalanced thrust forces resulting from staric and dynamic fluid action on the pipe. These forces must be absorbed or b h c e d if the piping systems are to maintain their integrity. Unbalanced thrust forces occur at changes in directions of flow, such as elbows, tees, laterals, wyes, and at reducen, vdves, and dead ends. Reactive forces to , balance these thrust forces can be provided by thrust blocks or by transmitting forces to the pipe wall by restrained, harnessed, flanged, or welded joints. Forces in the pipe shell are ultimately uansferred to the soil. In many cases it is desirabk to combine blocking and - - 96 STEEL PlPE transmitting forces to the pipe wdl. Methods of handling these thrust forces, together with helpful data, are mentioned in Chapter 13. 9.6 FRiCTiONAL RESISTANCE BEWEEN SOIL AND PIPE 2 If m unblocked fitting is tied to buried pipe such that movernent is prevented and tension is 4 3 placed on the pipe, it may be necessary to determine the length of the pipe on which the earth friction will overcome the dis jainting force. Chapter I3 includes discussion and design aids on this subject. '1 3 9.7 ANCHOR RINGS Anchor rings for use in concrete anchor blocks or concrete walis may be simple ring flanges. '. Rings are proportioned to accept dead-nd pul1 or thrust imposed by the interna1 pressure and any pipe thrust or puli due to temperature m e , with approximately 500 psi bearing on concrete. Care must be exercised to ensure that thrust rings are positioned so as to - provide an adequate safety factor against punching shear of the concrete. The recommended filiet welds used for flange attachment in AWWA (207, Standard for Steel Pipe Flanges for ' Waterwarks . , SeMce-Sizes 4 in. Through 144 in.: offer a high safety factor against shear. . - 9.8 NOZZLEOUTLETS Outlets from steel mains can be easily arranged in any desired location with regard to size, shape, or position. Nozzles are welded to the main h e with reinforcing coiiars. This work can be done in the shop during fabrication of the pipe, or at trenchside, or after the pipe is - instailed. Shop lining and coating of nozzles and pipe is satisfactory and more economical ' - . '-,'- than work done in the field. Al1 outlets should be checked to determine whether - ' C - -. . % - -' reinforcement is required; however, outlets larger than about one third of the diameter of - 7 . i- , .>,. L. the line need special consideration as to reinforcing, even for small size pipe. If required for hydraulic efficiency, a reducer may be welded to the main pipe with the 1 outlet welded to the reducer. The reinforcing of the shell must be computed on the brger ' diameter. 1 The end of the outlet nozzle should be prepared to receive the valve or fitting to be attached. This may cal1 for a flange, a grwved or shouldered end for a mechanical coupiing, - . a plain end for a flexible coupling joint, a grooved spigot end for a bell-and-spigot joint, or a . threaded end. 9.9 CONNECTiON TO OTHER PIPE MATERIAL Care must be exercised when connecting dissimihr pipe materials, because of the possibility of galvanic corrosion. See Chapter 10 for principies of this reaction. When connecting steel pipe to either gray or ductile cast-imn pipe, or to steel-reinforced concrete pipe, or to copper or galvmized pipe, an electrically insulating joint should be used. The insulating joint can be accornplished with an insulating gasket wi th sleeves and washers on a flanged connection or with an insulating sleeve-rype flexible coupling. (See Sec. 9.14.) Any valves or other ferrous equipment connected to sreel pipe should be incapsulated in polyethylene sheeting or coated with a coating compatible with the steel pipe coating. Similar precautions are not necessary when connedng to nonmetaiiic pipe, such as asbestos-cement or plastic. - :- ' .. - -- . IANGED CONNECTIONS : - the main line s l o p, the m e should be mtated with reference to this slogt to b a the 2 - attachments vertical. Outlet nowles should be as short as possible to reduce.the leverage of any bendiag force appiied to the outlet. In generd, every outlet shouId h v e a Ave f d y affached to tt - . d e md a flexible connection to the pipe downstreoun froi tliis valve. CONNECTiONS being strained there should be at k t one flexiile joint ciose to it. Ir is good pracrice to provide for a flexible joint when finhgs are -d. This c#in be easily accomplished by inslalling a fiexible coupling or a groovcdad-shouldered mechanical coupling immediately adjacent to ont of the m e s . Such a coupling not only provides a satisfacmry degree of fiexi'bity but malres i n s ~ t i o n and possible removal of &e vdve ~ u c h easier. in such a situation, it may be dmtqeous w have the center smp removd if a fiexible coupling is used. The coupling, when laose, may be moved along the pipe to expose the joint and acilcate placenaent or remod. FF CQNNECTiONS S located on a slope. Short dips, such as may occur in practidy di pipelieies in when a line must pass under a iarge drain or other mwturc, csn often be: ammt be completely drained into the cbannel. In su& a siwtim, iris preferable w l a t e i blowoff co~oction at the lowest point that will drain by gravity d provide easy means for pumping out the part bclow the blowoff. Blowoffs must, of m-, be provided with a shuwff Ave. If the pipeline is above ground, the valve shouid be attached duectly to the outiet nozzle on the bottom of the pipeline. A pipe amched m &e d v e will route the d i m e to a safe location. me pipc will usuaily require hsmihtion of m e l bw at the blowoff valve, which must be d y blocked to avoid smsses on the at~a-t to the pi-. , - .Usually the biuwoff will be below ground. Mu s e the operating nut of the vdve must be accessible from the surface, the vdve cannot be under the main but may be set with the stem vertical and just beyond &e side of the pipeline. A t ypi d demil of a blowoff is shown in AWWA ~ 2 0 8 ~ oind in Chapter 13. pmtice. Elliptical manholes with the cover on xbe pressure side are sometimes used, but 98 STEEL PIPE - -- - . because they present an obstniction to smooth flow they are not common. The most common t - in waterworks is cirdar, having a short, flanged neck md a flat, bolted cover. Such manboles are commonly 18-24 in. in diameter. Careful consideration should be @ven to lmting manhoies so as to afford the grearest conveniente in use, Manholes give access to the inside of the pipeline for many purposes . besidcs inspection. In general, they will be most useful if located close to vdves and sometimes close to the low points that Wht need to be pumped out for inspection or repair. Long steel pipelines frequently become carriers of electric currents originating from differences in ground ptentials or stray currents. This phenomenon is expiahed in Chapter 10. Where tests indicate the necessity, a long h e is often separated into sections or insulated from other parts of a system by insulating joints. These joinrs can be provided at any flanged joint, but it is often necessary to make a joint at a particular place by instding a pair of flanges for this purpose. Special insuhting gaskets, sleeves, and washers are used to provide electrid insuhtion at the flanged joint. These insuloithg sleeves and washers are made of fabric-reinforced bakelte, micarta, teflon, or similar mat eds that have long Me and g w d mechanical strength . The bolts of the insuhted flanged joints must be carefdiy insulated by sleeva and .- washers. It is recommended tbat insulating washers be used at both ends of the bolts. Some pipe usen specify flange holes h-in. larger in diameter than normal flange holes. It isimpomnt that insulating gaskets, sleeves, and washers be insealled carefuUy so that the flanged joint will be insulating as intended. After the installation of the insuhted joint is complete, an electrical resistance test should be performed. The electrical resistance should be at least 10 000 ohms; if the resistance is less, the joint should be inspected for damage, the damage repaired, and the joint retested. 9.15 AIR-RELEASE VALVES AND AIR-AND-VACUUM VALVES Air valves are instaed with pipelines to admit or vent air. There are ba s i dy two types: air-release valves md air-and-vacuum valves. In addition, a combination air valve is available that combines the functions of an &-release vaive and m air-and-vacuum valve. Air-release valves are used to release air entrained under pressure at high ponts of a pipeline where the pipe slopes are tcio steep for the air to be carried through with the flow. The accurnulation of air can become so hrge as to impair the pipe's fiow capacity. Air-release valves are installed at the high ponts to provde for the continuous venting of accumulated air. An air-release valve consists of a chamber in which a float opemtes . . - through leven to open a smdi air vent in the chamber top as aiF sccumulates md to close the ,. . i vent as the water leve1 rises. The float must operate against an air pressure equal to the water pressure and must be able to sustain the maximum pipeline pressure. Air-and-vacuum valves are used to admit air into a pipe to prevent the creation of a-. vacuum that may be the resdt of a vdve operation, the rapid draining or failure of a pipe, a column separation, or other causes. A vacuum c m cause the pipe to collapse6 from atmospheric pressure. Air-and-vacuum valves also serve to vent air from the pipeline while it is filiing with water. An air-and-vacuum valve consists of a chamber with a float t h a is generally cenar guided. The float ogxms and closes against a large air vent. As the water kvel recedes in the , - . - - . J.,, . . -- chamber, air is permitted to enter; as the water level riges, air is vented. The air-and-vanium .. . ... valve does not vent air under pmsure. / TWO AtR VALVES ' CHANC PARALLEL TO ' y ' ' HYDRAULIC GRAOIENf" ,' L L O N G DESCENDING STRETCH T SU FITTINGS AND APPURTENANCES 99 the pipeline. The connecting pipe should rise gradually ro the air vdve to permit flow of the air to the valve for venting. The performance requirements of the valves are based on the venting capacity (cubic feet of free air per second) and the pressure differentiai across the -- typical pipeline and locations of air valves. 7 HMRAULIC GRADIENT LONG ASCENDING STREFCH DOWNWARD GRADE BUT WHEN DRAlNlNO LlNE WlMOUT SUMMIT APPROACHING THE HYORAULIC DOWNWARD GAD1ENT CamMmtbn A k V h UM WHEN DRAlNlNQ UNF O Alr end V-um Vdvt Types of Val- Recmmendad Cornbination Alr Valvwr Combination Air Valvas ' I ncreasing Downgrade Decreasing Upgrade Combination Air Valves Air and Vacuum Valves-lk to %mi lntewals Combination Alr Val v~- ~/ 4- to '/rml lntervals Avoid if Posible; if Unavoidable, fnstall Combination Air Valves '/4- to l/rrni lntervals . mOD PRACTICE The standard-dimension fitings covered by AWWA ~2 0 8 ' should be used whenever possible. If drawings are not used in purchasing, the designation of fitnngs is aiways necessary. Design data should be used to determine if reinforcement is needed. When necessary, special welded steel-pipe finings can be fabricated to meet unusud requirements and severe service oonditions. When special sml-pipe Frttings are desigmted, they should - .. be aonimpanied with drawings to show their exact dgumtion. 100 STEEL PIPE Referen ces 1. Dimensions for Fabriatcd Stael Water Pipe Fittings. AWWA Stundard C208-83. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1983). 2. Statl Wam fipc 6 Inches and m e r . AWWA Standard C200-80. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1980). 3. SWANSON, H.S. ET a. Design of Wye Brmches for Stecl Pipe. Jour. A W WA, 47:6:581 (Jurie 1955). 4. RUDD, F.O. Stress AnaIysis of Wyc Branches. Engrg. hl onwph 32, US BUREC, Denvw, Colo. Sael Pipe Wgesfor Watcrworks Ser- vice-Sizes 4 in. TBrough 144 in. AWWA Standard C207-78. AWWA, Denver, &lo. (1978). TIMOSHEMRO, S. S mg t h of Matds. Part II. Van Nos- Company, New York (1944). AWWA MANUAL Principles of Corrosion . - C and Corrosion Control .-- Corrosion is the deterioratia of a substmce (usuaiiy a memi) or its properties beause of a ' - remion with its environment? Even though the process of corrosion is complex and tht detailed t xpht i ons even more so, relatively nontdmid publications m the subject are avdable .2d An understanding of the basic principies of corrosion leads to an undmtanding of the means md metfiods of corrosion control. Methods of corrosion control are discussed in this chapter and in Choipter 11. Alrhough mmy of t hae merhods apply to al1 me&, both chpters deal specifidy with aomi on ami corrosion control of steel pipe. ERAL THEORY Al1 meltmkis exposed to the elements e m W y chmge to the state h t is most sable under prevailing conditions. Most stnicniral me&, hving been converted from an ore, ttnd to mm to it. This reversion is an electrochemid process-M is, both a chemical d o n the flow of a direct electric cumnt mar . Such a cumbimtlon is ter& m d Electrochemical ceiis fa11mto three general &m: galvanic &S, with ekctmda df.dissimilar mctafs in a homogeneous - 19, . concentrationceiis, with eZectrodes of similar material, but with a nonhomogeneous - electrolyte, el ml yt i c d s , which are s W to gdvmic ceh, but which have, in addition, a conductor plus oin outside source of electrid energy. Thm g e d types of corrosion are recogni d: gdvanic, ektro1ytic, and biochemid. 102 STEEL PIPB Wani c Corrosion Wvmic corrosion occurs when two electrodes uf dissimiiar materiais eire e l d d l y umuected and e- in an e-lyte. An example is the common fiashiight cell (Figure 10-1). Whmthe cell is comected in a circuit, m n t flows from the Pnc case (the anode) into the electrolyte, carrying i oni d atoms of zinc with it. As smn as the Uac ions are dissolved in the clecu01ytc, they lose their ionic charge, passing it on by ionizing a m s of hydrogea. Thc ionic charge (the e l d c current) flows through the electrolyte to the =boa rod (tbt mhade). There, the hydrogen ions are r e d d to awms of hydrogen, which combine to fom hydrogen gas. The current flow through the cjrcuit, therefore, is from the zinc anode to the elecmolyte, to the carbon r d cathode, md back to the zinc anode through the eiemicai conductor mmeahg &e ande m the cathode. As the current flows, the zinc is destroyed but the a b o n is unhanned. In other words, the a n d e is destroyed but the cadlde is protected. If the hydrogen gas formed in the galvanic ceii coikm on thc cahde, it wiii insdate the athode from the electrolyte md stop the flow of current. As long ss tat hydrogm film is maintained, corrosion wiii be prevented. Removal os destniction of the hydrogen film will d o w corrosion to S- again at it originai ratc. Formation of tbe a is d e d polarkmdon; its removd, de po bt i o n. Corrosion ceiis n o d y fonned in higbly comi vt so& or watersartsuchthatthehydrogenformedonthe~~~~pes~a~sndcombi atswi tb dissolved oxygm in tht ekctrolytc, thus dtpolarizing the cathode and dowk g mmi on m p d . In the Qashii&t battery, the zinc case is atraclred d the ah is not. However, zinc or any othcr metal -y be amcked when in circuit with one meta& but not amckd when in circuit witb another. A metal listed in Toible 10-1 will be amcked if comected in i circuit with one listed beneath it in the table, if they are p M in a common elecmolytic mvironment su& as wam or moist soil. Tht order in Table 10-1 is b w n as the gaivmic series; it g e n d y holds true for neutral electcoljrtts. C b q p in the compition or temmhi re of the electrolyte, however, may cause d n rnetais listed to shit positions or amdi y reverse positim in the table. Por example, zinc is lisred above iron in the tabk, and zinc wdi corrode when co-d to iron ia fresh water ar normal temperature. But when the temperature of the water is above + Ci C + - - + ELECTROLYTE C - 4- + ZINC, POROUS SEPARATOR NONMETALLIC Figure 10-1 Caivanic Cell -Mssimilar Metals ELECTRODES SIMILAR IN COMPOSITION AND SlZE CORROSION 103 !;S1 Gahranic Series of Metais and Alloys* a- Magnesium and magneSium aiioys .... . , . . . - - - t @$, - , zinc . - 7 . - - .. 8 - G . Aluminum 2s &--- w u m Aluminum l7STt -. &,S:- Stecloriron 6 $1- .- Cast irw Chromium-imn (active) &L> Ni-Resise 184 Sminless s w i (active)? . . . . - < . - . , . . . . . - . . . . . 18-8-3 Stainlcss stctl (dvcH ! , ,l. -. . ! - . . ? . - 3 =- . - - B 4 .2 --1, - - y-' - - . . . . . . 2 . ' - - ..+. - : - - b : - ., . . . - . TI Ni&l (active) . . . . - : i - ', . . < - ; 2 y - , - y % :';+ . - 18-8-3 Stainiess stcet (psive) - .-h- . - - when the protective ih i s formed.-- f irems is as foUows: Muminum 17ST-95% Al. 4% Cu. 0.5% Mn, 0.5% M g Ni-Resist, Internatid Nickei k, 8% Ni; 18-8-3 stainiess steel-18% Cr, 8% Ni, , - Platinum a'; , -d3=.--: w - - - - e" d has a SU- film of absorbed o x y m or bydrogen. A metal may be initiaiiy "active" and beaorne km as si ve" -k, N.Y .-austenitic nickel d mt im, 18-8 s k stee1-'18% C ~ i i o y C, Union Carbide C a r h Co., N- FaUs, N.Y.-59% Ni, 17% Mo, 14% Cr, 5% Fe, 5% W, Inconel Nckel Co., New York, N.Y.-59-80% Ni, 10-35 Ci, &23% Fe; bt ei i oy A* Ni, 20% Mo, 20% Fe; fIastciioy 104 STEEL PIPE about 150F (66C), the iron will corrode and protect the zinc. Thus, the table cannot be used to predict the performance of all metal combinations under all conditions. In the flashlight battery, dissimilar metals and a single electrolyte cause the electric current to flow. Similar metals in dissimilar electrolytes can also produce a current, as illustrated in Figure 10-2. In corrosion underground, differential oxygen concentration in soils is one of the chief reasons for dissimilarity in the electrolyte. Differential oxygen concentration (or differential aeration) may be caused by unequal compactness of backfill, unequal porosity of different soils or of one soil at different points, uneven distribution of moisture, or restriction of air and moisture movement in the soil caused by the presence of buildings, roadways, pavements, and vegetation. The electrochemical cells described in the preceding paragraphs demonstrate the fundamental principles of the many kinds of electrochemical cells found in practice. The common forms of corrosion encountered on unprotected buried pipelines are shown in Figures 10-3 through 10-11. . . . Moist earth is electrolyte; two areas on the pipe are anode and cathode; pipe wall takes place of wire in Figures 10-f and 10-2. Pipe wall at anode will corrode like zinc battery case; pipe wall at cathode will not corrode but will tend to be coated with hydrogen gas, which if not removed, will tend to build resistance to current flowand thereby check corrosion of pipe wall at anode. Figure 10-3 Galvanic Cell on Embedded Pipe Without Protective Coating TUBERCLE ~ HYDROGENION ."""--. PIT -. . \ . . PRODUCT OF ~ t ~ ~HYDROGEN CORROSION~.--""'" FILM Detail of pipe wall at anode in Figure 10-3 is shown. As current leaves surface of anode, it carries with it small particles of metal (ions). These ions go into solution in soil (electrolyte) and are immediately exchanged for hydrogen ions, leaving metal behind as rusty scale or tubercle around pit area. In many soils, especially comparatively dry ones, this barnacle-like scab will "seal off" pit so that ions (electric current) cannot get through and cell becomes inactive as long as tubercle is not disturbed. Figure 10-4 Galvanic Cell- Pitting Action "'~ - . is cathode (protected areii, steel pipe is anode iwrroding area). and gurrounding earth is electrolyte. As ode s small in area relative M ande, corrosion is not ordinarily swere or rapid. If these area proportions rsed, corroslon may be much more rapid. 10-5 Corrosion Caused by Dissimilar Metais in Contact on &id& Pipe . . ldom considered, galvanic cell is created by installing piece of new pipe in old line. New pipe always &le and its rate of corrosion will dspend on type of sail and relative areas of anode and cathode. areful protective measures are essential. i; Acid leached frwn cinders contaminates soil and increases its activrty. No hydrogen wllectc II rernains active, and corrosion is rapid. t 106 S m L PIPE / COUPUNG /BREAK IN FILM ' THREADS BRlGHT METAL SCRATCHES CAUSED BY PlPE WRENCH Brighf scars or scratches of threads becorne anode areas in buried pipe, and rest of the pipe is cathode area. In some soils, these bright areas can be very active and destnictive because the small anode area and lar* cathde area produoe the most unfavorabte ratios pssible. figure 10-8 Corrosion Cauced by Dissimilarity of Surface Conditions PIPE In this galvanie cell of dissimilar etectrolytes icompare Figure 1Cb2i. seaions of pipe in sandy loam are cathodes ( protected areas ), sections n clay are andes I corrding areas), and soil is electrolyte. If resilance to electric- current flow is high in electrolyte, corrosion rate wi l be slow. If resistan= to current flow is Iow, corrosion rate will be high. Thus. knowledge of soil resistan# to electric-current flow becomes rnportant in corrosion control studies. Figure 10-9 Corrosion C a u d by Dlssimilai Sdb CORROSION 107 GROUND UNE- RI? AFFi A T MOlS. -. . -. . . -. .. . . -- --.-, . --. . , . . .., . .,..... ION Uectrolytic Corrosion - either through p a d d circuits in the ground or through some metdic s t r u m . -use - these currents stmy from the de s i d pth, they are mmmd y referred to as stray carth cwrents or smy currents. e = - . The -tic sketch of m electric street-milway system shown in Figure 10-12 is 3 an example of a system that a n create stmy DC currents. Mmy modern subway sptems .:: opwrite on the same principk. In F i 10-12, the direct current flows from the generamr motors driving it. To complete the circuit, the re- path of the current is intendd m be from the motors to the wheels of the cm, then through the A s to the generamr at the . r rcsistmce to the flow of the electricity, what usually hppens is that a portion of the cumt, 11 satking an easier path to the substation, leaves the roiiIs, polsses into the ground, md returns - to the substation through thc moist c h . If, in its journty through the ground, the current pses mar buRed mctal pipe-which offers an eas k path for return than dms the ground & substation; there it will leave the pipe mi flow through the ground back to the mil, and fineilly rehirn to the subsmtion genemor. Areas of the pipe where the current is entering are not mrroded. Whex the current is leaving the pipe, however, steel is destroyed at it rate of about 20 ib per ampe-year of 1[i8 STEEL PIPE POSITIVE AREA P'PEL'NE NEGATlVE ARE4 STRUCTURE CORRODING STRUCTURE CATHODICALLY PROTECTED Fsure 10-12 Stray-Current Corrosion Gused by UectrIRed Rnllway Systems GENERATOR .-. - ' TROLLEY WIRE S ' ' .., .' . NEGATIVE AREA PIPE - - .'," . , . . , - . . .- +; .. : . . Figure 10-1 3 Control of Stray-Current Corrosion .;- - : - , : Biochemical Corrosion Certain soii bacteria create chemicals that may mult in comion. Bacteria1 wirrosion, or anaembic-bacteria1 oorrosion, is not so much a disthct typt of corrosion as it is mother cause of electrochemical corrosion. The bacteria cause changes in the physical and chemical propcrties of the soii to produce active pseudogdvanic cds. The bacterioil adon may be one of removing the protective hydrogen fdm. Difftrcntial aeiaaon plays a major rok in this activiv. :- > * , The only d n way of determining the pmence of anatrobic bacteria, the prticuhr kind of microorganism responsible for this type of comsion, is to secure a sample of the soil in the immediate vicinity of the pipe and develop a bacteriat culture from that sample. hs@m under a microwpc wiH determine definitely whether harmful bacteria are p m t . Stress and Fatigue Corrosion Stress corrosion is caused from tensile stresses that slowly build up in a corrosive atmcwphere. With a static loading, tensile smsses are developed at &e metal surfacts, Ar bighly smssed points, accehted corrosion occurs, causing increased tensile smss and failure when the metal's safe yield is exceeded. Corrosion fatigue occurs from cyclic loading. In a corrosive atmosphere, alternate l aabgs cause corrosion fatigue subscantially below the metal's fdure in nonaorrosivc conditims. # - - Crevice corrosion k v i c e currosion in a steel pipent is a& by a conaeatration citll formed where the dissolved oxygen of the water varies from ont segnment of thc pipc memi m mother. In a crevia area, rhe dissolved oxygen is hi nded fmm difhiionr m t h g an seodic d t i o n h i atuses metal w go ht o soiution. Severity of Corrosion Severity of corrosion in any given case will depend oa maay different factors, some of which may be more impormt tiun others. The f-rs most W1y to affm the me ofcorrosion m dative Wtiof18of mecals in the gaivanic series, ~ i z e ~ f a n o d e ~ w i t h ~ p e c x t o ~ ~ l a ~ 8 t i o a o f ~ ~ w i t h ~ p e c t t o ~ t h o d e , resistan= of mEeallic ci mi t, tgpe mi oompi ti on of e h l y t c , duct i vi t y or resistivity of eiextrolyte, u n i f O f m i t y o f ~ 1 ~ , depl ari zi ngd*. Soll-Corrosion lnwstigations The first organhd soil-corrosion investigati011 was begun by the NatiOnal Bureau of Stadds(Nl3S)in 1911.Thtprpostatthoitti~wasmstudy theeffectofsttaycumnts from smet-railway lincs on b d d meallic stnichircs. In its inithi inm@aw the bureau found that in many instanccs whcrc mther stvere amosion was anticipated, little damage was observcd, whercas in o h , more amaion wm f d tban d m bc indicated by tht t l &d data associatad with tbe corroded smmar e. These obserwtions led to a second nwstigation, u n d c d m m 1921. Or i gi dy about 14 000 specimens were buried at 47 test sites, but tbt numbcr was sukqumtly i n d to 36 500 qechm at 128 mt sites. The American Ptmiltum Lnstimtt and thc Anterican Gas hso&tion c o h b o d in the mults of the latter tests. Buriai sita were sekctcd in typical soils representiag a sampling ofartas in whichpi@ was ar mighf k buried. Tbe purpx of tbe i nvesmon was m h. w k h r . . A Method o1 Deietminsng Wall Thickness of Steei Pipe for Uno'efground Sewrce. Jour AWWA. defrned tn Table 1-2 Corrosion Rate in Various Wls - 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 ~ ~ 3 5 ~ 4 ! 5 ! X TIME, YEARS CORROS ION STEEL PIPE corrosion would occur in pipelines in the absence of stray c e under conditio representative of those encountered by working pipelines. The NBS soil c omi on tests are probably the most extensive, weil coordinate best analyzed of any test made for the same purpase. A final report on the studies between 1910 and 1955, including over 400 referentes, has been publishd! An imp fmding was that in most soiis, the corrosion rate deneased wi th time. This is largely the fact that corrosion pmducts, uni ess removed, tend to protect the metal. i- Figure 10- 14, taken from the NBS repmts, clearly shows the decreast in corrosion rate with time in ali but &e worst soil group. Only a very small percentage of pipe is ever buried in $02 beloaging to that group. Modern methods of corrosion pmenUon generdy make it unnecessary to allow extra wall thickness as a safeguoird agahst mrrosion. Tables 10-2 and 10-3 givt summary data on the corrosivity of soib and the relationship of soil corrosion to $ Table 10-2 Soils Crouped ln Order of Corrosive Action on Steel Group z-Lightly C m ~ Aemtion and drainage g d . chamcterkd by uniform color and no mottling anywhere in soil profile and by very low water mbie. Induh: 1. Sandsorsandy h m ~ 1 - - 2. Light, t ext ud silt hm 3. Porous loams or &y loams thomughly o x i M to great depths. - . . = Ewrrp II-Moahtdy CGWOSI'W - >. - 1, ;.' . . Aeratim ami draimge fair. h a c m h d by slight r nodhg ( ye Ms h brown md yelhwish gray) in lower part of profIle - - . . (depth 18-24 in.) and by low water mble. Soils would be considered well dmined in an agriculnual sense, as no a1~6cial <!*'.% - - - is raecessary fw m p raising. hcludes: . . - .,- ;.- - . 5 . , 1. Sandy - , - -;: , . - . . . : 2. Silt loams .. .. 3. Clay loams . . . , . - , :T.. ... . : - > s. -: ' . . Group III-Bdy C N ' h t i o n d hi mge p r . ChactenZed by hcavy texture and moderate mottiing close to s ur f e (depth 6-8 in.) and with water tabk 2-3 ft below surface. Soils u s d y occupy flat areas and would require arrifcid drainage for crop raising. Indudts: l . Clay loams 2. Ciays Vroup I V - U d I y Cmosiw Aeration and drainage very p o r . -rized by bluish-gray mottling at %phs of 6-8 in. with wafer table at s urf e, or by extreaae impermeability -use of colloidal material contained. Incl~des:: - - . 1. M& . - 2. h t 3. Tidal mmb 4. aayS and @ soils % . - 5. Adobe &y. .. . . . - , - Table 10-3 Relationshlp of Soil Corrosion to Soil ResistMty Resismce Soil Class Description ohtn/cc 10 coo4ml 1 exceknt 2 good 6MW45(M 3 fair 4500-2000 L -*2 4 bad 2 0 CORROSION 111 10.2 INTERNAL CORROSION OF STEEL MPE Corrosion of the i n ~ d surfaces of a pipe is principally wiused by g d 6 cells? The extent of corrosion of the interior of an unlined pipe depends on the cwmivity of tht water amed. Lanigelid ha developed a method for determining the corrosive effect of diiercnt kinds of water w bare pipe interiors, md wier7 has extensively investigateti and reportad t h e e f i ~ o f m t e r ~ ~ < w ~ o ~ k i n d s o f p i p e ~ . A l ~ w g h s o m e u n l i n e d p i p e s h v e been pitted through by some waters, the principai result of interior corrosion is a reduction h flow capacity. This redudo11 is causcd by a formati011 of tubercles.of ferric - - hydroxidc, a conditim $nown as mhrmlation? It is primariiy to mhr ai n fiow capaciy that pipt ihhgs h e becn developed. Whtre i n w d comion is a l 1 4 m persist, qualiy of water deurioratts, pumping and transmission capacitp de- efficitncy diminishes, - and mt l y rtplaccment b m e s inevitable. Scrious accidents rrad h s of revmues h m systtm shutdowns are aiso psi bl e. The mxnmct of &ese problems. can be red& by the use of quality p d v e linings. ATMOSPHERiC CORROSION Atmospheric corrosion of exposed p i p e h s is u s d y insjgnificant, except in industrial and sea amt areas. Where siach owrcision is sigdhnt, the msUntmamc problem i n d is si* m that for bridge5 or other e x p d steel stnictures. corrosion. Third, m inhibitive environment a n bt mt e d to prevent or reduce c o d o n To impkment the fmt method, satisfwry and & d v t pmtcdve a d n g s hve been developed. athodic protection, implemcnting tbe s e d method, is bcing more and more widely used in corkion control. hhibitive coa* impkmtnt tht third methd by providing m environnaent in which oxidation or comim ofsteef is inhibid. By jud.khus use of ail of these methods, any rcquircd dqpee of comion control am be d c a l l y Coatings mi hhgs are mvered in Chaptcr 11. Tbt ranaindet ofthis chaptcr deals with corrosion mtrol by ~01-c pro&. . .. . :, ' . , <, . - - - -- .- - , : CATHODIC PROTECnON Cathodic protection systems reverse the electmckmicai corrosive force by creating an externa1 circuit between the pipeline to be protected md an auxiliary anode (sacrificid memi) immersed in water or buried in the ground at a pdetermined distmce from the pipe. D i current appiied to the circuit is dischmged from the anode surface md travels Two methods are avdable for genmting a current of suffrcient magnitude to F.: gwrmtee pnmction. In the fmt method, sacrjf~chl-anode material such as magnesium or current to flow from the anode to the pipe, retuming to the anode through a simple connecting wire (Figure 10-15). This system is generally used where it is desirable to apply s m d i amounts of current at a number of locations, most oftcn on coated pipelines in lightly or moderabeiy corrosive soils. 112 STEEL PIPE PROTECTED STRUCTURE Rgure 10-1 5 Gthodlc Protection -Gaivanic Anode Type RECTlFlER UNlT / GRADE Figure 10-16 Cathodic ~ro-tim- ~ecnfier Type The second method of current generation is to energize the circuit with an externai DC power supply, such as a rectifier. This technique, commonly referred to as the impressed current method, uses relatively inert anodes (usuaily graphite or silicon cast iron) connected to the positive terminal of a DC power suppiy, with the pipe connected to the negative terminal (Figure 10-16). This system is generally used where large amounts of currents are required at relatively few locations, and in many cases it is more economical than sacrificial anodes. Bonding of joints Where a pipeline is to be cathodically protected, or where a pipeline is to be installed with the possibility of future cathodic protection, the bonding of joints is required to make the line electricaiiy continuous (Figures 10-17 and 10-18). It is usually desirable to bond al1 joints at the time of installation, because the cosr later wiii be many times greater. In addition to bonding, the pipeline should have test leads conneaed to it at appropriate intervals to permit monitoring of the activity of electrical currents within the pipeline, whether under cathodic protection or not. Field-welded lines require no additional bonding. - - - - . . - -. . . . . . . 1. NACE &sic Corrosion Courst. NACE, - Corrosion Control in Water Utilities. Houston, T e a (June 1975). .-. . Corrosion Control Committee, Cali- 2. Manual on Undeqmund Comion. Co- - fornia-Nevada AWWA Scc. (1980). lumbia Gas Systcm Savia Corp., Ncw - - . - . - DAVIS, C.V. d. HadbooK of AppikdHy- York (1952). draulks. McGraw-Hill Bmk Co., New 3. HERTZBERG, L.B. Suggcstcd Non-ttch- York (1969). n i d Mmd on Comi on for Water - DENISON, I.A. -1+ bur e ni c nt Works Operaton. Jow. A W WA, 48:719 (June 1956). 4. Underground Cwrosion, NBS Circ. No. 579, (1957). 5. ELIASSEN, R. & L m , J.C. 111. Me&- anism of Internal CDrrosiw of Water Pipe. Joirr. AWWA, 45:12:123I (Dec. 1953). r . . 6. LANG~LIER, W.F. ~ b t A d y t i d ~ontrol- of Anticormsion Water Treatment. Jow. A -A, 28: 1500 (Oct. 1936). 7. WEIR, P. Tht Hffcct of I n t d Pipe Lining on Water Quality. Jow. A WWA, 321547 (Sept. 1940). 8. Lmsw, R.K., b FRANZINI, J .B. Water- Res oums Bt r gi ' m. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Mew Yo& (1979). 9. PEABODY, A. W. Control of Pipline . -- Cwrosiwn. Natl. h. O f ~ l T O s h ~ . , :..:i. . . L. . r- . - . 5 -- -%- ? , e;:; '- Katy, Teas (1967). S' - . .-. - - .,-.+' b 5, - - - - . . . . . ' . T h follming ref erms are not cited in . . <.> .% d .. . she texr. - BARNARD, RE. A Method of Determining Wall Thickness of Swl Pipe for Under- ground !hvice. Jow. AWWA, 29:791 (June 1937). of tbe Comsiveness of S&. NBS Re. Papcr RP 918 (1936). - LOGAN, K.H. ASTM Sympi um um i Corrosion Testing Prmdures. (=hia#--l Mattings (Mar. 1937). -.S - MCCOMB, G.B. Pipcline Protedon Ushg ' M Tar Emmels. St. Louis, Mo. (June 1965). - m, G.N. Adjwiment of Soil Cor- rosion Pit Dcpth ~ s u f c m e n t s for Sizt and Sample. M. Bull. 212. M- Peaolwm Instirute, New York (1933). - --- A Preminary Study of thc &te of Fitting of Iron Pipt in Soh. Prod. Bull. 212. Americm P d e u m Instirute, Ncw York (1933). - -- API Coa* Tests. M. B 214. Amcricm Pctrokum iustitu~, N York (1934). .-<: . K -. - Steel Plate Etigt'tfeaing Dafa-Volttme 5. Amw. Iron & Steel Inst. and St t d ate Fabricaton Assoe., Inc. (1980). C. , - p....: && .. . kc- -.; - : . .- Chapter 11 AWWA MANUAL ao Protecti . . tir and I Linings L. ;. Coatings for carrosion control are extremely effective when properly used. They are 4- ,, ronsidered ro be the primary h e of defense @nst corrosion of steel p i p e b systems, >- - , Coating costs are only a fraction of pipeline costs, yet coa* is the major means of ensusing G. 10%-term operation by preventing pipeline deterioration aad corrosion leaks . F- QUIRIEMENTS OF GOOD PIPEUNE COATINGS ' . . 8": ~ The mquirrmentg of a coating vary with the type of mnsmiaion, the aggmsiveneps of rhe rr i.. . ' y ' environment in which it will serve, and the system opemting conditiom. The effeaivemss of a good prouaive pipeline coating depends on its permanente and the degree to whi& it - possesstx physical resistance ro hazards of tmportation, installation, temperantre -e, 5 so9 stcess, and pressure; resistance to water penemtian or absorption; effective elecacal - insulative properties; and chemical inertness w soil, air, water, o@ acids, alkalies, and k1 : bacteria1 action. Coating effectiveness &o depends on such g e d chmcteristics as ease of %:- e&xappiication, high adhesion, compatibility of use with Cathodic protection, and reasonable , ,S,~ T h e requirements of a lining also vmy with the system md the environment. In ddition to the factor5 considered for coatings, linings must be judged on their smoothness L m w flow resismce), md they must meet toximlogid requirements for potable water. S' ETION OF THE PROPER COATING AND LINING 1; : Selection and recommendation of the h h g md coating mate* for use on mderground -. sad undcrwater steel pipelines is one of the most i mpomt activities of the enginaer. STEEL PIW Selection for a given use is a matter of assessing the magnitude of the corrosion, installation, and service hazards. Testing pmcedures have been developed to aid the engineer in evaluating and selecting the coating system that best meets a system's n e e d ~ . ~ - ~ Requirements for externd coating and interna1 lining are different, so each should be considered separately with respect to tbe anticipated corrosion severity. Coating Selection The corrosion potential for the exterior of steel pipe is diff~cuit to judge because of the variery of environments encountered. Resistivity of the soil (see Tabk 10-3, Chapter 10) is the most important parameter for judging soil corrosivity. Soil chemical and physical analyses, pH, moisture content, and existence of stray electrical currents are also important factors that can aid in making the selection decision. After the leve1 of soil cormsivity is assessed, the other conditions that &a the long-term performance of pr ot dve coatings should be considered.' Among hese are distorting stresses exerted on the coating during compaction and sertling of the backf'iI1; medlanical stresses created by certain soils having very high expancion and shrinkage during wet and dry cycles; penetration by growing roots; action of bacteria and fungus in soil surrounding the pipeline; penetration by rocks, clods, or debris in the b&Ii; attack by soil chemicals or industrid wastes, chemicals, and solvtnff that may be present along the pipeline route. Coating performance depends on putting the pipeline into service with the lem amount of coating damage. The coating system selected must not only rneet the corrosion- control needs, but must also allow economical transportation, handling, storage, and pipeline construction with minimal coathg damage or repair. To ensure precise control d coating application and quality, many types of coatings are applied in a plant or shop. The coating manufacturer can provide a guide m the proper protection during transportation, handling, and storage of pipe that has been coated with such a system. General guidelinea are given in a later section of this chapter. There are several recognized resting procedureg that are used in evaluating coating system characteristics related to transportation, storage, and ~onstniaion.~~ ' Among the characteristics to be considered are resistance of the coating to cdd flow oi penetration under mechanicai loading, resistance of the coating to ultraviolet exposure and temperature cycling dunng outdoor storage, resistance of the ooating to abrasion and impact. Lining Selection covered with cement-momr are protected by the aikaiine cement environment, w passivates the sreel and prevents iron corrosion in most natural environments. - . . - - passivation occurs quickly in newly coared surfaces and is not destroyed by moisture oxygen absorbed through the mortar coating. Cement-mom W g s provide low hydra frictional resistance, and any leached products from mortar lining carrying soft water nontoxic and anticorrosive. - . -.- PROTECTIVE COATINGS AND LININGS 117 protecr steel water lines by electridly insulating the coared pipe surfaces from the environment. When reinforced, the coatingc provide addi t i od resistauce to physi d rial ~Iected, consideratiw should be given to the effects of D COATINGS AND LININGS - Cmn t AWWA standards list coatings and linings for steel water pipe that are beliwed to be the most reliable, as proved in prmice. The AWWA Steel Pipe Commirtee is alert, however, to the possibilities of new developments, and dditions to and modifications of existing standards will be md e as deemed advisable. The current list of AWWA coating and lining standard$ for pipe protection is as follows: AWWA CB3, Standard for Goal-Tar Protective Coatings and LinIngs for Steel Water Pipeiines-Enamel and Tape-Hot-Applied. AWWA ~ 2 0 3 ' ~ describes ments for shop-applied mal-tar protective mtings and n o r d conditions when the WF (3ZC). The standard covers of pipe, s pecial sectians, connections, and oal-tar tape applied to the exterior of special sections, Coal-tar enarael is applied over a crial-tar or synthetic primer. Externa1 coal-tar enamel ded asbestos-felt and fibrous-giass mat to reinforce and shield the mal-tar lied e x t e d coating is usually finished with either a coat of whitewash or a "'! single wrap of kraft pper. reinforcement or shielding. The hot a smooth interna lining having low hydraulic The standard provides a rigid yet reasonabk mdacmrer' s @de for the productiw of .. the coating, calls for t e s ~ of material and its behavior ro ensure the purchaser tht tht product has the desired qualities, and furnishes directions for the effective application of the *i >< -- AWWA C205, Standard for Ccmcnt-Mortar RotcetRc Liniiy and Coa-' for Steel Water Pipe-4 In. and Larger-Shop Applied. AWWA ~ 2 0 5 l4 describa the material and application requirements to provide proredve Bnings and coatings for steel water pipe by shop application of cement mortar. Cement mortar is compod of Porthnd cement, sand, and water, well mked md of the proper consistency to obtrtin a dense, hornogenas lining or coating. Internally, the cement ' ' -mortar is cenwifugally mpact ed to remove excess water aad produce a smooth, uniform surf a. Externally, the mting is a reinforced c e m t mortar, pneumatically or mechoinicaiiy applied to the pipe suihce. Reinforcement consists of spiral wire, wire fabric, or ribbon ide for application and curing of the mortar Chatings for the Exterior of el Water Pipelines. AWWA mpe on the exterior of specid nstailed underground in any soil itions. Tapes with both polyvinyl chloride and polyethylene listed. The thicknesses of the tapes vary; however, d tapes may be sufficiently to meer changing performance requirements. Cold-appkd tapes provide ease of pe c d equipment md can be appiied over a broad application rerture mnge. If severe constniction or soii conditions exist where mechanicd damage may occur, a suitable overwreip of an exm thickness of tape or other wrapping m a y be required. AWWA C210, Standard for Liquid Epoxy Coating Sysgems for the Interior and Exterior of Steel Water Pipelines. AWWA ~ 2 1 0 ' ~ describes a liquid epoxy mtbg system, suitable for potabk water sewice, which will provide corrosion protection to the interior and exterior of stotl water pipe, fittings, and special sections installed underground or undcrwater. The coating system consists of one ccwit of a two-pm chemically cured inhrbitive epoxy primer, md one or more coats of a two-pm chemi dy cured epoxy fmish coat. The fish coa1 may be a mal-tar epoxy coating, or it may be m epoxy coating containing no coa1 tar. The mting system may d m t e l y consist of two or more mars of the same epoxy coating without the use of a separate primer, provided the coatiag system meets the performance requirements of AWWA C210. These coa- are suitabk when used for corrosion prevention in water service systems . at temperatures up to 140F (60C). The p d u m are applied by spray application, preferabiy airless. .. , The liquid epoxy system described in the standard differs from the customary produa .i commercialiy avaihbie in that it has a very high flexibility, elongation, and impoict 2 -. . - . resismce. Any liquid epoxy offcred for water utility purposes must meet the requircments , . - --.. . -, -.- of AWWA W 10. . . . . . - . -:. . : , - AWWA CZ13, Standard f& Fudon-Bonded Epoxy Coating for the Interior % d Exterior of Steel Water Pipelines. AWWA ~ 2 1 3 ' ~ describes the material and d - . ,- . 4 applrattion requirements for fusion-bonded epxy protective mtings for the interior and -- . . , - exterior of steel water pipe, s@al secrions, welded joinrs, connections, and fittings of s d 2- . L m . water pipelines installed underground or undenvater under normal construction conditions. -13 Tht tpoxy coatings are suited for corrosion prevention in potable water systems opera- at T. - ..+A temperatura up to 140F (60C). Fusion-bonded epoxy matings are heat activared, chemi dy cured coating sys The epoxy coatings are furnished in powder form. Except for welded field joints, th . . : _ -.: p h t - or shop-applied to preheated pipe, spbcial sections, c o ~ o n s , and fmings , :-: --,. fluid bed, i r , or electrostoltic spray. -.: :. -- . AWWA C214, Standard for Tape Coating Systents for the Exterior of S --' Water Pipehes. AWWA w 14 l8 covers the mate*, the systems, and the applica requirements for prefabricated cold-applied tapes for the exterior of aU diameters water pipe placed by m d d d m-. For nonmi comtniction conditions, prefa .- - , - cold-applied tapes are applied as a thrte-layer system comisting of (1) primer, (2) con preventive tape (inner layer), and (3) mechanical pmtective tape (outer layer). he j r vppM in the form of a liquid musisting of rolid hgredie11ts arried in i solvent. corrosion preventive tape and the mechanical protective tape are supplied in suita thicknesses md in roa form. The standard c o m application at orwiting p h m. -. md application, surfae finisI$ng, and curing of the c-q-nt mortar. --*- ? ': : . . : : : : , . . ? 11.4 COATING APPLICATION This manual dots not fumish details on methcds of coating and paint application, but importauct of ob- proper application cannot be overemphasized. Efictive res m o r be secured with any cmting material d e ? adequate a r e is taken in p r e m . . . . : r . - .-- PROTBCTIVE COATINGS AND LINIMCrS 119 - surfaces for coating, inapplying the coating, and in handling the pipe &r coa-. AWWA standards provide the requirements for ob-g g d coating work. The atwiting manufa~urer, the applicator, and the &eer should d cooperate to see that the work is of the prescribed quality. Mmy e x d h f sources of Informatim have k n published deahg with the protedon of steel pipe, the pitfalls of mting mrk, and the mems of avoiding hese Coating of Special Sections, Connections, and Fittings of application moiy differ from The AWWA standards for protective coatings have been a r e f d y prepared by experienced - individds and me based on the best current pmcaice. They should be used by incorporating them in the job smcation by direct referente. Modification should be made only by experienced coa- specialists. For AWWA Standards C203, C205, C209, C2 14W 13, C214, and ~ 6 0 2 ' ~ ) l4I9 to be complete for bidding purposes, the pirrchaseis job spafi (#~ti ons must provide the suppkmenteiry h i l s required h each standard. 1. Control of Externa1 Corrosion on Under- ground or Submtrged Metailic Piping Systems. NACE Standard RP-01-69. NACE, Houston, Texw (1983 revisim). 2. Test for Cathodic Disbonding of Pipeline ht i ng s . ASTM Sfandard G8-79. ASTM, Philadeiphia, h. (1979). 4. Test for Disbonding Characterisrics of Pipeline h t i w by Di mt Soil Burial. ASTM Standard G19-77. ASTM, Phila- dtlphia, Pa. (1977). 5. Test for Chemical Resistance of Pipeline Coitings. ASTM Standard G20-77. 6. Tcst for Abrasion Resistame of Pipeline btings. ASTM Smdard G6-77. ASTM, Phildelphia, Pa. (1977). Test for Bendability of Pipelint Coatings. ASTM Standard G10-77. ASTM, Phila- delphia, Pa. (1977). . Test for Efftcts of Outdmr Weathering on Fipeline Coatings. ASTM Standard G11-79. ASTM, Phildelphia, Pa. (1979). . Tcst for Impact Resistance of Pipcline Coatings (Limcstone Drop Tat). ASTM - Standard GI3-77. ASTM, ~hi l a de l ~d; Pa. (1977). 10. Test for Impact Resistance of FipeIine Coatings (F&g Wtight Test). ASTM Standard G14-77. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (1977). 1 1. Test for Pentt~ation Resismnce of Pipeline Cuatings (Blum Rod). ASTM Standard G17-77. ASTM, Hddeipbia, Pa. (1977). 12. Coal-Tar Protective ht i ngs and Linings for Stccl Water Pipelines-Ename1 and Tape-Hot Applied. AWWA Standard (203-78. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1978). 13. (Refereme deleted pcr errata issued in June 1986.) 14. Cement-Monar Protective Lining and Cuating for Steel Water Pipe-4 in. and Larger-Shop Applitd. AWWA Smndard (205-80. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1980). 15. Cold-Applied Tape Cositings for the Exterior of Spacial Sections, Connectiws, and Fittings for Steel Water Pipelines. A W W A Standard C209-84. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1984). 16. Liquid Epoxy Coating Systems for the Interior and Exterior of Steel Water Pipclints. AWWA Standard C210-84. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1984). 120 STEEL PIPE 17. Fusion-Bwdd Epxy Coating for thc 20. Good Paiftmrg RacnCttd-Volumc 1. Sys- Interior and Exterior of Steel Water tem md Spafi-S-Volume 2. Steei Pipclints. AWWA Standard C2 13-79. Stnicturcs Painting Manual. Stacl Struc- AWWA, Denwr, Colo. (1979). nires Paintiag Councii, Pittsburgh, Pa. 18. Tape Cooiting Systems for thc M r of 21. Paint M d . US BUREC Denver, Colo. Swl Water Pipchm. AWWA Standmi (aydable from US Govemmnt Printing (214-83. AWWA, Denver, Cob. (1983). Offce, Washington, D.C.). 19. Cement-Mortar Linhg of Water Pipe- i i nes 4 in. (100 mm) and Larger-in h. AWWA ! 3mdd C602-83. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1983). AWWA MANUAL CO . . Transportation, , - Installation, and Testing 5-b: - R - - . . >-.<T- . . - J.* - Y ,:m kracd prmx~urr. for nanspo&, -6 ~ying, m, md rcs8iig any q , steel pipeiine depend on many amtrolling factofs, including f i e character md p q me of & < u the h e ; its size, opemting pmsure, and a - am&tions; its hthd, g,, subwban, or rural; and rhe mrab wer which it is U-lat, ro-, or momtaimw. $ + Procedures also are affecfcd by tren& deph, chmacter of the soil, md backfili. . m -. . This chaprer brkfly di- a number of the more c o m r equk x nt s of chpfer, the importmce of the engirneering properties ofthe soil being excawted and the that will be used for b d i shodd be kpt in d. The principies of soil mecha mil nics pruperly applied to exawtion md baclcfiil p d c e s lead to safer wor hg conditi- and to p7 better md more economical pipeline i ns t dat i m. l ~ SPORTATiON AND HANDLING OF COATED ~jned and mted st cd pipe is rcadily transporied by mck, mil, or ship and has been - d u i l y t n mp o d to aU parts of the United Smes and to otber parts of rhe worid. 'L Regardiess of which m& of transportation is used, lined d cuated s t d pipe is vduabk . cargo and shouid be handkd as such. Modes of Transportation Requirements for packagitig, stowing, and restroiining pipe during transit depend 0x1 thc mode ofmnqmrtation. RaiL Flrit ~~ cars can be l d e d to approximttly 17 ft iabove the top of tbt mil . sind 20 widths of 10 ft. Cars are normally adabl e for shipping 40-, m-, or 804 lengths of :pipe. Pipe can be resmhed on the a r s through use ofs& pockcts or made inoo fl- 121 loads in 8ccordaace with current Association of Americm hiiroads de s . An inspector fro& the r a h d will check each car for proper l d n g before accepting it for shipment. Water. Constant pitchhg and rolliag motions should be anriupated for pipe stowed aboard ships. Smd pipe must be padqged, and largt pipt must be stowed in such a menfier to ride with or offset the pitching and rolling motion. Adequate padded timbers or similar barriers must be used to kee.p pipe from rubbing together. in -y cases, fiat racks or wntainers a n be used. Air bags can help prevent pipe shifting inside the container, The surveyor who is commody responsible for chec$ing imding mangemeflfs shouid malte c e h that d dock and ship handling equipment is approved for use on mf ed pipe. Pipt is normally shipped on a Cubic-foot freight basis. The feasibility of aesting s d r diameter pipe inside hrger pipe to reduce freight costs should be investigated; howwer, such nesting must be paddsd to ensure thoit and aating integrity is maintakd. Truct Most coated pipe is carricd on flat-bed tnicks and trailers di redy m the job site. This one-time handiing betwecn shipptr and customer avoids damage sometimes enmuntered by multipk loading and doading. The shipper shodd caution the tmcking firms agaimt use of tiedown cquipmenr that could injure the e. Air. Delivery of the pipe to discant sites can be expedited by airplane, and delivery into otherwise inaccessibk iocations may require a g o helicopfers. The air carrier should be contacted to obtain maximum length, width, height, and weight limitations for the mute involved. Generdy, the carrkrs will require pipe to be strapped M y to pallets suitable for handling. Loading and unloading. Lmds should be pepared in a m e r that wiii protm - the he d and a t e d pipe. SufFicient stringm should be used to hyer the pipe without p h h g too much iaad on a single be- point. Where plain-end pipe is being shipped, consideration should be @ven to a ppmi d load with the fuil length of pipe resting on adjacent pipe. Interior stulls should be used where the pipe wall is too light to maincain roundness during shipment. Contoured block5 may be necessoiry to give proper support to some loads. Pipe should not be h w e d to rol1 or fa11 from the conveymce to the ground Jhndling equipment. Both looiding and unloading of coated pipe should be performd with equipntent that wiH not damage tht pipecoating. Approved equipment for handling coated pipe indudes nylon straps, wide canvas os padded slings, wide padded forlls, md skids designed to prevent m e to the coating. Unpaddcd m, sharp edges on buckts, wire ropes, narrow forks, h k s , and m d bars are wcceptable. St hghg. If the pipe is to be distributed along the right-of-way in rock or p v d y tcrrain, both ends (at about o n e q mr length from the ends) should be hid on padded . wood blocks, sandbags, mounds of sand, or othcr suitable supports to protect the pipe mating. 12.2 TRENCHING ... - - kpt h Trenches should be dug to grade as shown in the profile. Where no profile is provided, the minimum cover should be generally s e l d to protect the pipe d e l y from mnsient loads where the dimate is d d eind should be determined by the depth of the frost line in freezing climate. The profie should be sekaed to mbi mh high points where oiir may be trap@. Depth of tren& in ut y streets may be governed by existing utilities or other conditions. Wdth .. . . . . . Where the sides of the trench will afford reasonable side support, the trench be maintaincd at the top of the pipe, regardless of the depth of excavation, practica1 width that wili d o w pmper densificatim of pipe-me beddiig an materiais. If the sides of the trench remain vertical after excavation, and if beddmg backfill are to be consolidaited by hydraulic methods, then the minimum trench width at the top of the pipe should be pipe OD plus 20 in. If the pipe-zone bedding md b&i require TRANSPORTATION, INSTALLATION, TESTlNG 123 dinsification by compacti&, the width of the trench at the bottom of the pipe should be determind by the spsce required for the proper and effective use of tamping equipment, but it should ncvcr be l e s than pipe OD plus 20 h. When mechanical joiacg are assembled on pipe in the tren&, beil hola must be provided at each joint and hola excavated to permit removal of the slings without dimuge to the pipe coating. In order to avoid i mp i n g excessive e x t e d f d s on the pipe, the trench width should be kept to the minimum width consisten1 with the baMdampaction equipment and the type of joint used. Bottom Preparation Fht-bottom trenches shodd be excavated to a depth of a minimum of 2 h. below the established grade line of the oukide bottom of the pipe. The excess exavation should then be filled with kmse material from which aii stones and hard lumps have been removed. The -- loose subgrade materid should be graded uniformly to the established grade line for the f d Iwigth of the pipe. Steel pipe should not be sct on rigid blocks 0x1 the trench bomm that would cause concentration of the load on small areas of pipe 008- or cause deformatim of - t h e p i p e d . Where the bottom of the trcnch is covered with soiid, hard objects that might penetrate - &e protective wting, a btdding of cnished rock or sand, 5 in. thick, should be p W . gnder the barre1 of the pipe. Screened emth also has been used successfully for su& a .- Wdi ng, where ir will d n dry during pipe insmihtion and backtidi. It may be dvantageous to s hpe the trench bottom under hrge sml pipe for fuii arc contact. Overexcavation and Spdal Subgrade Densification When required by the cpmilcstians, the trench should be exavated to a depth of nt leasr 6 in. Wow the bottom of the pipe (Figures 12-1 md 12-2) where the trench bottom is uistable, or where it includes orgmic materials, or where the subgrade is composed of rock dr other hard md unyielding materials. The overtxcavation should be replaaed with well-densified mat e d to a depth of approximately 2 h. below the bottom of the pipe, and the remaining subgrade should be completed witb loose maurhi, as shown in F i 12-1 and 12-2. Voids formed by the removal of bodders and o t k large interfering obje. extending bdow n o d excavatiw limits should be refilled with material as dacribad above. , =. . . . . . -' - - Regulations ti .- All applicable local, state, ami federai laws and reguiations shodd be ar e f dy ob& i ncl ukg those relating to the proteaion of excavations, the safety of persons working -herein, and provision of the required barriers, signs, and lights. Handling and Laying Coire similar to that exercised during loading, transporcing, doadhg, md stringing should be observed during instdation of the pipe in the m&. Di-cally cosed pipe may require a ddi t i d s p e d care when h a n W at temperatures btlow that recommended by the manufacturer, or when the coating tempecanire is above that recommended by &e Coated pipe shouki not be strung on rough ground when stored at the trench site, nor huid it be roiled on such a surface. Rolling of mted pipe should be permitted only when joint ends are bare and rails are provided on which to roU the expostd sted. - /"" I l I!'- ~ 124 STEEL PIPE It EMBANKMENT I TRENCH I WELL-DENSIFIED BACKFILL ~INIMUM (SEE NOTE 5) (SEE NOTE 3) I ~4 1\ MINIMUM (SEE NOTE 5) III 3/4 Ht (SEE NOTE 4) 2 IN. LOOSE MATERIAL I ITII"~//'i' I ' TRENCH WIDTH (SEE SEC. 12.2) Figure 12-1 Densified Pipe Zone Bedding and Backfill It E;MBANKMENT TRENCH WELL-DENSIFIEDBACKFILL .JJ M~IMUM (SEE NOTE 5) (SEE NOTE 3) I 3/4 MINIMUM (SEE NOTE 5) ~ 3/4 Ht (SEE NOTE 4) 21N. LOOSE MATERIAL WELL-DENSIFIED MATERIAL -6-IN. MINIMUM Figure 12-2 Special Subgrade Densification NOTESTO FIGURES12-1 AND12-2 1. Soil densities are expressed as a percentage of maximumdry soil density as determined by AASHTOT993(StandardProctor) or ASTMD6984. 2. Class C1, C2, and C3 backfills require that the contractor prepare a firm but yielding subgrade. 3. Well-densified material shall conform to the following relative dry densities as a percentage of the laboratory standard maximum dry soil density as determined by AASHTOT993for compacted, cohesive soils: Specified Bedding Class C1 C2 C3 Dry Density 95% 90% 85% For free-draining soils, the relative density shall be at least 70 percent as determined by ASTM D2049-695 (withdrawn, replaced by ASTM D4253-836 and ASTM 4254-837). Comparative soil density tests are shown in Table 12-1. 4. Pipe zone backfill height over top of pipe (Ht) shall be 12 in. minimum for pipe diameter larger than 24 in. and 6 in. minimum for pipe diameter 24 in. or less. 5. Side slopes shall be a minimum of %:1 or as required by OSHA, other safety orders, or by the soils engineer. 6. Figures 12-1 and 12-2 represent Class C bedding as shown in ASCE Manual No. 378(WPCF Manual of Practice 9, see reference 8). TRANSPORTATION, INSTALLATION, TESTING 125 1 2-1 Compadson of Standard Denslty Tests* While handling and placing pipe in the rrench, fabric slings should be used. The pipe . shouid not be dmgged along the bottom of the trench or burnped. It should be supported by the sling while preparing to make the joint. The coating on the underside of thc pipe should i. should be repaired before lowering the pipe into the trench. .. . trench should be kept free from water that could impair the integrity of bedding and joining :L: operations. On grades exceding 10 pemmt, h e pipe should be iaid uphill or otherwise held in place by methods approved by the engineer. Specid means ofsupportiag the pipe may be provided, but under noconditions should Slight deflections for horizontal and vertical angk poiuts, lwg radius shouid furnich data to the engineer and the conrractor i ndi dng maximum j deflections for each type of joint fumished. Assembly of PTpe trewh by suitabk means, which dlows progressive lowering of the msembled runof pipe. If Trestle and ring-girder consmcrion is often used for highway, river, and similar tacked for welding. Bows or bends in the pipe caused by direct rays from the sun are preventsd. (This can be achieved by providing a sun shield over tht pipe.) 126 STEEL PIPE bridge contains an expansion joint in its mnstmctiou. Steel pipe is also oftcn suspended from or a-ed to the underside of existing highway bridges, with appropriste attention given to the flexibiliry of the bridge's structurc. Exposed pipelinec in any iocation should be protected againsf freezkg in are85 where such a psi bi l i t y egisfs. Field- Welded joints Technid requirements for goDd field welding are mtained in AWWA Standard for ,. FieM Welding of Steel Water pipe.13 Practica1 data for field use have been published. l4 If pipe that has been lined and matd is to be field welded, a short hgt h of the pipe at either end must be kft bare so t h t the heat of the welding operation will not adversely affect the protective mting. The hgt h of the unprotected d o n may vary depending on the gind of protective coating and pipe wall thickaess. Care must be exercisad wben cutting and complete the lining, proper vendation must be provided. Jointc in pipe smaiier than 24 m; h rtstraining eibows in so& of low capaciry. Welded joints are capafile of resisting thrusts caused by closed valves or by changa sufiaent distance to absorb the force through skin friction provided by the bacgFi11 against the pipe. In such ases, accurate mmputation of the thrust and strength of must be made, partiahly for iarger pipe under high pressures, to determine if the weld. ~ ~ c i e n t l y strong to transmit the force from one pipe seaion to the next. Except during the construction period when an open trench exists, pipe with joints wili usualfy have no problems witb excesi v~ t hemd expansion and contr Bel-and-Spigot Rubber-Gasket joints the direction of laying. 3efore setting the spigot in place, the be11 should adjusted so thc tension on the rubber is uniform around the circumference of ihe Foiiowing assembly, the pipe joint should be &&ed with a thin metal feekr ensure that proper gasket placement exists in the spigot g mv e and tha~ the proper of joint lap has been achieved. -624 ANCHORS AND THRUST BLOCKS TRANSPORTATION, INSTALLATION, TESTING 127 The aemsity for mchors or thnist blocks arjses at ande points, side outIets, and valves, and oint used influences the extent of anchoring necessary at pipehes laid in trenches will ordinarily need no mchors or thnist bocks except on extremely steep slopes and at discontinuities where the pipe has been cut for valves and appurtenances. An all-welded pipehe laid above ground on piers may be stable when filied and under pressure, but may r equk heavy anchorage at angle points md particuhrly on steep slopes to resist stresses arising from temperarure changes when the pipe is empty. When other types of joints are used that have little oc no ability to resist tension, all of the previously mentioned critica1 points must be adequately blocked or anchored. In order , to provide resistance to tbrust at angla in k g e diameter pipelines, whether buried or exposed, it is advisable to provide welded joints on each side of the angle point, a distance sufficient to resist the componente of the thrust. Under high-pressure conditions, lap- wtlded field johts should be analyzed for proper strength ciose to vdves and at large Where pipe is laid on piers, antifriction material should separate the pipe from the supporting snucture. Satisfmory p d c e is for 90-120 degrees of the pipe surface to be made to bear on the pier. For pipe on piers, the thrust resuiting from an elbow or bend tends to overturn the anchof pier. Pipelines laid on slopes, d c u l a r l y abve ground, always havt a tendency to creep downhill. Ir is necessary to provide anchor blocks placed agahst undisturbed earth at ent intervals on a long, steep slope to reduce the weight of pipe supported at each mchorage to a safe figure. Where pipe is lacated in a posirion where disturbance of ly, concrete thrust blocks may be used to resist the lateral thrust. Vertical. angies with resultant tbrust in a downward direction require no special rreatxuent ifthe pipe mf ul l y trimmed rrench bottom, but vertical @es with a resultant i' tbrust upward should be properly anchored. Soil resistame to thrust. A force caused by thrust against soil, whether applied horimntally or vertically downward, may cause consolidation and shear strains in the mil, ' aiiowing a thrust block10 move. T h e safe load that a thrust block can transfer to a @ven soil lidation characferistics and the passive resismnce (shear smength) of block movement permissible, the areaof the block, and the distance of force application below ground line. Methods of calculating passive resistan- are available. l5 For al1 linec, detail dculations are neasary. Data on prmissible soil grip for 13. Some data for the calculation of thrust at Acceptable p r d u r e s for coating of field joints are described in applicable A W W A IPE-ZONE BEDDING AND BACKFILL The following discussion relating to pipe bedding and baddili is of necessity somewhat general in nature. A foundation study should be performed to provide more precise design aiteria for large projects or those with unusual pmblems. STEEL PIPE Pipe-zone bedding and backfill may be classified as Class C1, C2, or C3 (Figure 12- oras otherwise defined by the engineer. Bedding and baclbill should be densified around t pipe to the specified height over the top of the pipe. In the absence of a specific height, t backfill shou1d be densified to not less than that called for in Note 4 of Figures 12-1 an 12-2. The dry density of compacted cohesive soil for each ciass of bedding and backfdl, shown in Figure 12-1, shouid not be less than the following: D y Density Class CI Class C2 Class C3 Soil densities should be expressed as a percent of the laboratory standard maximum dry-soil density as determined according to AASHTO T99, The Moisture-Density -, Relations of Soils Using a 5.5-lb (2.5 kg) Rammer and a 12411. (305 mm) I3rop,3 or ASTM ' D698, Tests for Moisture-Density Relations of Soilr i nd Soil-Aggregate Mixturec, Using 5.5-lb (2.5-kg) Rammer and 12411. (304.8-mm) Drop (DOD ~ d o ~ t e d ) . ~ In-place tests af soil density as required by the engineer are usually made in accordance with ASTM D 1556, Test for Density of Soil in Place by the Sand-Cone ~ e t h o d , ' ~ or ASTM D2167, Test for Density of Soil in Place by the Rubber-Balloon ~ e t h 0 d . l ~ Densification Regardless of the method of densification used, rnateriais must be brought up at substantially the same rate on both sides of the pipe. Care also should be taken so that the pipe is not floated or displaced before backfilling is complete. l.-? . Mechanical Compaction Cohesive soils should be densified by compaction using mechanical or hand tamping. Car% must be taken not to damage coatings during compaction. Equipment with suirably shaped mmping feet for compacting the material will generaity ensure that the specified soik density is obtained under the lower quadrant of the pipe. At the time of placement, tht backfill material should contain the optimum moisture content required for compaction. The moisture content should be uniform throughout each layer. EacWiii should be placed in layers of not more than 6 in. in thickness after compaction. Hydraulic Consolidation 1 1%-in. screen, with not more than 10 percent passing a 200-mesh sieve. The thi by jetting and interna1 vibration. -. . . .- Trench Backfill Above Pipe Zone Native backfill material above thr pipe zone up to the required backfill surface should placed to the density required in the contract specifications. Trench backfill should n placed until confirmation that compaction of pipe-zone bedding and backfill the specified compaction. Cohesive materials should always be compacted w TRANSPORTATION, INSTALLATION, TESTING 129 rolling equipment. To preven1 excessive line loa& on the pipe, sufficient densified b Md l shouid be placed over the pipe before power-operated hauling or roiiing equipment is allowed over the pipe. Interior Bracing of Pipe the design, installation, and performance of pipe bracing during transportation and installation is generally the responsibility of the contractor. Such bracing Iimits the maximum vertical deflection of the pipe duhg installation and backfilling. CAUTION: Interna1 bracing designed for shipments is not necessmily suitable for protection of the pipe during backfill operations. HYDROSTATIC FIELD TEST The purpose of the hydrostatic field test is primarily to determine if the field joints are watertight. The hydrostatic test is usually conducted after bacldilling is complete. It is xed pressure above the des@ working pressure of the h e . If tbrust ; resistance is provided by concrete thnist bl o h, a reasonable time for the curing of the bloclMg must be dowed before the test is made. Field Testing Cement-Mortar- Lined Pipe Cement-mortar-lined pipe to be tested should be filled with water of appmved quality and allowed to stand for at Ieast 24 hours to permit maximum absorption of water by the lining. Additional water should be added to repke water absorkd by the cement-mortar lining. (Pipe with otber types of lining m a y be tested without this wai hg period.) Pipe to be cement-mortar he d in place may be hydrostaticdy tested b e f w or after the lining has 1 Y---- .- -. lf rhe pipeline is to be tested in segments and valves are not pvi ded to isolate the en - ends must be provided with bukheads for r e s t a. A conventiod bdkheadusuallyconsiss . pf a section of pipe 2-3 ft long, on the endof which a flat phte or dished plate bukhead has been weided containing the necessary outlets for accommodating incorning 1. Jbe pipeline should be filled slowly to prevmt possible water hamrner, and care should be exercised to allow al1 of the air to escape during the filling operation. Afrer filling the h e , it may be necessary to use a pump to raise snd m a h i n the desired pressure. test pressure is usually applied for a period of 24 hours before the test is med to begin, principdly to allow for the lining material to absorb as much water as is should be carefully inspected for evidence of leakage. The be permitted depends on the kind of joints used in the he test, the water pressure should be raised (based on the elevation at the line under test) to a leve1 such that the test section is ed to not more than 125 percent of the actual (or design) operaring pressure or pipe t pressure should be maintained for at least 2 hours. e in an aH-welded pipeline or one tim has been joined ralled mechanical couplings. On pipe joined with O-ring rubber gaskets, a 130 STEEL PIPE small tolerance for leakage should be allowed. Aleakage of 25 gal per in. of diameter per mile per 24 hours is usually permitted. Pinhole leaks that develop in welded joints should not be stopped by peening; instead, they should be marked for proper repair by welding. Such welding frequently can be accomplished without emptying the pipeline, providing pressure can be relieved. If a section fails to pass the hydrostatic field test, it will be necessary to locate, uncover, and repair or replace any defective pipe, valve, joint, or fitting. The pipeline must then be retested. References 1. SOWERS,G.F. Trench Excavation and Backfilling.Jour. A WW A, 48:7:854 (July 1956). 2. REITZ, H.M. Soil Mechanics and Back- filling Practices.Jour. A WWA, 48:12:1497 (Dec. 1956). 3. The Moisture-Density Relations of Soils Using a 5.5-lb (2.5 kg) Rammer and a 12-in. (305 mm) Drop. AASHTO Stand- ard T99-8LAASHTO, Washington, D.e. (1981). 4. Tests for Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures, Using 5.5-lb (2.5-kg) Rammer and 12-in. (304.8-mm) Drop. ASTM Standard D698-78. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (1978). 5. Relative Density of Cohesionless Soils. ASTM Standard D2049-69. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (withdrawn). 6. Test Methods for Maximum Index Den- sity of Soils Using Vibratory Table. ASTM Standard D4253-83. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (1983). 7. Test Methods for Minimum Index Den- sity of Soils and Calculation of Relative Density. ASTM Standard D4254-83. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (1983). 8. Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers. ASCE Manual No. 37. ASCE, New York (1969). 9. Moisture-Density Relations of Soils Using a 1O-lb (4.54 kg) Rammer and an 18-in. (457 mm) Drop. AASHTO Standard TI80-74. AASHTO, Washington, D.e. (1974). 10. Test Methods for Moisture-Density Re- lations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mix- tures Using 10-lb (4.54-kg) Rammer and 18-in. (457-mm) Drop. ASTM Standard DI557-78. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (1978). 11. (Reference deleted per errata issued in June 1986.) 12. GARRETT, G.H. Design of Long-Span Self-Supporting Steel Pipe. Jour. AWWA, 40:11:1197 (Nov. 1948). 13. Field Welding of Steel Water Pipe. AWWA Standard C206-82. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1982). 14. PRICE, H.A. & GARRETT,G.H. Field Welding of Steel Water Pipe. Jour. AWWA, 35:10:1295 (Oct. 1943). 15. TERZAGHI, KARL & PECK, R.B. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. John Wileyand Sons, New York (1948). 16. Test for Density of Soil in Place by the Sand-Cone Method. ASTM Standard DI556-64. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (1964). 17. Test for Density of Soil in Place by the Rubber-Balloon Method. ASTM Stand- ard D2167-66. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (1966). ... AWWA MANUAL Supplementary Design Data and Details UT OF PIPELINES The problerns involved in swvegring md hying out a pipeline are affected by both the si= o the line md its location. More detd d c k are necessary as the size increases and as a line passes from rural o urban areas. In general, a p h and profile, tQgether with certain other dmtik, are necessary for any water pipehe. These shodd show: 1. Horizontal and vertical distances, eitfier directly or by s w e y station and elevation (if slope distances are given, this fact should be stated); 2, Location of angles or bends, both horizontal md vertical (point af intersection 3, Degree of bends, degree m radiits of curves, tangent dismces f ormes , or extemal distances if dearance is required; - 4. Pohts of intersedon with pipe centerline for tees, wyes, crosses, ar other branches, together with direcrion-right- or l eft-hd, up or down-or angle of flow, viewed from inlet end; 6. Lwation of adjacent or interferiag insdations or srnictwes; 132 STEEL PWE 7. Tie-ins with property lines, curb hes, d or smet cenferLines, and other pertinent fea- necessary to defrne right-of-wriy and locate pipe centerline clearly; 8. Details or descriptions of al1 specials, together with other data required to supplement AWWA smdards (Figure 13-1) (see the "Information Regarding Use of This Standard" seaion of the relevant standard); 9. Details, dimensiws, and class designation or other description of al1 m e s and mechanical field joints; 10. Any special requirements affeaing the manufacture of the pipe or the instdlation ' procedures. Investigation of soil conditions m y be necessary to determine protectivecoating . requirements, excavation procedures, permissible foundation pressures, or design of mchor or thnist blocks. The Iocation of the water tabk may &ect design md installation. Soil borings are desirable for aU instabtions, espcially where large water lines are involved. Pipe identification may be by mnstcutive piece number, or some other scheme may be used in accordance with tht oommon practice of the pipc manufactures or as estabiished by mutual agreement between the enginetr and the manufacturer. A requirement for consecutive numbering and insmbtion of straight pie= of uniformly cut Iength is uneconomical if the pieces are interchangeable in the h e . Special sections may best be fnarked to show their survey station number. (NOTE: General marking requirements are provided in the relevatit AWWA standards.) A pipe-hybg schedule is a valuable tool for the manufacture and instahtion of a pipeline system. Such a schedule is shown in Table 13-1. A schedule should show k l y and completely the essentid details for each pipe piece. In addition, h e schedule should show the necessaq data for proper assembly sequence and for spotting of pipe s p e d s . . and sedonc. 13.2 CALCUiATION OF ANGLE OF FABRICATED PlPE BEND In -y pi pehe jobs, it is necessary or desirable to combine a plan md profile deflection in one fitting. The relationship between 6 (the angle of the fabricated pipe bend), a and 13 (deflection angla in the plan and profde, respectivtly), and y (the slope mgle of ont leg of 25 '/2 !N. BAND-DRESSER TOLERAN NOTE: Coat lnside and Outside per Relevant AWWA Standard PLAN Figure 13-1 Emnple of Adequately Detailed PIpe Special SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 133 ^' , * - - . .! i%+:% L. - s3#7 e g : . . . .- . . . . - . . . . . . .- -. - . . . . . . . .-. .- .- - . -' . e bend) must be fmown. Although approximate angks are often used, uniess the exact tionship is known, ir is i mpsi bk to teli how dose the approximatiws are. zii A simple relationship is iiiustrated in Figure 13-2. If fl increases the slope angle relative o y, it beaw a plus value. For the general case: cos =s i ny s i n( y +p) +c os ycos ( y+f l ) cosa &e speciai case when :qu& zero: cos B=cos / 3cos ai JOIHT ALLOYAHC& FOR DRZSSBtt COUPLINGS- STATfUHIRG IS HORIZONTAL DISThHCE ALOaG BASE OR SUPYBY LIBI%. DRaSSERS, POR 24 IH. OB PI FE UWLtSS IOPaD, WITH STOPS TW. PIPP; ACCORDXHG FO A WA C-202 AND C O A T D ABD URAPPXD ACCORDlWG TO A W A C-203 STATTOHI XTH. WO. PC. 10. D;ISCiZIPTIOI FiTPINGS CORR. DRdS- WK. RSQ. ( Di ract i on of - >< >e?- < < +:: S SR S t at i oni ng) , : nnr ++; 3 COU- CU PLIBGS - 330+53.2 Begin - Se t t l i a g Basin a t P t l t a r Plant 1 1 5 0 1 Lengfh with Flaagi 329+98.9 f 1 2 1 2 Pc bfl (Verti cal ) Add 1' 9-3/4" Por Slope 1 3 1 Flanged Pi ece - J* Conn. T h i s Dist. 329+75 1 Bigia l i v e r Croaiing - + , < . < ?$-?? - T.-* Pipe Por Crosaing u<A isi Place 323+25 *a h d River Croising 1'8" 4 1 5 Pc. E11 ~HOIIZONTAL) wi t h 3" Conn. 5 1 SOt Langt h 6 X 3 Pc K l l A(Vurti cal ) 134 STEEL PiPE Tees, crosscs, lateral$, wyes, headers, or other fittings that provide means of dividing or uaiting fiow in pipelims do not havt as high a resistatlce to internal pressure as do similar sizes of straight pipe of the same wail t h i c h s . This is because a portion of the side waiiof the pipe in these fittings is removed to aiiow for the b mc h g pipe. Also, there are longitudid stresses in the k t of uarestraid elbows, owhg to distortion or unhi mced hydrostatic pressure. For o d h r y mtemorks insmiiatiom, the d thickaess of tht pipt ~ ~ n mo n l y used is much greater thm pressure conditions require. Consequently, the lowered safety factor of fittjngs having the same waii thickwss as the srraight pipe still leaves adequate strength in most cases, and reinforcing may be UIUieOeSsary. Ifthe pipe is oparing at or near magimum design pressure, however, the strength of the fittings should be investigated and the proper reinforcemcnt or e m wall thickness provided. Fittings may be reinforced in various ways for resismce to internd prcssure. Ty pi d fitting reinforcements are collars, wrappers, and crotch phtes. The design stress in the reinforcement should not Be greatter h n the hmp stress used in the design of the pipe. The type of reinforcement* c m be determined by the magnitude of the pressure- diameter d u e PDV and the mtio of rhe bmch diameter to the main pipe diameter d/D T h e press-iameter value is cdcuiated as: PDV = p'f2 D sin2 A - where: . . P = design pressure (psi) d = brmch outside &meter (in.) D = main pipe ou~ide dhmem (h.) A=branchdi amettr~ofddl , ccti on. For PDV val- gmm 6000, the outlet reidorccmnt should oonsist platt designtd in accordance 6 t h &e nattbod d d k d ia Scc. 13.6. For PDV than 6000, &e ourltt mnforcxment niay k eirfier a wmpper or c o k , ratio ofrhe o u M diamcttr m the main pipe diameter d/D. Por a d D ratio may be used. Thc ratiud/D does aior includethe sin Aas in the PDV determi the coamULagfactor is thc cimmferential dbemions. Wrappets may ix su coM, d d pkm may be substituted for wrappm or o o b . W m p and c o h should bc by tbe me- hcr i bed in Sec. ASME U d d Pressm V d ~ode! This aode prwides that the m s the removed steel at &e h c h is replaced in the form of a wmpper or c o k thc ASME requircnstnts whcn thc PDVr mp bemea4000and 6000, the a r a of thc teplaccd stael should be multiplied by an M factor of 0.000 25 tima Figure 13-3 shom rht ~ ~ n t d wrapper md o@n@ for wclded aad Table 13-2 lists a s v of recammded reiufommmt tgpts, in determining thc required steel replacement, credit should be given to an a r a of the material inthe d of the branch outlet to the dowabk disfatlce from * R t i d o r c c mmt f o r d ~ , wyes,ordoubk hemi s msy requiie a d d i h d d y s e s ditisnissed Mi. SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 135 Figure Ooes Not Show the ion of Necesgary Welds D D = mainline pipe outside diamiter (In.) tr = requi&d bknch cylind& thickness Ty = mainline cylinder thickness (in.) A = brinch deflection angle (degrees) Tr = requlred mainline cyllnder thickness (in.) T = wrapper thickness (in.) d = branch pipe outside diameter (in.) W = owrall wragper width (h.) ty = branch cylinder thickness (in.) w = wrapwr edgs width lin.) ! 13-3 Reinforcement of Openings in Welded Steel Pipe : - , , - - . Recommended Reinforcement Typ& . . . . - - . . S_ . . . PDV d/ D M F m Reinforcemmt T m >m al l - CmtChPlrrte --.;*. : = L. . 5 -- 7 - '3006000 >O.? 0.00025 PDV Wrnvmr . . -. - - = -- -I-- c4000 >O.? 1.0 wf~pper - .- y;2-;,-& GUar - - .e-,- mMOiM 10.7 0.00025 PDV , , - , . . --.+.-- .-_ . . ..<=- ..: -,, - - <4000 S0.7 1.0 Collar . . > Y-->,.& -.; . , .< . - . ? 2 $ A > 7 einforcemmts are for resistame to intmmi pressure. ~ h e y should IX *d for abiiitg to rtsst m- M.:: - --:*' : -2:: or wrapper (2.5tY). Weld areas should not be considered in the design. Overall width of the m h or mppe r should not be l as than f .67d/sin A and should not exceed 2.0d/sin A. This widtb range produces a minimum edge width of 0.3Wsin A. Collar edge widths in the ckumferential diredon should not be kss than the longinidinal edge width. Cohw may be oval in shape, or they may be rectangular with rounded comers. The sadii at corners shodd not be kss thm 4 in. or 20 times the collar thickness, whichwer is greater (except for collars with a length or width less than 8 in.). Longitudinal seams should - be placed at 90' or more from the center of the removed section. On the bmch outlet centerline, the limit line of the branch reinforcement occurs at a listance 2.5 times the thickness of the branch from the surface of the main pipe run or from he rop of the collar or wrapper reinforcement. In Figure 13-3, the area Tdd-Zr,)/sin A represents thc senion of the mainlinc pipe :ylinder removed by the opening for the bmch. The hoop tension due to pressure wirhin *e pipe that would be d e n by the removed section were it present must be arried by the :otal areas represented by 2wT and 5ry (r, - ir), or 2.Sty (t, - t,) on each side of outlet. STEEL COI Criteria-data examph-2hin. x 84~. tee Main-pipe size (nominal diameter) 24 in. Main-pipe cylinder OD D 25 3/4 in. Main-pipe cylinder thickness T, 0.135in.(lOgauge) Bmchsutlet size (nominal diameter) 8 in. Branchsutlct cylinder OD d 8 H in. : Branch-outlet thicknegs . . ' .>* t, 'A h. ' 3 ?d Deflection angk A 90 Design press&c P 150psi Reinforcement stecl allowablc stress (Tbt ailowable f, 16 500 psi stress, based on a design stress rcsdting from working pmsure, shaIi no1 exceed % tbt rninimum yield of the steel used for the pipe cylinder or in the reinforcement, wbichever is less.) Therefort, for PDV <4000 and d/ D 10.7, use collar unless wrapper is provided. For PDV 40, M= 1.0 13.4.3 Collar &si@ Branch outlet (G) 13.4.3.2 Theoretical reinfmement area. TheoretIcal rcinforcement area = A, SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 137 = 1.0 [0. 117( 8.625 - 210.25) sin PO0 = 0.951 in.2 13.4.3.3 Area available as excess Ty and d l mb l e outlet area. Area available = A, (d - 2ryl A, = - sin A (T, - T,) + 5ty (i, - t t ) = 8m625 - 2'0.25)(~. 135 - O. 117) + (5 x 0.25) (0.25 - 0.039) sin w0 = 0.410 i a 2 13.4.3.4 Re i nf o r mt area. Reinforcement area = A, : Therefore, use not iess than 12-gauge (O. 105-in.: 1 = b T = 0.105in. d w=2 w+- = sin A 14.375 in. 2(2.875) + sine= Use: T = 0.105 h. W = 1Min. 1 3.5 Wrapper-Mate Design pd - (100) (49.87~)~ = 4M9 PDV = D sin2 A - (61.875) sin2 75' d Therefore, for PDV 56000 md 5 > 0.7 use wrapper. For 4000 <PDV 46000 M = 0.000 25 PDV = 0.000 25(4309} = 1.077 Therefore, use M = 1 .Os. 13.5.3 Wrapper design 13.5.3.1 Theoretical cylhder rhicknesses. Main pipe (T,) PD (100) (61.875) T, = -= a16 = 0.188 in. 2fJ 60 in. D 61Inin. Ty Y~'isXn. 48 in. Critmh-Bora exm&-60fin x 4 8 k . l aml Main-pipe sizt (nominal diameter) Main-pipe cyiinder OD Main-pipe cgijnder t h i c b s s Branchoudetsize Branch-outlet cylinder OD d 49%in. Branch-outlet thickmss t, %sin. Defkdon angle A 7 5 O Design pmsure P IOopsi Reinforcement steel d mb l e stress (The allowable stress f. 16 500 psi shdi mt e x d % the mhimum lyieid of the sote1 used for tht pipe cylinder or in thc rnfomment, whichever t 1 i I $ 1 1 SUPPLEMENTARY DESICrN DETAILS 139 Pd (100) f,49.8?5) f r = -= 2fs 2(16 500) = 0.151 in. 13.5.3.3 Area ava2abZe as excess Ty and a l I d Ze outler ama. Area available = A, A, = 'd - 2fy) (Ty - Tr) + 5ty (ly - tr) sin A A, = 49.875 - Z(0.188) sin 7 5 O (0.188 - 0.188) + (5 X 0.188) (0.188 - 0.151) d m = = . 49.875 2sin A 2 sin 75O =.25.317 h. (O. 105 h.). 140 STEEL PIPE d w(min.) = -= 49m875 = 17.21 1 h. 3 sin A 3 sin 75' 17.21 1 in. (20.740 in. :. w = 20.740 in. 13.5.3.8 Oeierall reinforcement wixth. H w = &y)+-- sin A 49m875 = 93.1 14 in. - 2(20'740) + sin 750 Use: T = 1/4 in. W = 93Ya in, TCH-PLATE (WE-BRANCH) DESlGN When the PDV exceeds 6000, crotch-plate reinforcement should be used. S plate reinforcement are illustrated in Figures 13-4 th nomograph use was taken from a published smdy Los Angeles? A single curved plate serves as reinforcement for each branch of this 9&in. X 66-in. X 66-in., 9O0 included angle WYe- Figure 13-4 One-Plate Wye This 15-ft X 15-fi X lcfi, 90wye has two crotch and one back plate. FIgure 13-5 Three-Piate Lyle SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 141 Ths 1 Si n. X 12&in. x 125in., 45' wye section has two plates. Figure 13-6 Two-mate MFye rdl = existing depth of plate t 1 = existing thickness of plate d = new depth of plate r = new thi chws of phtt seltcted A = deflection anglc of &e wye branch. NOMOGRAPW USE IN W'E-BRANCH DESIGN The nwiograph design, bastd on design working pressure plus surge aiiowauce, iacludes a safety factor that will keep stresses well below the yieid poinr of steel. ?he minimum yield strength of &e sml used in this repon is 30 000 psi. The design pressure used ia tbe nomopph was kept to 1.5 times the working pressure in order w approximtc ari dlowablc m a s of 20 000 psi. Step 1. h y a straightsdge across the nomograph (Figure 13-7) through the appropriate points on the pipe diameter (se step 2b) and inted-pressure scales; r e d off the deprh of plate from its scde. This r d n g is the crotch depth for l-h. thick plate for oi two-plate, 90, wye-brand pipe. Step Za. If the wye bmch deflection angle is othm than 90, use the N-factor m e (Figure 13-8) to get the factors which, when multiplied by the depthof plate found in s t q 1, will give the wye depth d, and the base depth 4 for the new wye branch. Step 2b. If the wye bmch has unequal-diameter pipe, &e hg t r diameter pi p will havc been used in steps 1 and 21, and &ese rtsults should be multiplied by the Q factors found w the singie-plate stiffenef curves (Figure 13-9) to give d, and di. These factors vary with thc ratio of the d u s of the small p i p to the radius of the hrge pipe. Step 3. If the wye depth $, found so far is -ter thm U) times the thiclmess of the plate (1 h.}, then $, and db should be converted to winform to a greater thickness t by use of tht general equation: A (0.917 - m) d=d1(1;?) 142 STEEL PIPE * . . . - with defiection angles from 30" to 909 the N factow obtalned from the above cums are i the plate depth d, found from the nomograph (Figure 13-71. in accordanee with the equations A,: + ;-: -2.. ches for S ~WI h of UneqUat diameter, flnd 4, and Q for the larger-diameter pt$&{from Figures 13-7 and 13-81; = d;v, crotch depth of single-plate stifener: and &Q = d'b, base depth of singliLplate -- &T; f . 3: : L, : : , A-:. 2- r? t-+. :, -:-LL .--.lb: ;.-=: -+. <-i F u. ;..- *<g. a - q+L ,- . - ,.;-f. - .. 7 ., . -::.:! .;% -*44 -1. . - -. , -. . .:- . . 13-9 Q actor ~ u & s . . - t . - -' . 144 STEEL PIPE Source: Swanson, H, d't and d'e are om Figure 13-10. 8 ET AL 5estgn of Wye Branches for Steel Ppe. jour. AWWA. 47.58l (Jum 1W). +@ate design dmensions; 4 and Q are two-plate design dimensiwis. Seiection of Top Depth Sup 4. To find the rop depth d, or dc, use F i 13-10, in which d, against db or di. This dinmaision gives tht mp amzd bottdm deptbs of p h crotch depths. Srep 5. The interior curves foIlow the cut of the pipe, but the outside both crotches should e q d d, plus the radius of the pipe, or in die sin&+ the radius of the smaller pipe. Tmgmts c o d h e e n these ames com shape. The im-t depths of &e reinforcement plates, rd, and d, (F found from &e nomgraph. If a w e d exterior is dcsired, a d u s equd to mdius plus ti, can be used, both for tlx outside curve of the wye d o n oind m e of the base d o n . - O 10 M 50 40 50 80 70 80 9l 100 110 120 130 140 150 180 BASE DEPTH, dh OR d'h !N. SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 145 StG I IUN ,i; TOP SECTION ,di -d:AsE SECTION R E = 3 Oh R~ = 21 m. A = 4s0 Working pressure, 230 psi Design pressure, 230 ( 1.5) = 350 psi Srep 1. With the h g e r pipe diameter 60 in. and the des* prtssu~e 350 psi, r e d the critical plate depth d h m the nomogrriph (t = 1 h., A = 90): Sep 2. Using the deiection angle 45O, find the ktors on &e N-factor mmc W will convert the depth found in step 1 to apply to a 4 5 O wye branch ( t = 1 in.): Saep 3. With the ratio of tht s d e r pipt radius divided by the larger pipe radiw, (Rs/Rs) = {21/30) = 0.70 and the dtfxaceion angle (A = 4S0), useFigure 13-9 to find the Q factor5 that give the crotch dtpths for a single-plate pipe wye stiffener (t = 1 h.): Qm = 0.52 Qa = 0.66 d& = 0.52(122) = 63.4 in. di = 0.66(61.5) = 4U.5 in. Step 4. Because the depth d& is greater than 30 times the thichess t, rhc conversim equation should be used: 'IPE Try a tbicbess of 1 '/z in.: STEEL E d'-= (0.725) d& = 63.q0.725) = 46 h. d i = 40.5 (0.725) = 29 in. < Step 5. Find the top depth d: from the curve for one-phte design in Figure 13-10: Dephof mof Depbd Outsider e d u s o f ~ s ~ p i p E d ; + R , = I 8 + 2 l = B h . . 1 - -5 Ibratmrk*--P-d-hP RB = &=36in. .- A = 53O .Workhg prmurc, 150 psi 3 Design -me, 150 (1.5) = 225 psi - S 3 ,:a iipe ~~of72 in, &a pmureof2 g q h (t = 1 in., A = 90): si, .i*n SUPPLEMENTARY DESlGN DETAILS f 47 Three-Ptate -. De g n . . , . . - . - - ~he-preoedingaAqpphsstian has Covcd rhe da* of one- sndm** wye i t p ~ ~ p Q m & a t b i t w f ~ m a ~ ~ d e s i g i i . T b e t i d d i t i n a l p b M b mamd'd*the-athejuiiEtionofthe@tes.Thctrom h t b * - t h e i m s e o f a t B i r d p h e ~ o f p i p e d i a ~ p m ~ . ~ t f - ~ i s ~ r t h e n 6 0 i n . I D d t b e h t e m a t ~ k ~ t e r ~ ~ @ , a ~ pEatecoinbeadwn@ems. I f e i t h e r o f t I i ~ ~ i s b e b w t h e l i m i t , t B e d a ~ ~ k - &uwedtu&meathirdphte. I f a M phteisdesiredas a n Mm totheawo-phte des*, itssizesbuhik d i ~ b y t b t - t o p d e p t h ~ . ~ ~ o t h e r ~ p l a t e s ~ f l u s h ~ & ~ ~ s ~ ~ the pipe, however, thesidpieite t hi rkness plus ciemnceshodd b e s i r i ~ , &i j i &Wp p m. This dhensiw s h d & cwst ant throughout, and the $ h e shoumdlb p&-a right angles to the axk of the pipt, giving it a M-ring shape. ~ t s u s s should s&r of t hel mi npb. T h t t f i i r d p l a t e M d b t ~ t o t h t o t h t r ~ r c t ~ i a t n t p l a t e s d ~ ~ a t ~ ~ o p d ' bm,beingMfrtefromthepiptsbellso&rtapI:d~~W~~& -. e - , - + to the ring phte. -- = ~ b m n2wam A o r . & - u g i o n - isismder in- pmsure, un- 2 9. . - foroes-devebp at -p&sand c l h d m in the pipeline, T&appb to bends, tees, rrduan,.&m,b-'&. (Figure 13-12). ?he magniaide ofthne thrust foroes for ! b - and b - is<equalm the p u c t of the i n t e d pressure md the cross-sectiod amofahepipe,m e: 1 k. T= PA (1 3-3) Where: T = the thrusr force (lb) P = maximum interna1 pressure inciuding any anticipated surge pressure or st at i c test pressure if greater h n opemthg precswe (psi) A = ms-sedonal area of the pipe (in.2) = 0.7854 02, where D is the outside diameter of the pipe (in.) 148 STEEL P I E NOTE: h the case of mm- l i ned steei pipe, the outside W e r is considerad to be the outside diameter of the steel sheii. At elbows or bends, the resuitant thrusf force T is: Where: A = the deflection @e of the elbow os bend (Table 13-3, Figure 13-13). There are also s d mbalanced forces at bends caused by the velocity of water flow withinthe pipeline. In general, this veki t y is so low in mansmission or distribution s y s m that its effect on t hni st is insignificant, and thmst forces caused by velocity can, therefore, be neglected. Methods to resmin the thrust forces may be provided by a concrete t h t b l d , or by the development of friction forces between the pipe and the soil through restrained or hamessed joints, or by a combinatiun of these two'methods. Whcn thrust blocks are used at eelbom or bends, the Wi n g a r a of h e block is determined by the bearing capacity of the so3 against which the thrust force will act, or: The value for safe horizontal bearing a p i t y of the native soil should be detecmined from field tests by qualified mil engineers. Restrajned or harnessed joints may &o be used to resist thrust forces through &e development of friction forces between the pipe and the soil surromding it. When this method is d, ~ ~ c i e n t lengths of pipe must be restraid by w e d g or haniessing to counter the unbhoed forces. These unbalanced forces are e q d to PA at bdkheads and tees (Table 134). As shown in F i 13-14~, the f r i a i d force developed becwten the pi ~1i ne and the surrounding soil to restrain this unbalanced force of ZPA sin M2 is assumed to be distributed uniformly dong the restrained length of the pipehe. Properly compxted backf~il adjacent m bends will provide l a t d restraiint and eliminare any tendency for movement in' the bend due to u n b b c e d transverse forces. Figure 13-14~ shows a force dhgam, wherein axid b t s are equal to PA cos A. F i 13-14c shows axial thrusfs versus defkction &s. The length of pipeline required to be restrained on each side of the bend is then: length of resrraincd or hamessed joints on eeich side of the bend or elbow (ft) i n t e d pressure (psi) cross&nal area of &e piw (in.2) bend or elbow deflection (de-) udcient of friction between the pipe and the soil weight of the prism of soit over the pipe (lb/ft of pipe iength) werght of the pipe (lB/ft) weight of the contained water (lf>/ft) In the preceding equation, di 'mameters exoept the vdue of p, fnction d i c i e n t between the pipe md the soil, can be readi1y.determke.d. Tests and experience indicate that the value of p is mt only a function of the type of mil, it is also greatly dfecred by the degcee of compaction and moishrre content of the backfill. Therefore, a r e must be exercised in thc seledon of p. &Ecients of friaion are generally in the romge of 0.25 to 0.40. As shown in Figure 13-15, an additional horizontal force H will be developed for a buried pipe to res& tht pipc from its lagmi movement. This resmining force is a passive foroe. 1t dwelops at the -e when minure movemtnt of the pipe is taking place in &e diredon of the resultant thmt force. Since this force is not induded in the dculation of restrahed or hamessed pipe length, ir can be considered to providt an added d e t y factor. 1 9 STEEL PIPE Tabk 13-4 yldrwtic b t d m k a d E d s and Flarige Cwer P h s per 100 m of In- -re Ppc Diameter Lnad* Pipe Dh me r M* nir. lb Un. 8% *The tabulsted W, or disjoGng form., eqwis 100 times the pressures other thm 100 psi, the lomi will be in direa prqmtion. 10050 Ib; rhe load at 150 psiequals 1.5 (20 100), or 30 150 lb. Sww: Bamard, RE. k i g n Smdads for Ste ' - "' - . D&eloped Between Pipe and Soil - . figure 13-14c Mal Thnists Versus Mextion Figure 13-15 I-Idmnhk Rstrains hried flpe Frm .J i@ ANCHOR RINGS Anchor rings for use in cbqmgte anchor bl& or concrete walls are Uusmfed in Figure 13-16. ~ o ~ ~ e s ~ ~ & o n c d t h n i s t o r ~ ~ ~ a r e g i v e n i n ~ a b l e 13-5. -are proprt i od to r l i - dead-end pull or zhnist imgosed by 150 psi and 250 psi h e d pressures. laformatiion fbr joint k i m s tie bl t s or stucfs to be "sed for @ven pipe diarrieters and &um ~ u r e s s shom in Tabie 134. Hamm des@ data appGab1e EO s k coiiphgs are sbomia Tabk 157s sad Figure 13-17. Data src W on rEEG f o l i d q d ~ f l ~ : M bola C O d f o ~ to ASTM A193, SpeQficsthu for Alhyr%dea aad St ahbs Steel Bolririg Mawiafs for High-Tempermre =ce, Grade B7 or equ& nuts ennfmnhg m ASTM A194, S~~ for C a r h and Alloy SteeI U m for .&ts for HQh~Msure md High-Tempemure Service, Giade lug m a f d d a mh g to ASTM A283, SpecSdons for Low and Tntemdbe Tensile Strength ~ h ' Steel Phtes, Shapes md h, & d e c5 or ASTM A36, - S@Eation Eor Smtcmrd steer? or eqd. Stud bolts %-h. through %-h. diameter have UNC threads; md bol& 1-in. b e t e r and Largtr have eight UP6 k a d s per inch. h h h u m bolt stress aliowable is 40 U1 psi, basad on: ~ e s s l ~ a r e ~ y ~ e q u a l l y a r o u n d t h e p i p e . I n ~ ~ t h t a r r a e s s , the nuts shoill be tightened gr addy cquay at diammically oppi t t sides s n w to we n t misalignnieat and to ensure that dl studs carry e q d Ioads. The thta&,of.the studs shall protrude a mnimum of !4 in. from_the nm. Thtend-thnrstmiueg &own iaTatzk 13- 6- themaximumend-thmsf vdzlcs hamess asmb1ks are da& 10 wirhs&. The Mi p-kire must h&& rm anticipatBd ailowaacc for sur& pressure. The fiei-test pressure rmst never e&d &e , daigapmsutt. Special mmmions are shownin Figufe 13-10 (wih Tabla 13-8 md 13-9), Figures 13- 19 6 through 13-22 (M Tabk 13- 101, md Figure 13-23 (with Tabk 13-1 1). Some examph of - vault and m d d e d e are sbwn in Figures 13-24 through 13-26. Figures 13-27 md 13-28 iiiusPrate blowsff connectim. Tire 13-29 shows a mlief-&e manifold layout. t L S* tapping machines for ma b mder pressure are and have been i;sed for F t many y-. Figure f S30 iliuszraxes rhe merhd The reidkcing pad is eii* unkss - F: pressure requires h. The o mb is ordinarily a p k e d exta-kwy, standard-weight pipe with 8n AWWA s W d phte f h g e atmhed. The tapping valve is sgecial and oillows pmper &arme for rhe cuw on the ddhg d n e . - 152 STEEL PIPE Figure 13-16 Anchor fng Tabk 13-5 Dimensions and Bearing b d s for Anchor Rlngs in Concrete-Mahnum Pipe of t 50 psl and 250 psi . + , 4 0,758 - 154 STEEL PIPE Table 13-6 Tle Bolt Schedule for Hamessed Joints (continued) Minimum Number Maximum . . SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 155 Y CUT TYPE RP ANO TYPE RR PLATE TO UNIFORM HEIGHT E n . e CONTINUOUS AROUND PIPE HOLE STUD DIA. + l/a tN. u 3 Q - E S a Back Plate = WICKNESS OF STEEL HARNESS PLATES PlPE WALL THlCKNESS ANO St f E OF FlLLET ATTACHMENT WELD FRONT PLATE CONTINUOUS RlMG AROUND - . . PLAN ALL THlCKNESS AND SlZE OF FILLET HMENT WELD 134 and 13-7 for dirnensions. 10 for design conditions. lug type RR, the gumt plates btween the back plate and the front plate m y be perpendicular to lhe @ates with a rninimum clear distan- betwewi each pair of gusset pl- of dimensian W. m weld tRickness t shall be in. for cylinder or wrapper thicknesses through '/a h.; and l/4 in. minimum II other cylinder or wrapper thickneases. Gumt Plate 156 STEEL PIPE % H P 5 5 1% 5 3% 3 2 Y, H P 5 5 1 Y2 5 4% 3% 2 7/ 9 'm Ft P 5% 5 1% 5 4% 3% 2 1 'Ig 3% RR 5 m3 1% x H RR 5 Ring 1 ! 4 % fi RR 5% Ring , 1% Rhg 4N 3% 2 1 1 'A RR 5 Ring 1X Ring 4f i 3% 2 1% 3 I 1/2 RR 7 ~ i n g 1% Ring 4% 3% 2% 1% 4 1% % RR 7% Ring 2 Ring 5 3% 2% 1% 1 % 3% RR 8% Ring 2H Ring 5% 3% 2L/i 1% 1% % RR 10 R ~ w 2'/a SE 3% 2% 1% 1% K RR 10% Ring 2% m 5% 3% 2% 1% i N % RR 12 Ring Z1/2 a% 5% 4 2% 17h % RR 13 Eng 2% Ring 6 4 2% 2 1 RR 14 mng 2% m 6% 4% 2% 2% 1 RR 15% Ring 3 RinS 6% 4x6 2% 2% r NOTES: ;3 y, 1. Dimeasiwis sbown a b o ~ are in inchts. -I 2. Use thtst dimensions with Figure 13-17 and Tables 136 ami 1 >?A. :S - . .- : Table f 3-7A Maximum Ailowable Load per Te Bolt . . .L mi l . -& SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 157 ..-. AS POSSt BLE Source: Bernard, R.. Design Standards iw Sieel Water Pipe. Jour. AWWA, 40:3:24 (Jan. 3948). F~ur e 13-19 Nipple Wth Cap WHOLE OR PART LEN OF DRESSER COUPL FORM OASKET HERE ONL Souree: amard, R.. Design Standards Tw Sieel- Water Wpe. - Jwr. AWWA, 40:1:24 (Jan. 1848). Figure 13-21 Wal1 Connection Uslng .: CoupBng $ WELD HEFlE Source: Bernard, R. E. esign Stendards lor Steer Water Pipe. Jour. AWWA, 40:1:24 (Jan. 19-48), fgure 13-23 Thredolets S F L PIPE T a k 13-8 Plate Dimensions and Drilt Si- for Reinforced Tap@ Openjngs (See FIgure f 3-18) - - $7 ~ i o a s of Plate r Size of Drill SiztofPipcTap . A- for Pipe Tap T D* m. -. .,, -* . in. in. un. 3 ,-, 3 *Diameter of phe pad b e f a curving to fit outside of pipe. Sorrrce: mwd, RE. Des@ Saindards for Steel Water Pipc. Jw. A WWA, 40:1:24 (Jan. 1948). < . j .{ Table 13-10 Dimemions of Extra-H& HalF-Coupliw (% Hgure 13-22) 4 Table 13-9 Maximum Size of Threaded Openings for Given S i Pipe Wth Reinfordng PrtdS(SeeFigure13-18) . . Pipe SiZt Maximum Size Tapped O@r@ it1. itl. 6% .- 1 v4 8% . . 1 Y2 10 Y4 - z . u 2 12 Y4 2 V2 14 3 16 3 Y2 18 - - . - 3 Y2 20 4 \ *For sizes hrga than gven, use the d n shown in Figures 13-19> 13A), m 13-22. Somz: mwd, R.E. Design Saindards for Stecl Wmr Pipe. Jm. A WWA, 40: 124 (Jan. 1W). Stcei Water Pipc. Qm. A WWA, 4& 124 (Jan. 1948). 'E C 'INC SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 159 1- 5 FT. 3 IN. .lP-f.z 5 FT. 3 IN. - 1 Plan DES -IN. DIAM.) -- SECTION A-A LE. S-/ Pipelim Appurlenances. Jour. AWWA, 4i:i:47 (Jan. 1849). -24 Casing and Removabk T w Rece Roof 160 STEEL PIPE LADDER FlUNGS - .?. ( GRAVEL-FILLED DRAINHOLE (4 IN.) AND POCKET (1 FF3) Sourm: Goit, L. E. Steel Pipeline Appurienances. Jour. AWWA, 41:1:47 (Jan. 1949). .. Figure 13-25 Section of Wn g mngAccess to Gate Valve Gd n g c . - - 7- BLlND F W G E L ALL 'h-IN. PLAT 6 IN. ' - -. - . -. '/4-IN. DIAM. BAR - .. 8 IN. 8 IN. m Bolted-Corer Typa Fgure 1 3-26 Access Man hole SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS ILET MANIFOLD - 162 STEEL PIPE . - WATER MAlM (UNDER PRESSURE) Procedure: lai weld outlet and sadd tool and dril1 hole in main: (d withd Figure 13-30 Tapplng Main Under Pressure - - .-=. , . 13.12 FREEZING IN PIPEUNES Dependence on the saying h t "running water doesn't freeze" is lmi design praaice. W&r in a pipeline will freeze, running or 32OF (OC). If the water is losing i wili freeze if not moved out of that in this sense, the running of the r e p h the water that is mar freezing. Under some urcumstmces, agitated tum to ice even when the temperanue is as low as 2S0 to 2g0P (-2.2O to - 1.7OC), l$ut t condition mmot be pdi ct ed or depended on. The only safe condition is one wk* water temperature stays above 3ZF (OC) with a m-, if possible, of I D or 2 O F (Q.5' 1C) against contingencia. The heat added to the moving water as a result of W o resistmce to flow is negligible for large pipe wirh low velociues, but it may be considera for smaIi pipe with high velacitieg. Calculations relative to the prevmtion of freezing in pipdiaes are h e d the sa general principia of heat transmission and loss tbat govern similar Calculation@Jpliei buildings and other hstaiiations. It is well established that complete fraewd9 occurs when 144 Btu of heat per pound of water is mmcfed after the temperaw Q@ mass has been lowered to 32OF (OC). Also, wirh certain exceptions, the mtio ofthe of water existing as ice to the w&hf of liquid water at any time during woling L 3 proportianal m the ratio of rhe Bri@h rhermai units per p md withdrawn to the $44 4 pound required for complete freezing. . I Water containing only ice partides ( f h l or needie ice) m a y cause S because hese can quickly block a pipeline by adhering to vaives or ruiy mino1 Experience indicates that the .water must be maintained at about 32. (0.M0 to 0.3OC) to avoid trouble. SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 163 Freezing in Underground Pipes - . - ' z The Ereezing of water ia buried pipes is usually dw to the cooling of the surrounding soil to a 3 . - - - point below 32OF (OC). Soil-temperature variations are related to flow of heat in SO*. Air - : i . . . tempefature is the most impormt fctor aecting soil temperamre and frost penetration. *;+: , m The most common method of expressing the seasonal effect of air tempemtures on g> :. .- water is the freezing index? Thc index is the cumulative total of de.gree4ays below the L ,- -*& freezing point in any winter. In this mtext, a degreehy is a unit representing 1 degree (F) y:?: . y . , of difference behw 32OF in the mem outdoor temperature for one day. Values for %;,= midwinter days hving tempemhires above freezh-that is, ne@ve degree-days-are subtreicted from the total. Temperature data for many I d t i e s are av&ble.8 A des@ a me rehting fmt-dcpth r.; penetration to the freezing index is shown in Figure 13-3 1. The curve wm devdopsd by the US Amiy Corps of Engineersgs 'O from an andysis of frost penetration records of the northern United Sutes. The data on the severai soils in Figure 13-31 are from observations made at Ottawa, Ont? . . . Exptrimencal work on the subject of frost penemtion7 indicates that: -.: .- , h3= , Theoretical equations for computation of frost depth are not free from error. Thc , - Corps of Engineers design cucye (Figure 13-31) is the best aid currently available for -. i estimating frost penetration. . . k- Fmt penetration is signifbntly greater in distiirbed soil than in undisturbed soil. Water pipes may safely be placed at less depth in clay so& than in sandy soiis. Frost penemtion 'has been found about 1% times as deep in smd as in clay. ... Maximum frost penetration may occur several f ~eeks before or dt er the frtezing index for a winter reaches a maximum. Water rnains have fmzen as late as June in Winaipcg, Man. Frost penetrates deeper in soils on hiilsides with northern expure than in those with southern expure. . - Undisturbed continuous snow mver has reduced fmt penetration in the Uttawa .*.- c h t e by m mu n t equoil to or greater than the snow-cover ttiickness. - , -. , -:.. ., c.-- .- . . , , . - 200 400 fOOO 2OMl 4MW1 BOM) FREUING INDEX, DEGREE OAYS I ~ mr c e : L-t. R F & Crswford, C.B. So/ Tempratures >o Water Works Pr a c t h . Jovr AWWA, U:IO:# (Oct. 1952). Measurements were made in Ottawa, Ont., $947-51. Right end of each horizontal line indicates rnaximum frost depth at maximum f reezing index; let end indicates freezing index at time of maximum frost depth. mrefers to measurements made in sand (Inierpolated): Olnclay {interpolatedl: Xin aand (by excavation): and +inclay (byexcavation). Rgure 13-31 Maximum Frost Penetration and Maximum Freezing lndex 164 STEEL PIPE - 4 Freezing in Exposed Rpes - < balance is illustrated by Figure 13-32, The hear input is e q d to Hi + HB British thermai units per square foot of exposed pipeline per hour avaihbl hear of water above 3ZF at the inlet end, md H2 being the British thermal unim per sq foot of pipe per hour genemted by f ri ct i d energy. ( E q ~ ~ for Hl and H2 are give Table 13- 12.) The heat losses are given by: At Hbs = 1 + L + L t + 1 - rif k k ' &+hm 13- 16, respectively. Source: RIWick, T.M. ET AL Freezing of Water in Exposed PipIims. Jour. A W A . 42:f f :TU35 ( Nov. 1950). Ffgure 13-32 Heat Balance in Exposd Pipelines Tntde 13-1 3 Values of D d v D Pipe Diameter m. M 11.0 Smw: Riddick,T.M.; Lindsay, M.L.; &Tomassi, Antonio. Freezingof WaterinEffpOgBd Pi penes. 3~. AWW (Nw. 1950). SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 165 166 STEEL PIPE Table 13-14 Conducdon H e a t - T e r Values T h e d Gmductivity Assumd Thickntss Heat Tmf t r Value Substance A* k. Pa$e mar& Steel Cast iron 385 0.75 515 Concrete 5.3 5.0 1.1 Wmd stave 1 .O 2.0 0.5 ~ h m i n ~ m 1410 0.25 5w Askm cement 4.5 1 .o 4.5 - I d a m Dry air 0.17 0.08 Water 4.0 2.0 Ice 15.6 7.8 85% magnesia ' 4Foamgh"t *Btu per square fwt p u hour pu de= Fahrcnhtit ?A product of Pittsburgh Corning Corp., Pittsburgh, Sosrrce: Riddkk, T.M.; Lindsay, N.L.; & Tomassi, diffmntial ptr inch thlclmess of Pa. Antonio. Freezing of Water in ' material. h m s d 42: 1 1: 1035 (Nov. 1950). rl Table t 3-1 5 Emi ss~t y Factors Emissivity Factor - E w d (u) 0.9 Asbestos ement 0.9 Aluminum O. 1 Brass or mpper (with p i n a ) 0.5 + Soun: Wc k , TM.; Lindsay, N.L.; & Tomassi, Antonio. Fraezing of Water in Expared P i p h s . Jour. A W W A , ~ (Nov. 1950). .1 Table t 3-16 Wnd Velocity Factors Factor . - - - - - - - . . . - . . - - Smw: Riddick, T.M.; Lindsay, N.L.; & Tomassi, Antonio. Fieezing of Water in Expsed Pipelines.jw. A W ~ -< (Nov. I950). SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 167 Example of calcutadon. P ~ o b h : An exposed, uninsutated s t d pipeline is 48 h. in diameter, 0.25-in. thidc, 10 000-ft long, md has a C famr of 14. Wiii this line freeze when coirrying 25 mgd of water entering the pipe at 3SF, with an outside air temperanire of -SF, snd a 35-mph wind blowing? - - , ' -. For &e d t i o n s given: Heat input e q h Hi + Hz. . ?. . : ; : . +* ; ; . -.. - . . 7- - = 143.5 ~ t u / f t ~ h . - Because the h a t input is 207.5 ~ t u / f t ~ / h and the heat loss is 143.5 ~ni / f t ~/ h, the pipeline is safe against freezing under the des* aonditions. Further calculationshows that, for the same temperature conditions, heat input and heat loss are equaI when the pipeline is about 14 800 ft Iong and the velociry is 3.1 fps; or, stated conversely, the velocity in the 10 000-ft line could be as Iow as about 2.1 fps before ice might form mar the outlet. 168 STEEL PIPE Warning of Water in Exposed Pipelines In desert areas and in the tropics it may be desirable to determine the rise in water temptraturc caustd by q u r e of pipe to sun and wind. In this case, the heat input is calculared io accordance with the same basic principies of heat mf e r used to determine heat losses in lhts undergoing cooling. The values of factors to be usad in the equations in a given instance should be determined locaily . Data applicable to calculation of heat loads for air-conditioning and cooling units may be helpful. 13.13 DESIGN OF CIRCUMFERENTIAL FILLETWELDS Any weld that is continwus wiil contain water, so weld size is insignificant froma seal-we aspect. Once welded, the weld must withscrind my iongitudinai forces ap does not behave as an uflsmssed sea1 weid, since it is the only r e s h t that of the pipe at the joint. In areas of i pipeline not affected by pipeline features that give rise to longitudid stresses (elbows, vdves, reducers, etc.), the only l o@tudi i stress n o d y ,- encountered is due to change in temperature or to ixam bending from uneven settiement of the pipeline. To minimize longitudid stresses, it is customary in specifications to cail for one joint every 400-500 ft u, be left unwelded untii the joints on both sides of it are weldd. This joint is later welded at the cooiest time during the wor- day. Determination of weld size then is as follows (see Figure 13-33): = fillet weld leg size (h.) p = thraat dimension (h.) AT = temperahire change (OF) T = tempereiture(F) K = constmt linear dcient of thermal expansion for steel = 6.33 x in./in./OF L = iength of pipeline (ft) AL = c h g e in length (ft) E = Young's modulus = 30 x lo6 psi Sp = stress in pipe woiu (psi) S, = stress in weld (psi) r = pipe wail (in.1. Assume an anchored straight pipeline is welded at a temperature TI. is then reduced to T2. The pi pehc would then tend to reduce in kngth by a function of Ti-T2, L, md K. S k the ends are anchored, it cannot chringe its Figure 13-33 fillet Nomendature SUPFLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS 169 Therefore, the stress in the line is the carne as h t which wodd exist if it were stretched by the same amom that it wodd shorten if it were free to do so. This is a conservative assumption. Few p i w e s are pe r f dy straight between anchor pints, md kmperature chmges are usudly gradual, so most lines acnidiy can c h g e their iength by a s d amount, relievhg the thermal s t ms somewhat. To dcuiate t h d stress: Shortenhg due to temperature change ~ L T is found as: (2) ~ T = L ( A T ) ( K ) Hongation due to lorgitudind tension AL, is found as: According to the oissumption above.: AL, (stras elongation) = ALr (temperature shortening) Substituting (2) into (4): (5) AL, =ALT E = 30 x 1O6 psi S, = AT(6.33 x l e ) (U) x 106) = AT(189.9 psi) For MF change in temperature: S, = 189.w) = 7596 psi (stress in pipe wall) CaicuZatim for fiilet sixe: The weld must carry its load through its least dimension (its throat). To be conservative, assume no penetration at the thmat. The full force of a unit Iength of pipe wdi in the Qrcumferential diredon must be b e d by a unit lmgth of fdtt weld thmat aiso measured in the circumferential direction. Cal this unit length 2. STEEL PIPE The weld metal is as strong as the parent metal, so consider the aiiowable stress to be 15 000 psi (% yield) in the pipe 4. thens, = 15 000 psi for AT = 40F S, = 75% psi Ieg size then is: NOTE: In meas where a vdve anchor b l d or other pipeline appumnanccs can introduce tension into the h, the tmsion due to &e appurtenances should be checked to determine if it established the minimum fillet size. Thae d stresses can never ex& balf the hoop stress caused by internd pressure. That tension and the thermal tension are m additive because the tension can only exist if &e pipe is not restrained, and the thermal can only exist if it is mmhed. The greater tension applies for d e s e purpmes. See 13.14 SUBMAWNE PlPEliNES The type of constnicti& used has a great influcnce on design and on total costs of a systwn, A britf discussion of different available construction tdmiques wiii illusuatc their effcct, Thm are basicaiiy two systems for coastructing submarine pipelints: pipe-laying systems and pipt-pulling systems. Pipe Laying In a pipe-laying system, the pipe is mansported by water to the laying platform, barge equipped primady with a heavy crane and horse. The horse is a moving on skid beams in two directions with cables extending vert i dy downwar water. On arrival at the job site, the crane picks up the pipe segment and horse is centered above it. The pipe, once attached to the horse, is Iowered t Divers report the position of the segment in rehtion to the completed section the horse is moved up and down, forward and badward, md sideways lines up with the beil end of the completed section. . - ' .. 2:-{---.., . , . , - Rpe Pulling ,- , Pipe puliing has been evolved by the oii industry through rivers, bays, md open pipe-pulling method requires pipe apable of withstandhg the tensile stresses during the puiiing operation. The method is usually used with steel pipe b u s high tensiie stresses. A steel-pipe pulling operation begins on assembly ways established ashore, o the pipe is coated and wrapped. To p t n t fioating, the pipe may be allowed , "-a 7 - water as it leaves the assembly way. Alternatively, the pipe may be apped to exclude water, - *-% -. . .. - 72- - - 5 then concrete weighted or coated to overcome its bouyancy. The pipe ltagths are welded in . - , >: !,. __1 aontinuous strings. The mmpleted pipe string is transferred to launchways (Figure 13-34), - . 9 -. 1 . - i which lead to the sea. Once shore sssembly is complete, the reinforced head of the pipe strhg is attached to a pull barge by wire rope and pukd along ttie bortom by a winch until it is in position ( F i i 13-35). A variation of the bortom-puU method is the flmting-string method of pipe instalhtion. The line is initially assembkd in long segments and transferred to the Iaunchways. It is then pulled off the launchweiy by a tug, floated out to locoition, and sunk (Figure 13-36). Individual strings are connected by divers, as in the pipe hying method, or strings are joikd by picking up the end of the iast piece installed and putting it on a deck of a special tie-in phtorm, where the connection to the beginaiag of the mxt string is made. - - - - - - - m- ------- LAUNCHWAY TIE-IN STATION CONTROL HOUSE Pl PE SUPPORTS 172 STEEL PIPE . .- + - . , PONTOONS SYSTEMATICALLY RELEASED TO LOWER PIPE Pyden, W.M. fngenieursi 8 Piaseckyj, P.J. Wnornicand Omr Design Conside ver publisher). Aniwerp, Belgium (f9741. Submarine Rpeline- Hoating Strlng Posloning ; . ... P. < A, h. me ; _ . .. ~ma t l e r ~~i pe f i t a e s a r e s o me t i nm b w- b mr d ~ f o r we i d i n g p i p e ofthcbargeasis-barge movesaiong~-mmeofrhepi@me, taddiagpiptasitgcits. he pipe mdggcxx b d i n g stresses as it is kid, so the barge should include quality-srpl - faciiitits fur checaing the somdness of.the cipcumferential wdds. Referentes l. ASME UdUed Pressure Vessel Cede. 9. Repwt on Fmt (1 2. SWANSON, H.S. ET a. Dwign of Wyc Bmh e s for Steel Pipc. Qwir. A WWA, 47:6:581 Uune 1955). 10. MdedUm No. 1, 3. Spccificatiws for Alioy-Swei and S&- Fmt PmetfatiOfl less Stel Bolting Matcriais for High- Temperatufe Sewice. ASTM S m W A193-80. ASTM, FWadeIphia, Pa. (1980). 11. RIDDICK, T.M.; LINDSAY, 4. S-m for Carbon and Aiioy Steel Nuts for Bolts for Hi gh- hure and Higb-T~mmturt Sm?a. ASTM Stand- ard Al-. ASTM, Phhdelphih, h. (1=). The fol2uwing refmmes are nat th texr. 5. S@ications for Iiw and Intermediate Tcnsilc S e Gt dm Stacl Platcs, Shapes and M. ASTM Standard A285 79. ASTM, FWaddphia, Fa. (1 979). 6. Spcufmtion for Sm& Steel. ASTM S m h d A3&77. ASTM, Phihddphia, Pa. (ign). 7. -E-, RF. & CaAwom, C.B. Si l Tcmptratum in Water Works Pmaiot. Jm A WWA, 44: 103923 (Oct. 1952). 8. Heating, Ventilating ami Ai rMt i oni ng Guidc, Amer. Soc. Heating and Air Con- ditioning Engrs., New York. lndex , , , . . -. .. : . .- .,... . . , . , ,: . . I . . - . > - ,- .. - .-<. Air-and-vacuum valves, 98-99 requirements of, 115 Air entrainment and release, 33 selection of, 1 15-1 7 Air-release valves, 98-99 Cold working, 10, 12-13 Air venting, 129 Collapse-resistance of steei pipe, 39 Amerian Water Works Association standards for Coliars, 134-35 coatings and linings, 1 17- 19 - collar plate, 136-40 Anchor rings, 96,15 1 design, 136-38 Anchors, 127 Compaction Appurtenanm See Mechanical compaction See Firtings and appurtenances Concrete footings, 80 Aqueducts Connections economical diameter of pipe, 32-33 blowoff, 97 Assembly of pipe, 125-26 hnged, 97 Atrnospheric corrosion, 11 1 special, 151 . .. to other pipe material, % BacEu , -' ?y Gmosion . .>.. . .f See Pipe-zone bedding and backfill allowance, 38-39 . '- ' ' - - Bedding atmospheric, 111 q ' See Pipe-zone bedding and backfill bimhemical, 108 , Bell-and-spigot joints, 86, 126 bonding of joints, 112 Bending stress of steel, 8 cathodic protection, 11 1-12 Biochemid corrosion, 108 control methods, 11 1 Blowoff connecrions, 97 aevice, 109 Bolt hole pi t i on, 95 , electrolytic, 107 ! - -' Bouquet Canyon pipeline, 4 " galvanic, 102, lk" Boussinesq equation, 62-63 internal. of steel pipe, I 11 Brittie fracrure, 12- 13 overview, 101 Brittle material, 4 severity of, 109 Buckling, 6 1 -62 mil investigations, 109- 1 10 Bulkheads, 129 s t r a s and fatigue, 108 . - :. survey, 1 13 Calculations theory, 101 angle of fabrimted pipe bend, 132-33 Couplings collar design, 136-38 grooved-and-S houldered, 89-90 definition of symhls, 33,35 sleeve, 88-89 entrance head l as , 26 Crevice corrosioi?, 109 flow through fittings, 27-28,32 Densification, 128 " - flow through pipe, 26 Design . ., .... freezing in exposed pipes, 167 See Pipe design "'1'" ; loss of head duough friction, 26 Distribution system -' '" losses due to-elbows, fittings, and valves, 26-27 economical diameter of pipe, 32-33 nomograph, 141,14447 Dude material, 3 pressure rise, 55-56 Ductility of steel, 3-4 . -4 . . ..-. ..:. . velocity he& loss, 26 ductility in design, 10 - . wrapper design, 138-40 effects of aold working on, 10, 12 -. ' . Cathodic protection, 1 1 1 - 13 .-- ,' .:. Charpy V-notch impact test, 13-14 Economical diameter of pipe, 32-33 . . . r3. . - .. . Check analysis, 20 . , - - Elastic-plastic range of steel, 6-7 --. -.., .- ..: . .e<-, - '. Coatings and linings Ehsticity -- application of, 1 19 See Mduius of elasticity of sieei .. . A W W A standards, 1 17-19 overview, 115 .. - - > - - recommendations, 119 -.. . . -. - ---< .. :.. :. :. : . . . . o . . . >= , -: - 7 . . - . , .- i . - - 2>cL.. . - - : . ? - - S , - - . - ; . .*-Y . . - -:,2 ?-. ,T. . - - =--s. -i -- .- --- . .,- . .:.. - - .. - ::s._- . _ . . + - :.<.y-;*-++: -. :-: >d~: ;:; . - ,.-.. ,- . - - - . . . . .? L... =: - . . - . - - 'Y ,>- -- - -.. ,....,T .-.: - .+;:=:.->$ -.y.,! . . T. . - - . . . .. . . , .? Y. .<-:- c. ..L-:. >- ---- .,-- . . - .. .- . >.: . .<>..-- <-.- -.: -- . .. y -. -,:-.--. ..-.. - ? - - - -=.- - :'- - ".C.,- -<:---. : : ; * -.. .: , - . . -. - ,-<. . - . - . .. . - . - - - - - - . -:- - ,? . ---: - -- - - . . 174 STEEL PIPE Electric resistance welding, 16 Electrolytic corrosion, 107 Entrance head loss, 26 Expansion joints, 80 Exterior prism, 57 External load buckling, 61-62 computer programs, 63 deflection determination, 58-61 extreme conditions, 62-63 load determination, 57-58 normal pipe installations, 62 External pressure applied calculations, 39-40 atmosphere or fluid environments, 39 Fatigue corrosion See Stress and fatigue corrosion Field-welded joints, 126 Fillet welds, 168-70 Fittings and appurtenances, 95-99 designation, 93, 95 overview, 93 recommendations, 99 reinforcement, 134-35 testing, 95 Flanged connections, 97 Flanges, 89 Flow through fittings, 27-28, 32 Flow through pipe, 26 Fracture mechanics, 12-13 Freezing in pipelines exposed pipes, 164, 167 overview, 162 underground pipes, 163 Frictional resistance soil-pipe, 96 Galvanic corrosion, 102, 104 Gaskets, 86, 89 Hazen-Williams formula, 21-22 Head loss through friction, 26 See a/so Calculations Herman Schorer design, 71-72 Hoop stress, 66 Hydraulics air entrainment and release, 33 calculations, 26-28, 32 definition of symbols, 33, 35 economical diameter of pipe, 32-33 formulas, 21-22 overview, 21 recommendations, 33 Hydrostatic field test air venting, 129 allowable leakage, 129-30 bulkheads, 129 field testing cement-mortar-lined pipe, 129 overview, 129 \. Installation anchors and thrust blocks, 127 assembly of pipe, 125-26 bell-and-spigot rubber-gasket joints, 126 field coating of joints, 127 field-welded joints, 126 handling and laying, 123, 125 hydrostatic field test, 129-30 overview, 121 pipe-zone bedding and backfill, 127-29 Insulating joints, 98 Interior prism, 57 Iowa deflection formula, 58-62 Joints abovegrouml conditions, 91 bell-and-spigot, 86, 126 bonding of, 112 expansion and contraction, 90-91 field coating, 127 field-welded, 126 ground friction and line tension, 91-92 insulating, 98 overview, 86 recommendations, 92 slip, 87 stuffing-box expansion, 91 underground conditions, 90 welded, 87-88 Ladle analysis, 19-20 Lay barge, 172 Linings See Coatings and linings Live-load effect, 60 Load See External load Lock-Bar pipe, 1-2 Manholes, 97-98 Manning formula, 22 Manufacture of steel pipe electric fusion welding, 16, 19 electric resistance welding, 16 Marston theory, 57-58 Mechanical compaction, 128 Modulus of elasticity of steel, 6 Modulus of soil reaction, 60-61 Nozzle outlets, 96 Penstocks, 37 economical diameter of pipe, 32-33 Pipe deflection as beam, 70 calculation methods, 70-71 Pipe design anchor rings, 151 angle of fabricated pipe bend, 132-33 circumferential fillet welds, 168-70 crotch-plate, f 40-41 fittings reinforcement, 134-35 freezing in pipeiines, 162-64,167-68 joint harnesscs, 15 1 nomogmph, 141,14447 pipeline layout, 131-32 S@ connections, 151 submarine pipelines, 170-72 thrust restraint, 147-49 Pipe joints See Joints Pipe wall thickness corrosion allowance, 38-39 extenid prcssure, 39-40 i nmd pressure, 36-37 minimum, 40 overview, 36 pressure limits, 38 recommendations, 40 vs. stiffening rings, 67-68 worlcing tension stress in steel, 37-38 Pipe-zone bedding and backfill densifiation, 128 hydraulic consolidation, 128 interior braang of pipc, 129 mechanical compaction, f 28 o v e ~ e w, 127-28 trench b d ~ i i &ve pipe mne, 12&29 Pocketing, 71 Pressure lirnh, 38 Ressure surge See Water hamrner Fressure wave veldty, 53 jng-girder construction assembiing pipe, 80 concrete footings, 80 continuous pipelines, 76-77 design factors, 74 expmsion joints, 80 Hermau Schorer design, 71-72 nstaIlation of spans, 78 low-prwsure pipe, 77 pipe hal full, 74,76 stress in-pipe skll, 72-73 smess in ring girder, 73-74 Riveted pipe, 1 Rubber gaskets, 86,89 Saddle supports equal l d , 67 hmp suess, 66 maxirnum saddlc, 68-69 spans, 66 4 1 thickness vs. stiffening rings, 67-68 Scobey formula, 22 Shear stress, 12-13 SIeeve couplings, 88 pipe layout, 88-89 Slip joints, 87 Soil-pipe frictional resistance, % SteeI pipe design stresses, 1 ductility and yield saength, 3-4, 1412 history, 1-2 interna1 wmi o n of, 1 1 1 Lwk-Bar, 1-2 physi d charamristics, 3 reuimmendatiofls, 15 riveted, 1 stecl sciection, 14-15 saength, 14 12 s m s and srran, 4-9 structud design, 12- 15 tension strcss and yield srrength, 37-38 -, 2 welded, 2 S t e m formuia, 39 Strength of steel effeas of coid working on, 10, 12 Stress and fatigue corrosion, 108 Stress and strain of steel, 4-7 analysis based on smin, 8-9 bending stress, 8 . hoop stress, 66 . pipe shefl, 72-73 .. , -, . ring girder, 73-74 .. , - 2~i : t shear stress, 12-13 - - strain in design, 7-8 tension stress, 37-38 Stringing of steel pipe, 122 Stuffing-box expansion joint, 91 Submarine pipelines lay barge, 172 overview, 170 pipe laying, 170 pipe pulIing, 170-71 . .- ' . Supprts girtdiait to prevent pocketing, 7 1 overview, 66 pipe deflection as beam, 70 ring-girder construction, 7 1-74,7&7&, 80 saddle, 66-69 Surge-wave theory, 5 1-54 Tension stress of steel pipc, 37-38 Testhg of steel pipe check amlycis, 20 chemimI properties, 19-20 dimensional properties, 20 hydrostatic test, 20 ladle analpis, 19-20 physi d properties, 20 Thrust blocks, 127 176 STEEL PIPE Thrust forces soil resistance 10, 127 unbdanced, 95-96 Thnist restraint, 147-49 Transpomtion air, 122 handling, 122 loading and unloading, 122 modes, 121-22 overview, 121 rail, 121-22 st l i l l ghq, 122 tnick, 122 water, 122 Trenching bottom preparation, 123 depth, 122 werexcavation, 123 regdationc, 123 width, 122-23 Wdl thickness See Pipe wall thickness Warming water in ex@ pipelines, 168 Water hamrner aUowance for, 55 checldist for purnping &,54 effect of conduit, 53 effect of friction, 53 overview, 51 pressure rise calcuiations, 55-56 sudies for, 54-55 surge-wave theory relationships, 5 1-54 Welded joints, 87-88, 126 Welded pipe, 2 Wrappcrs, 134-35 design, 1 3 8 4 Wye branch design, 95, 140-4 1 nomograph use in, 14 1, 14447 one-phte, 145-46 three-phtt, 147 two-pIate, 146-47 Yield strength of steel, 3-4, 37-38 Young's rnodulus, 54 2 August f ssS for AWWA Mll-88 Third Edition June 1988 SUPERSEDING AWWA M1 1 -87 Semnd Edition 14 JuIy 1988 Department of Defense Acceptance Notice AMWA Mll-88, Thiri use by the D m e n t E. . has furnished the c l a mc e required by exhking mguktims, Copies of this - . - . &--- domment are gbcked by the W Single S k k Faw, NawI P&Iic Center, 5801 Tahr Ave., Philadelphia, FA 19l20= for isme ta OrD a&viti&-apiy,-v L=;is An other requestors mvst obtain documenb fmoi AWWA, 6666 Weat Wncy Ak,-.--*?g > -. - Denver, CO 80235. merican Water Works , Guide for Design and A d o e Third Editio -:. ? - Releas& Noragovernment Sbun&r& B&: American Water WmIca~ bmiatian u -- - . 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Technical Writing A-Z: A Commonsense Guide to Engineering Reports and Theses, Second Edition, British English: A Commonsense Guide to Engineering Reports and Theses, U.S. English
Second Edition