Physics 3

Electricity and Magnetism
1
PHYSICS 3 (ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM)
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dng Hoi Ngha
Email : dhnghia@hcmut.edu.vn - dhoainghia@yahoo.com
Web site : www4.hcmut.edu.vn/~dhnghia
phone: 0918 416 425
1. Code of module: PH015IU
2. Level:
3. Credits: 3 Credits
4. Prerequisites: Basic Mathematical Analytics, High School Physics
5. Evaluation & grading: 2-hour examination
6. Objectives of module:
Know and understand basic physical processes and phenomena.
Solve basic physics problem by applying both theoretical and experimental techniques.
Understand and acquire skills needed to use physical laws governing real process and to solve
them in the engineering environment.

7. Synopsis of module:

Chapter 1: Electric fields 3
Properties of electric charges
Insulators and conductors
Coulombs law
The electric field. Electric field lines
Electric field of a continuous charge distribution
Motion of charged particles in a uniform electric field
Electric flux. Gauss law
Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium
Insulator with uniform charge density

Chapter 2: Electric energy and capacitance 21
Potential difference and electric potential
Potential differences in a uniform electric field
Electric potential and potential energy due to point charges
Electric potential due to continuous charge distributions
Electric potential due to a charged conductor
Capacitance.
Combinations of capacitors
Energy stored in a charged capacitor
Capacitors with dielectrics

Chapter 3: Current and resistance, direct current circuits 34
Electric current
A model for electrical conduction
Resistance and Ohms law
Electrical energy and power
Electromotive force
Kirchhoff s rules
Resistors in series and in parallel
RC circuits
2

Chapter 4: Magnetism 44
The magnetic field
Magnetic force acting on a current-carrying conductor
Torque on a current loop in a uniform magnetic field
Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field
The Hall effect
The BiotSavart law
Amperes law
The magnetic field of a solenoid
Magnetic flux. Gausss law in magnetism
Displacement current and the general form of Ampres law
Magnetism in matter
The magnetic field of the Earth

Chapter 5: Electromagnetic induction 65
Faradays law of induction
Motional EMF
Lenzs law
Induced EMF and electric fields
Self-inductance
RL circuits
Energy in a magnetic field
Mutual inductance

Chapter 6: Alternating-current circuits 73
AC sources and phasors
Resistors in an AC circuit
Inductors in an AC circuit
Capacitors in an AC circuit
The RLC series circuit
Power in an AC circuit
Resonance in a series RLC circuit
The transformer and power transmission

Chapter 7: Electromagnetic waves 82
Maxwells equations and Hertzs discoveries
Plane electromagnetic waves
Energy carried by electromagnetic waves
Momentum and radiation pressure
Production of electromagnetic waves by an antenna
The spectrum of electromagnetic waves

8. References:
1. Halliday D., Resnick R. and Merrill, J. (1988). Fundamentals of Physics. Extended third edition.
John Willey and Sons, Inc.
2. Alonso M. and Finn E.J. (1992). Physics. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
3. Hecht, E. (2000). Physics. Calculus. Second Edition. Brooks/Cole.
4. Faughn/Serway (2006). Serways College Physics. Thomson Brooks/Cole.
3

Chapter 1 ELECTRIC FIELDS

1.1 Properties of electric charges

Every object contains a vast amount of electric charge. Object which contains equal amounts of the two
kinds of charge is call electrically neutral. One with an imbalance is electrically charged. The net charge
of an object is the difference between the amount of positive charge and negative charge of the object.

Experiment (Fig. 1.1 and Fig. 1.2): Rub one end of a glass rod with silk electrons are transfered to silk
the glass rod contains a positive net charge. Rub one end of a plastic rod with fur electrons are
transfered to the plastic rod the plastic rod contains a negative net charge.

Fig. 1.1 : Charges with the same electrical sign repel each other

Fig. 1.2 : Charges with opposite electrical signs attract each other
Electric charge is conserved. The net charge of any isolated system can not change.

Electric charge is quantized. Elementary charge is e = 1.602 x 10
-19
C. The charge of an electron is e.
The charge of a proton is +e.

Electric current

dq
i =
dt
[A] (1.1)
1.2 Insulators and conductors
Conductors: materials through which charge can move rather freely (metal, tap water, human body, ).
Insulators (nonconductor): materials through which charge can not move freely (plastic, glass,
chemically pure water, ).
Superconductors : materials that are perfect conductors, allowing charge to move without any hindrance.

4
Experiment (Fig. 1.3) : Put a plastic rod with negative net charge near a neutral copper rod. Conduction
electrons on the copper rod are repelled to the far end of the copper rod by the negative charge on the
plastic rod. Then the negative charge on the plastic rod attracts the remaining positive charge on the near
end of the copper rod.

Fig. 1.3
1.3 Coulombs law
1) The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two charged particles (point charges) which are
at rest and in vacuum

1 2
2
|q |.|q |
F = k
r
[N] (1.2)

where
o
1
k =
4
= 8.99 x 10
9
[Nm
2
/C
2
]
and
o
= 8.85 x 10
-12
[C
2
/Nm
2
] : the permittivity constant

Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5

Fig. 1.6 Fig. 1.7

2) The force on any one charge due to a collection of other charges is the vector sum of the forces due to
each individual charge (Fig. 1.7).

i
i
F= F
r r
(1.3)
5
Experiment (Fig. 1.8)
a) An aluminum ball with zero net charge assumes a vertical position at the end of a thread or string.
b) A negatively charged ball is brought close to the neutral ball which becomes polarized.
c) The positive pole of the aluminum ball is attracted to the negatively charged ball up to contact.
d) After contact the aluminum ball becomes negatively charged by charge transfer through the point of
contact and is repelled by the negatively charged ball.
e) The aluminum ball will stop at equilibrium in a position deviated from vertical at an angle
determined by the charges of the balls.

Fig. 1.8

3) Properties
A shell of uniform charge attracts or repels a charged particle that is outside the shell as if all the shells
charge were concentrated at its center.

If a charged particle is located inside a shell of uniform charge, there is no net electrostatic force on the
particle from the shell.

1.4 Electric field. Electric field lines
1) Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The direction of the field is taken to be the
direction of the force it would exert on a positive test charge. The electric field is radially outward from a
positive charge and radially in toward a negative point charge.

2) To find the electric field at point P near a charged object : Place a positive charge q
o
(called test charge) at
P. Measure the electrostatic force F
r
that acts on the test charge. The electric field at point P due to the
charged object

o
F
E =
q
r
r
[V/m, N/C] (1.4)
6

Fig. 1.9 : Electric field lines of a point charge

Fig. 1.10 : Electric field of 2 charges

3) Field line diagrams: A convenient way to visualize the electric field due to any charge distribution is to
draw a field line diagram. At any point the field line has the same direction as the electric field vector.
Electric field lines diverge from positive charges and converge into negative charges. Rules for
constructing filed lines
a) Field lines begin at positive charge and end at negative charge
b) The number of field lines shown diverging from or converging into a point is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.
c) Field lines are spherically symmetric near a point charge
d) If the system has a net charge, the field lines are spherically symmetric at great distances
e) Field lines never cross each other.

4) The electric field of a point charge

2
o
r 4
=
| q |
E [N/C] (1.5)

5) The electric field of an electric dipole : an electric dipole consists of two charges + q and q, of equal
magnitude but opposite sign, that are separated by a distance d (Fig. 1.11).
7
E = E
+
- E
-
=
2
o
r 4
+
q
-
2
o
r 4

q
=
2
o
) 2 / d z ( 4
q
-
2
o
) 2 / d z ( 4 +
q

E
3
o
z 2
qd
=
3
o
z 2
p
(1.6)
p = qd : dipole moment [Cm] (1.7)

The vector p points from the negative charge to the positive charge (Fig. 1.12).

Fig. 1.11 Fig. 1.12

1.5 Electric field of a continuous charge distribution
1) The electric field of a charged ring (Fig. 1.13)
: linear charge density [C/m] dq = ds (1.8)

dE =
2
o
r 4
ds
=
) R z ( 4
ds
2 2
o
+

(1.9)

E =
) cos( dE =
( )
+

2 / 3
2 2
o
R z 4
zds
=
( )

+

R 2
0
2 / 3
2 2
o
ds
R z 4
z

E =
( )
2 / 3
2 2
o
R z 4
z R 2
+

=
( )
2 / 3
2 2
o
R z 4
qz
+
(1.10)

q = 2R : the total charge on the ring.

if z >> R then E =
2
o
z 4
q
: from a large distance, the ring looks like a point charge.

if z = 0 then E = 0.

2) The electric field of a charged disk (Fig. 1.14)
: surface charge density [C/m
2
]
dq = dA = 2rdr : the charge on the ring with radius r (1.11)
8
dE =
( )
2 / 3
2 2
o
R z 4
rdr 2 z
+

(1.12)
E =
dE =
( )
+

2 / 3
2 2
o
R z 2
rdr z
=
|
|
\
|
+
2 2
o
R z
z
1
2
(1.13)
As R : E
o
2
: electric field produced by an infinite sheet of uniform charge

Fig. 1.13 : A ring of uniform positive charge Fig. 1.14 : A disk of uniform positive charge

1.6 Motion of charged particles in a uniform electric field
1) Point charge in an electric field : The electrostatic force on a point charge q

E q F
r r
= [N] (1.14)

Fig. 1.15

2) Fig. 1.16 describes the essential features of an ink-jet printer. Drops are shot out from generator G and
receive a (negative) charge in a charging unit C. An input signal from a computer controls the charge
given to each drop and thus the effect of field E on the drop and the position on the paper at which the
drop lands. About 100 tiny drops are needed to form a single character.
Let m be the mass of the drop. The acceleration of the drop along the vertical axis is
a
y
= qE/m y =
m 2
qEt
2

The speed of the drop along the horizontal axis
9

v
x
= constant x = v
x
t
Let L be the length of the deflecting plate, the vertical deflection of the drop is y =
2
x
2
mv 2
qEL

Fig. 1.16 Fig. 1.17

3) A dipole in an electric field : Fig. 1.17 shows an electric dipole in a uniform external electric field E. Two
centers of equal but opposite charge are separated by distance d. The line between them represents rigid
connection. The magnitude of the net torque

= -Eqsin()d = -pEsin() [Nm] (1.15)

(by convention, < 0 because it tends to rotate the dipole in the clockwise direction). The torque acting on
a dipole tends to rotate it into the direction of the field E.

If we choose the potential energy to be zero when = 90
o
then the potential energy U at any angle is
U =

o
90
d = -pEcos() = E p
r
r
[J] (1.16)
4) In a water molecule, the two hydrogen atoms and the oxygen atom do not lie on a straight line but form an
angle of about 105
o
. Moreover the 10 electrons of the molecule tend to remain closer to the oxygen
nucleus than to the hydrogen nuclei. This makes the oxygen side of the molecule slightly more negative
than the hydrogen side and creates an electric dipole moment p that points along the symmetry axis of the
molecule. If the water molecule is placed in an external electric field, it is rotated into the direction of the
electric field (as shown in Fig. 1.18).

Fig. 1.18: A H
2
O molecule

Example : A neutral water molecule H
2
O in its vapor state has an electric dipole moment of magnitude
6.2x10
-30
Cm. How far apart are the molecules centers of positive and negative charge ? If the molecule is
placed in an electric field of 1.5x10
4
N/C, what maximum torque can the field exert on it ? How much
10
work much an external agent do to rotate this molecule by 180
o
in this field, starting from its fully aligned
position ?

Since there are 10 electrons and 10 protons in a neutral water molecule, the magnitude of its dipole
moment is
p = qd = 10ed d = 3.9 pm
The torque on a dipole is maximum when the angle between E and p is 90
o
.

max
= pEsin(90
o
) = 9.3x10
-26
[Nm]
The work done by an external agent
-pEcos(180
o
) - [ -pEcos(0
o
) ] = 1.9x10
-25
[J]

1.7 Electric flux. Gauss law
1) Flux of an electric field (Fig. 1.19)
The electric flux through an area is defined as the electric field multiplied by the area of the surface
projected in a plane perpendicular to the field.

= A .d E
r r
= E.dA.cos() [Nm
2
/C] (1.17)

Fig. 1.19 Fig. 1.20 Fig. 1.21

It is often simpler to find the flux through one surface of an object than through another. In the case of the
cone the flux through the base (Area = R
2
) is the same as the flux through the lateral surface, but it is
much easier to calculate the flux through the base.

= E A
lateral
cos( ) = E ( R
2
)

2) Gauss law
The total of the electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed divided by the
permittivity

=
o
Q
(1.18)

Fig. 1.22
11

Example 1 : A cylindrical Gaussian surface, closed by end caps, is immersed in a uniform electric field.
The cylinder axis is parallel to the field direction (Fig. 1.23)
=
A .d E
r r
=
a
A .d E
r r
+
b
A .d E
r r
+
c
A .d E
r r
= 0
(a : left cap, b : right cap, c : cylinder surface)

Fig. 1.23 Fig. 1.24

Example 2 : A spherical Gaussian surface (of radius r) centered on a point charge q (Fig. 1.24)

2
o
r 4
=
q
E [N/C] (1.19)
=
A .d E
r r
=

dA
r 4
2
o
q
=
2
o
2
r 4
r 4
q
=
o
q
[Nm
2
/C] (1.20)

1.8 Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium
1) The net electric charge of an isolated conductor is located entirely on the outer surface of the conductor.
Because the mutual repulsion of like charges from Coulomb's law demands that the charges are as far
apart as possible, hence on the outer surface of the conductor. Using Gauss law and this fact, we deduce
that the electric field inside the conductor is zero. Any net electric field inside the conductor would cause
charge to move since it is abundant and mobile.

2) The external electric field near the surface of a charged conductor is perpendicular to the surface. Because
if there were a field component parallel to the surface, it would cause mobile charge to move along the
surface. This violates the assumption of equilibrium. Using Gauss law and the fact that the electric field
inside the conductor is zero, we deduce the external electric field
E =
o
(1.21)
where : surface charge density.

1.9 Insulator with uniform charge density
1) Infinite nonconducting line of charge : the electric field at any point due to an infinite line of charge with
uniform linear charge density is perpendicular to the line of charge and has magnitude
E =
r 2
o
(1.22)
where r is the perpendicular distance from the line of charge to the point.
12

2) Infinite nonconducting sheet of charge : the electric field due to an infinite nonconducting sheet with
uniform surface charge density is perpendicular to the plane of the sheet and has magnitude
E =
o
2
(1.23)

3) Nonconducting spherical shell : The electric field outside a spherical shell of charge with radius R,
uniform volume charge density and total charge q, is directed radially and has magnitude
E =
2
o
r 4
q
, for r R (1.24)
The charge behaves, for external points, as if it were all located at the center of the sphere. The field inside
the shell is
E =
3
o
R 4
qr
, for r < R (1.25)

r is the distance from the center of the shell to the point at which E is measured.

Problems
Electric charges
1.1) What is the magnitude and direction of the electrostatic force on each charge in Fig. P1.1 ? The charges
are q
1
= 10e, q
2
= -20e, where e = 1.602 x 10
-19
C is the elementary charge, and r = 1mm

Fig. P1.1 Fig. P1.2

1.2) In Fig. P1.2, q
1
= 10e, q
2
= -20e, q
3
= -10e, where e = 1.602 x 10
-19
C, r = 0.1mm. What is the magnitude
and direction of the electrostatic force on each charge ?

1.3) In Fig. P1.3, q
1
= 10e, q
2
= -20e, q
3
= -10e, q
4
= 20e, where e = 1.602 x 10
-19
C, r = 0.1mm. What is the
magnitude and direction electrostatic force on each charge ?

Fig. P1.3 Fig. P1.4 Fig. P1.5

1.4) In Fig. P1.4, two tiny conducting balls of identical mass m and identical charge q hang from
nonconducting threads of length L. Assume that is so small that tan() sin().
a) Find the equilibrium separation x of the balls.
b) Explain what happens to the balls if one of them is discharged.

13
1.5) In crystals of the salt cesium chloride, cesium ions Cs
+
form the eight corners of a cube and a chlorine ion
Cl
-
is at the cubes center (Fig. P1.5). The edge length of the cube is r = 0.40 nm. The Cs
+
ions are each
deficient by one electron (and thus each has a charge of +e).
a) What is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force exerted on the Cl
-
ion by the eight Cs
+
ions at the
corners of the cube ?
b) If one of the Cs
+
ions is missing, the crystal is said to have a defect. What is the magnitude of the net
electrostatic force exerted on the Cl
-
ion by the seven remaining Cs
+
ions ?

1.6) A proton and two electrons form three corners of an equilateral triangle with sides of length 3x10
-6
m.
What is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force at each corner?

1.7) Two equally charged particles are held 3.2x10
-3
m apart and then released from rest. The initial
acceleration of the first particle is 7m/s
2
and that of the second is 9m/s
2
. The mass of the first particle is
6.3x10
-7
kg. Find the mass of the second particle and the magnitude of the charge of each particle.

1.8) The magnitude of the electrostatic force between the two identical ions that are separated by a distance of
5x10
-10
m is 3.7x10
-9
N. What is the charge of each ion ? How many electrons are missing from each ion.

Electric fields
1.9) In Fig. P1.3, q
1
= q, q
2
= -2q, q
3
= -q, q
4
= 2q, where q is the elementary charge, r = 0.1mm. What is the
electric field at the center of the square ?

1.10) What is the electric field due to the plastic rod with uniformly distributed charge Q at point P in Fig. P1.6?

1.11) A thin glass is bent into a semi-circle of radius a as shown in Fig. P1.7. A charge +q is uniformly
distributed along one half of the glass, and a charge -q is uniformly distributed along the other half of the
ring. Use Coulombs law to determine the magnitude and direction of the electric field strength at the
point P.


1.12) Find the electric field of a dipole at B, C, D in Fig. P1.8.

1.13) Find the electric field a distance z above the midpoint of a straight line segment of length 2L which carries
a uniform linear charge density .

14
1.14) Find the electric field a distance z above one end of a straight line segment of length L, which carries a
uniform linear charge density .

1.15) An electric dipole consists of two charges q and -q separated by a distance d = 10
-9
m. The electric charges
are placed along the y-axis as shown in Fig. P1.9. Suppose a constant external electric field
j 3 i 3 E
ext
r r r
+ = N/C is applied.
a) What is the magnitude and direction of the dipole moment?
b) What is the magnitude and direction of the torque on the dipole?
c) Do the electric fields of the charges q and -q contribute to the torque on the dipole? Briefly explain
your answer.

Fig. P1.9 Fig. P1.10 Fig. P1.11

1.16) The electric field at point P (x,y) of an electric dipole is E
x
= x and E
y
= -y where E
x
and E
y
are the
components of the electric field vector E
r
in x and y axis respectively (Fig. P1.10). Find and draw the
electric field lines (the curves of electric force). Hint : dx / E
x
= dy / E
y

1.17) In fig. P1.11, a uniform, upward electric field E
r
of magnitude E = 2,000 N/C has been set up between
two horizontal plates by charging the lower plate positively and the upper plate negatively. The plate has
length L = 30 cm and separation d = 3 cm. An electron is then shot between the plates from the left edge
of the lower plate. The initial velocity
o
v
r
of the electron makes an angle = 45 with the lower plate and
has magnitude 6 x 10
6
m/s. Will the electron strike one of the plates ? If so which plate and how far
horizontally from the left edge will the electron strike ?

1.18) An electric dipole with dipole moment
-30
10 1.24 ) j 4 i 3 ( p x x
r r
r
+ = [Cm] is in an electric field
i 4000 E
r r
= [N/C]
a) What is the potential energy of the electric dipole ?
b) What is the torque acting on it ?
c) If an external agent turns the dipole until its electric dipole moment is
-30
10 1.24 ) j 3 i -4 ( p x x
r r
r
+ = [Cm]. How much work is done by the agent.

Gauss law
1.19) Find the electric field at all points due to a long, solid cylinder of radius R and uniform volume charge
density .

1.20) A solid non-conducting sphere of radius R has a uniform charge distribution of volume density
s
Cm
-3
.
Determine an expression for the electric field inside and outside the sphere as a function of the distance
from the center of the sphere.

15
1.21) Consider an uncharged metal shell of inner radius a and outer radius b. If a charge +Q is placed within the
center of the shell, draw a diagram of the electric field around the charge +Q and within the shell. Using
Gauss' law, determine the strength of the electric field inside, within and outside the shell.

1.22) Consider a metal shell of inner radius a and outer radius b. What is the charge distribution on the inner
surface and outer surface of the shell
a) if negative charge is added to the outer surface of the shell from an external source.
b) if electrons are extracted from outer surface of the shell.
Determine the strength of the electric field inside, within and outside the shell.

1.23) Find the electric field of a long, nonconducting, solid cylinder of radius 4 cm which has a nonuniform
volume charge density = Ar
2
where A = 2.5C/m
5
and r is the radial distance from the cylinder axis.

1.24) A charge distribution that is spherically symmetric but not uniform radially produces an electric field of
magnitude E = Kr
4
, directed radially outward from the center of the sphere. Here r is the radial distance
from that center and K is a constant. What is the volume density of the charge distribution ?

1.25) Use Gauss' law to find the electric field everywhere due to a uniformly charged insulator shell (Fig.
P1.12). The shell has a total charge Q, which is uniformly distributed throughout its volume.

Fig. P1.12 Fig. P1.13

1.26) In Fig. P1.13, a solid non conducting sphere of radius a = 2 cm is concentric with a spherical conducting
shell of inner radius b = 1.5a and outer radius c = 1.7a. The sphere has a net uniform charge q
1
= +5 fC.
Determine an expression for the electric field as a function of the distance from the center of the sphere.

1.27) In Fig. P1.13, a conducting sphere of radius a = 2 mm is concentric with a spherical conducting shell of
inner radius b = 3 mm and outer radius c = 3.5 mm. The sphere has a net charge q
1
= +5 pC. Initially the
net charge of the conducting shell is zero.
a) Determine the charge distribution on the conducting shell.
b) Determine the electric field as function of the distance r from the center of the sphere.
c) Determine the electric potential as function of the distance r from the center of the sphere.

Additional problems
1.28) A neutral water molecule (H
2
O) in its vapor state has an electric dipole moment of magnitude 6.2x10
-30

Cm.
a) How far apart are the molecules centers of positive and negative charge ?
b) If the molecule is placed in an electric field of 1.5x10
4
N/C, what maximum torque can the field exert
on it ?
c) How much work must an external agent do to rotate this molecule by 180
o
in this field, starting from
its fully aligned position, for which = 0 ?

16
1.29) In Fig. P1.14, a small non conducting ball of mass m = 1mg and charge q = 20nC (distributed uniformly
through it volume) hangs from a non conducting thread that makes an angle = 30 with an infinite
vertical, uniformly charged non conducting sheet (shown in cross section). Find the surface density of the
sheet.

1.30) In Fig. P1.15, two small charged beads are on a plastic ring of radius R = 50cm. Bead 1 of charge 1C is
fixed in place at the left side. Bead 2 of charge 6C can be moved along the ring. Find the angle such
that the electric field at the center of the ring has magnitude E = 2x10
5
N/C.

Fig. P1.14 Fig. P1.15 Fig. P1.16

1.31) In Fig. P1.16, a non conducting sphere of mass m and charge +q is hung by an insulating thread of length
L from the higher of two large horizontal plates. Find the period of the pendulum if a uniform electric
field E is set up between the plates by charging the top plate negatively and the lower plate positively and
vice versa.

1.32) An inkjet printer has deflecting plates of length L = 15 mm oriented horizontally, producing an electric
field which can be assumed to be uniform and directed downward with magnitude E = 1.8 x 10
6
N/C. An
ink drop of mass m = 2.5 x 10
-10
kg and charge q = 3.6 10
-13
C enters the region, initially moving
horizontally with velocity 20 m/s. Assume the gravitational force on the drop can be neglected.
a) How many excess electrons is the ink drop carrying?
b) Draw a diagram showing how the drop is deflected. Mark the positively and negatively charged
deflecting plates.
c) Calculate the deflection of the drop when it has reached the far edge of the plates.

Homeworks 1
H1.1 Four charges q
1
, q
2
, q
3
, q
4
form four corners of a square with side r [mm].
a) What is the magnitude of the net electrostatic force at each corner ?
b) What is the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the center of the square ?

Fig. H1.1 Fig. H1.2 Fig. H1.3

17
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
q
1
2e 2e 4e -2e 2e -4e 6e 6e 6e -6e 6e -8e e e 3e -e
q
2
-2e -4e -2e 2e 4e -2e -6e -8e -8e 6e 8e -6e -e -3e -e e
q
3
4e 4e -4e -4e -4e 4e 8e 8e -6e -8e -8e 8e 3e 3e -3e -3e
q
4
-4e -2e 2e 4e -2e 2e -8e -6e 8e 8e -6e 6e -3e -e e 3e
r 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.7

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
r 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
r 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
r 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.7

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
q
1
q
2
-6e -7e 7e 6e -7e 7e -8e -6e 8e 8e -6e 6e -5e -3e 3e 5e
q
3
5e 5e 5e -5e 5e -5e 7e 7e 7e -7e 7e -9e 3e 3e 5e -3e
q
4
-5e -5e -5e 5e 5e -5e -7e -9e -9e 7e 9e -7e -3e -5e -3e 3e
r 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
q
1
-8e 8e 5e 5e -5e -5e 6e 6e -6e -6e -6e 6e 8e 8e -6e -8e
q
2
-6e -7e 7e 6e -7e 7e -8e -6e 8e 8e -6e 6e -5e -3e 3e 5e
q
3
7e -7e 7e -9e 3e 3e 5e -3e 5e 5e 5e -5e 5e -5e 7e 7e
q
4
-5e -5e -5e 5e 5e -5e -7e -9e -9e 7e 9e -7e -3e -5e -3e 3e
r 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
q
1
-6e -6e -6e 6e 8e 8e -6e -8e -8e 8e 5e 5e -5e -5e 6e 6e
q
2
8e 8e -6e 6e -5e -3e 3e 5e -6e -7e 7e 6e -7e 7e -8e -6e
q
3
5e 5e 5e -5e 5e -5e 7e 7e 7e -7e 7e -9e 3e 3e 5e -3e
q
4
-7e -9e -9e 7e 9e -7e -3e -5e -3e 3e -5e -5e -5e 5e 5e -5e
r 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1

18
n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
q
1
5e 5e -5e -5e 6e 6e -6e -6e -6e 6e 8e 8e -6e -8e 5e 5e
q
2
7e -7e 7e -9e 3e 3e 5e -3e 5e 5e 5e -5e 5e -5e 7e 7e
q
3
-5e 5e -5e 7e 7e 7e -7e 7e -9e 3e 3e 5e -3e -5e 5e -5e
q
4
-9e -9e 7e 9e -7e -3e -5e -3e 3e -5e -5e -5e 5e 5e -5e 6e
r 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2

1.2 Find the electric field a distance z [mm] above one end of a straight line segment of length L [mm], which
carries a uniform linear charge density [C/m] (Fig. H1.2).
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
L 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
z 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
L 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10
z 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
L 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8
z 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
L 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13
z 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
L 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 9 10
z 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
L 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 9 10 11
z 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.2

8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 6 7

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
L 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13
z 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
L 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 13 14 6 7
z 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
19

H1.3 In Fig. H1.3, a solid non conducting sphere of radius a [mm] is concentric with a spherical conducting
shell of inner radius b [mm] and outer radius c [mm]. The sphere has a net uniform charge q [fC].
Determine an expression for the electric field as a function of the distance from the center of the sphere.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
a 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 15 16 17 18 19
b 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 19 20 21 22 23
c 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 22 23 24 25 26
q 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
a 20 21 22 23 24 25 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
b 24 25 26 27 28 29 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
c 27 28 29 30 31 32 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 32 33
q 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
a 25 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 15 16 17 18
b 31 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 23 24 25 26
c 34 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 26 27 28 29
q 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
a 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
b 27 28 29 30 31 32 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
c 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
q 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
a 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
b 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
c 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
q 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
a 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
b 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
c 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 46 47 48 49 40 41 42 43 44
q 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
a 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
b 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 49 50 51 52 53
c 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 60 61 62 63 64
q 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49

20
n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
a 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
b 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
c 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
q 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49

21
Chapter 2 ELECTRIC ENERGY AND CAPACITANCE

2.1 Potential difference and electric potential
1) Electric potential energy, electric potential difference and electric potential
Consider the system constituted by the charges Q and q in Fig. 2.1. The electric field E due to the charge
Q
E =
2
o
Q
4 r
[Vm
-1
], [NC
-1
] (2.1)

The electrostatic force F on the charge q

F = qE =
2
o
qQ
4 r
[N] (2.2)

When the charge q is released from point A, it moves away from Q, along the electric field line. The loss
in potential energy of the system as the charge q moves from A to B is the work done by the electric force

dW = F.dr
uur r
= Fdr =
2
o
qQdr
4 r

W =
B
A
r
2
o r
qQdr
4 r
=
o A B
qQ 1 1
-
4 r r
| |
|
\
[J] (2.3)

The work done by the electrostatic force is path independent. It depends only on the initial point A and the
final point B and is the same for all paths between A and B.

Fig. 2.1

The change in the potential energy of the system

U = U
B
- U
A
= -W (2.4)

where U
A
and U
B
are the potential energy of the system when the charge q is at A and B, respectively.
When q moves from A to B, U < 0 : the electric force F does work W > 0 and the system loses energy.
If we set the potential energy of the system U
B
= 0 at infinity, i.e. r
B
= (the reference point of zero
potential at infinity) then it follows from (2.3) and (2.4) that

U
A
=
o A
qQ
4 r
[J] (2.5)
22
The electric potential (the potential energy per unit charge) at point A is defined as

V
A
=
A
U
q
=
o A
Q
4 r
[J/C], [V] (2.6)

The electric potential difference between A and B is the difference in potential energy per unit charge

V =
U
q
= -
q
W
= -
o A B
Q 1 1
-
4 r r
| |
|
\
= V
B
- V
A
[J/C], [V] (2.7)

2) Equipotential surfaces
The points on an equipotential line all have the same electric potential. Equipotential lines are always
perpendicular to the electric field. In three dimensions, the lines form equipotential surfaces. Movement
along an equipotential line (or an equipotential surface) requires no work because such movement is
always perpendicular to the electric field.

For a point charge, the equipotential lines are circles centered on the charge (Fig. 2.2.a). The dashed lines
illustrate the scaling of voltage at equal increments. The equipotential lines get further apart with
increasing r.

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.2 : Dashed lines : equipotential lines. Solid lines : electric field lines.

The electrical potential of a dipole shows mirror symmetry about the center of the dipole (Fig. 2.2.b).
They are everywhere perpendicular to the electric field lines.

For parallel conducting plates like those in a capacitor, the electric field lines are perpendicular to the
plates and the equipotential lines are parallel to the plates (Fig. 2.2.c).

Fig. 2.3
23
2.2 Potential difference in a uniform electric field
The potential difference between two points A and B in a uniform electric field (Fig. 2.3)

V = Ed [V] (2.8)

2.3 Electric potential and potential energy due to point charges
1) The electric potential due to a single point charge at a distance r from that point charge

V =
r 4
q
o
(2.9)

The electric potential due to a collection of point charges

V =
n
1 i
i
i
o
r
q
4
1
(2.10)

2) The electric potential of a dipole at a distance r from the dipole can be found by superposing the electric
potential of two point charges (Fig. 2.4)

V =
+
r 4
q
o
-
r 4
q
o
=
+
+

r r 4
) r r ( q
o
(2.11)

Fig. 2.4 Fig. 2.5

If r >> d then r
-
- r
+
dcos() and r
-
r
+
r
2
. (2.11) can be approximated by

V =
2
o
r 4
) cos( p

(2.12)

where p = qd is the dipole moment.

The electric dipole moment for a pair of opposite charges of magnitude q is defined as the magnitude of
the charge times the distance between them and the defined direction is toward the positive charge. It is a
useful concept in atoms and molecules where the effects of charge separation are measurable, but the
distances between the charges are too small to be easily measurable. It is also a useful concept in
dielectrics and other applications in solid and liquid materials.

24
2.4 Electric potential due to continuous charge distributions
The electric potential due to a continuous charge distribution

V =
r
dq
4
1
o
(2.13)

2.5 Electric potential due to a charged conductor
Since the electric field E = 0 for all points inside an isolated conductor, an excess charge placed on an
isolated conductor lies entirely on its surface. All points on the conductor have the same potential (even if
the conductor has an internal cavity and even if that cavity contains a net charge.

2.6 Capacitance
A capacitor consists of two isolated conductors (the plates) with charges +q and q. Initially when the
battery is not connected, the two plates are neutral. When the battery is connected, electrons will flow
until the potential difference between plate A and positive terminal of the battery is zero, and the potential
difference between plate B and the negative terminal of the battery is zero. The capacitance C [F] is
defined as

q = CV (2.14)

where V is the potential difference between the plates. The direction of V relates to q as given in Fig.2.7.

Fig. 2.6 Fig. 2.7

1) A parallel-plate capacitor (Fig. 2.8)
Gauss law q =
o
AE E =
A
q
o
(A : the area of the plate)

Fig. 2.8 : A parallel-plate capacitor Fig. 2.9 : A cylindrical capacitor

By definition
V =
s d E
r
r
= Ed =
A
qd
o

(the integral is taken in the direction of the electric field E, see also Fig. 2.7)
25
C =
V
q
=
d
A
o
[F] (2.15)

2) A cylindrical capacitor (Fig. 2.9)
Gauss law q =
o
(2rL)E E =
rL 2
q
o

(2rL : the area of the curved part of the Gaussian surface, L the length of the cylinder)
Let a and b to be the radius of the inner cylinder and the outer cylinder, respectively. By definition
V =
b
a
s d E
r
r
=

b
a
o
rL 2
qdr
= )
a
b
ln(
L 2
q
o
(a < b : radii)
C =
V
q
=
)
a
b
ln(
L 2
o
(2.16)

3) A spherical capacitor
The capacitor consists of a solid conducting sphere of radius a surrounded by a spherical shell of inner
radius b. These are the plates of the capacitor. The solid sphere has a +Q on its top surface, which induces
a charge of -Q on the inner surface of the outer shell. This in turn induces +Q charge on the outer surface
of the outer shell.
Gauss law q =
o
(4r
2
)E E =
2
o
r 4
q
(4r
2
: the area of the sphere)
By definition
V =
b
a
s d E
r
r
=

b
a
2
o
r 4
qdr
= )
b
1
a
1
(
4
q
o

(a < b : radii)
C =
V
q
=
a b
ab 4
o
(2.17)

4) An isolated sphere
b : (2.17) C = 4
o
a (2.18)

2.7 Combinations of capacitors
1) Capacitors in parallel

C
eq
= C
i
(2.19)

2) Capacitors in series

=
i eq
C
1
C
1
(2.20)

2.8 Energy stored in a charged capacitor
The work W required to bring the total capacitor charge up to q
q = CV
26
dW = Vdq =
C
q
dq W =
C 2
q
2
=
2
CV
2

this work W is stored as potential energy U in the capacitor

C 2
q
2
CV
U
2 2
= = [J] (2.21)

The energy density u is the potential energy per unit volume. In case of a parallel-plate capacitor

2
E
u
2
o
= (2.22)

2.9 Capacitors with dielectrics
1) Dielectric
Non polar dielectric: the center of positive charges coincide with the one of negative charges the
molecules are neutral.

Polar dielectric : the center of positive charges doesnt coincide with the one of negative charges each
molecule is a dipole.

A) polar dielectric B) non polar dielectric
Fig. 2.10 : In absence of an external electric field.

Under the effect of an external electric field, the molecules of non polar dielectric become dipoles. The
electric dipoles tend to line up with the external electric field.

A) vacuum B) dielectric
Fig. 2.11 : With the same charge, the electric field in case A is stronger than case B

27
2) The electric field produced by charge inside a dielectric
The electric field of a point charge inside a dielectric

2
o o
q
E =
4k r
(2.23)

Gauss law with a dielectric

k
o
o
= q (2.24)

k
o
: dielectric constant

Material Dielectric constant k
o
Dielectric strength (kV/mm)
Air (1 atm)
Polystyrene
Paper
Transformer oil
Pyrex
Porcelain
1.00054
2.6
3.5
4.5
4.7
6.5
3
24
16

14

Problems
Electric potential
2.1) Find the electric potential inside and outside a sphere of radius R and of constant volume charge density .

2.2) Find the electric potential inside and outside a spherical conducting shell of radius R with total charge +Q.

2.3) A total charge of +Q is uniformly distributed along the length of a rod of length L (Fig. P2.1). Determine
the electric potential at point P, a distance a from one end of the rod as shown.

Fig. P2.1
2.4) Determine an expression for the potential difference between two points A and B in Fig. P2.2. Suppose
that the electric field is constant.

Fig. P2.2 Fig. P2.3
28

2.5) Determine an expression for the potential difference between two points A and C in Fig. P2.2. Suppose
that the electric field is constant.

2.6) The thin plastic rod shown in Fig. P2.3 has length L = 12cm and a nonuniform linear charge density =
x where = 28.9pC/m
2
. With V = 0 at infinity, find the electric potential at P
1
and P
2
. Where d
1
= 8cm,
d
2
= 3cm.

2.7) Three particles, charge q
1
= 10C, q
2
= -20C, q
3
= 30C, are positioned at the vertices of an isosceles
triangle as shown in Fig. P2.4. If a = 10cm and b = 6cm, how much work must an external agent do to
exchange the position of
a) q
1
and q
3
.
b) q
1
and q
2
.

Fig. P2.4

2.8) A non conducting sphere has radius R = 2cm and uniformly distributed charge q = 3.5fC. Take the electric
potential at the sphere center to be V
o
= 0. What is V at radial distance
a) r = 1.5 cm
b) r = R.

Capacitance
2.9) A metal plate of thickness a is inserted in-between the plates which are separated by a distance d (Fig.
P2.5). Find the capacitance of the system.

2.10) What happens if the outer surface of the capacitor in Fig. P2.6 is connected to Earth ?
Hint: The electrons from Earth neutralize the outer surface only. The inner surface still maintains a total
charge of -Q, which means that the electric field within the capacitor is unaffected. Thus, the potential
difference remains the same, and therefore, there is no loss of energy from the capacitor.

Fig. P2.5 Fig. P2.6

29
2.11) Consider a parallel plate capacitor with rectangular plates and a sheet of metal of thickness a. The
dimensions of the capacitors are given in the Fig. P2.7. Let x be the length of the metal plate that is
inserted between the capacitor plates. Let +Q and -Q be the charges on the plates of the capacitor.
a) Find the capacitance C
o
and the energy U
o
stored in the capacitor before the metal sheet is inserted.
b) Find the capacitance C and the energy U stored in the capacitor after insertion of the metal sheet as
function of x.
c) Find the force on the metal sheet ? Which direction does it tend to move the metal sheet ?


2.12) Two long conducting wires of length L and radius a lie parallel a distance s apart (Fig. P2.8). The upper
wire carries charge Q and the lower charge -Q. Since L >> s, we may assume the wires are effectively
infinitely long for purpose of finding the electric fields and potentials.
a) Find the electric field E in the plane in between the wires.
b) Find the potential in the plane between the wires. Find V, the potential different between the wires.
c) Find the capacitance C of the two wire system.
d) Find the total electrical energy stored in the system.

top view side view Fig. P2.11
Fig. P2.10

2.13) The parallel plate capacitor in Fig. P2.9 has plate area A = 100 cm
2
and plate separation d = 1 cm. A
potential difference V
o
= 50 V is applied between the plates. The battery is then disconnected. A dielectric
slab of thickness b = 0.8 cm and dielectric constant k
o
= 2 is placed between the plates after the battery
was removed
a) Before the dielectric slab is inserted, find the capacitance and the charge on the plate.
30
b) After the slab has been introduced, find
- the electric field in the gaps between the plates and the dielectric slab.
- the electric field in the dielectric slab.
- the potential difference between the plates.
- the capacitance between the plates.

2.14) Find the capacitance C of a cylindrical capacitor of length L and radii a and b (Fig. P2.10).

Additional problems
2.15) Four point charges are arranged in a square as shown in Fig. P2.11, with a = 5 cm, q
1
= 1.0 C, q
2
= 2.0
C and q
3
= 4.0 C
a) Taking the electric potential to be zero at infinity, find the value of q
4
such that the electric potential is
also zero at the centre of the square.
b) For this value of q
4
, find the work required to completely disassemble this arrangement of charges
(ending with all four charges infinitely far apart).

2.16) You come across a spherically symmetric electric field with the following form

>
|
\
|
|
\
|

|
\
|
=
R 4 r 0
R 4 r R 3 r
r
R 3
E
R 3 r R 2 r 2
R
r
E
R 2 r R 0
R r 0 r
R
r
E
) r ( E
2
o
o
2
o
r

r is the radial unit vector in the spherical coordinates.
a) For all r, what is the charge Q(r) contained within a radius r ?
b) Calculate the charge density (r) everywhere.
c) Are there any surface charges in this charge distribution ? If so, identify their location and give the
magnitude of the surface charge density at each such location.
d) The charge distribution is modify in some way. The new electric field is

>
|
\
|
|
\
|

|
\
|
=
2
R 7
r 0
2
R 7
r R 3 r
r
R 3
E
R 3 r R 2 r 2
R
r
E
R 2 r R 0
R r 0 r
R
r
E
) r ( E
2
o
o
2
o
r

Compute the difference in energy between this and the old configuration. Was work done on the system or
did the system do work ?
31

2.17) Two point charges, q
1
= 1 C and q
2
= -0.8 C, are located as shown in Fig. P2.12 with a = 10cm.
a) Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field at point P due to charge q
1
.
b) Find the magnitude and direction of the net electric field at point P.
c) Find the net electric potential at point P, taking V = 0 at infinity.

Fig. P2.12

Homeworks 2
H2.1 A total charge of +Q [fC] is uniformly distributed along the length of a rod of length L [mm] (Fig. H2.1).
Determine the electric field and the electric potential at point P, a distance a [mm] from one end of the rod
as shown.

Fig. H2.1 Fig. H2.2

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
L 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
a 24 25 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 25 26 27 28

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
L 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
a 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
L 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 21
a 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
L 24 25 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 25 26 27 28
a 25 26 27 28 29 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 25 26 27

32
n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Q 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
L 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 20 21 22 23 24
a 13 14 15 16 13 14 15 16 13 14 15 16 13 14 15 16

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
Q 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
L 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
a 26 27 28 29 26 27 28 29 26 27 28 29 26 27 28 29

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Q 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 50 51
L 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 25 26 27 28 26 27
a 15 16 13 14 15 16 13 14 15 16 15 16 13 14 15 16

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Q 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 50 51
L 26 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 25 26 27 28 26 27
a 15 16 13 14 15 16 13 14 15 16 15 16 13 14 15 16

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
Q 42 43 44 45 46 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 50 51 52 53
L 27 28 29 24 25 26 27 28 29 25 26 27 28 26 27 26
a 15 16 13 14 15 16 13 14 15 16 15 16 13 14 15 16

H2.2 Consider a parallel plate capacitor with rectangular plates and a sheet of metal of thickness a. The
dimensions of the capacitors are given in [mm] (Fig. H2.2). Let x be the length of the metal plate that is
inserted between the capacitor plates. Let +Q and -Q be the charges [fC] on the plates of the capacitor.
a) Find the capacitance C
o
and the energy U
o
stored in the capacitor before the metal sheet is inserted.
b) Find the capacitance C and the energy U stored in the capacitor after insertion of the metal sheet as
function of x.
c) Find the force on the metal sheet ? Which direction does it tend to move the metal sheet ?

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
a 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.1
d 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
w 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
L 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
a 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5
d 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
w 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
L 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

33
n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
a 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
d 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
w 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 22 23 24 25 26 27
L 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
a 1.7 1.8 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.3 1.4
d 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
w 26 27 28 29 30 31 22 23 24 25 26 27 26 27 28 29
L 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 20 21 22 23 24 25

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Q 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
a 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
d 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.3 1.4
w 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
L 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 20 21 22 23 24 25

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
Q 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
a 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.3 1.4
d 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5
w 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
L 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 20 21 22 23 24 25

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Q 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
a 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5
d 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.7
w 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
L 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 20 21 22 23 24 25

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
Q 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
a 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.5
d 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.7
w 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
L 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 20 21 22 23 24 25

34
Chapter 3 CURRENT AND RESISTANCE, DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

3.1 Electric current
1) The electric current in a conductor is defined by

dq
i =
dt
[A] (3.1)

here dq is the amount of (positive) charge that passes in time dt through a hypothetical surface that cuts
across the conductor. By convention, the direction of electric current is taken as the direction in which
positive charge carriers would move. The SI unit of electric current is ampere (A) : 1A = 1C/s.

2) The current i (a scalar) is related to the current density J
r
(a vector) by

i = JdA
uuur r
(3.2)

where dA
uuur
is a vector perpendicular to a surface element of area dA and the integral is taken over any
surface cutting across the conductor. J
r
has the same direction as the velocity of the moving charges if they
are positive and the opposite direction if they are negative.

3.2 A model for electrical conduction
When a conductor does not have a current through it, its conduction electrons move randomly, with no net
motion in any direction. When the conductor has a current through it, these electrons still move randomly,
but now they tend to drift with a drift speed v
d
in the direction opposite that of the applied electric field
that causes the current. The drift speed is tiny compared with the speeds in the random motion. For
example, in the copper conductors of house-hold wiring, electron drift speed are perhaps 10
-5
or 10
-4
m/s,
where as the random-motion speeds are around 10
6
m/s.

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3.1 : Random motion of an electron from A to F (the electron collides with an atom at B, C, D, E)
a: without electric field.
b: in presence of an electric field E, the electron drifts rightward.
c: superposition of figure a and figure b.

35
Consider a wire of length L, cross-sectional area A, number of carriers (free electrons) per unit volume n.
The total charge of the wire is

q = -(nAL)e [C] (3.3)

Since the free electrons drift along the wire with speed v
d
(in the direction opposite that of the current i),
the total charge q moves through any cross section of the wire in the time interval

t =
d
L
v
[s] (3.4)

and the current i, which is the time rate of transfer of charge across a cross section, is given by

i =
q
t
= -neAv
d
[A] (3.5)

The current density J
r
(current per unit sectional area) is given by

J
r
= -ne
d
v
v
[A/m
2
] (3.6)

Note that the minus sign in (3.5) and (3.6) implies that the direction of the current i is opposite to that of
the drift of the free electrons in the wire.

Example: Consider a copper wire which carries a current i = 17mA Let r = 900m be the radius of the
wire. Assume that each copper atom contributes one conduction electron to the current and that the current
density is uniform across the wire cross section. The drift speed of the conduction electrons can be
determined from (3.5)

v
d
=
i
-
neA
=
J
-
ne
[m/s]

Since each copper atom contributes one conduction electron to the current, the number n of conduction
electrons per unit volume is the same as the number of atoms per unit volume

n = number of atoms per unit volume
= (number of atoms per mole)x(number of moles per unit mass)x(mass per unit volume)

number of atoms per mole = Avogadros number = N
A
= 6.02x10
23

number of moles per unit mass = inverse of the mass per mole of copper M
= 1/[63.54 g/mol] = 1/[63.54x10
-3
kg/mol]

mass per unit volume = mass density of copper
mass
= 8.96 g/cm
3
= 8.96x10
3
kg/m
3

n = N
A
mass
/M = 6.02x10
23
x8.96x10
3
/63.54x10
-3
= 0.8489x10
29
electrons/m
3

The current density : J = 17x10
-3
/(r
2
) [A/m
2
].
The charge of an electron : e = 1.602 x 10
-19
[C].
36
v
d
=
J
-
ne
= -4.9x10
-7
m/s

3.3 Resistance and Ohms law
Ohms law

i
V
R = [] (3.7)

where V is the potential difference across the conductor and i is the current.

Fig. 3.2

Resistivity and conductivity of a material

J
E 1
=
= [m] (3.8)
Vector form
J E
r r
= (3.9)
The resistance of a conducting wire of length L and uniform cross section is

A
L
R

= [] (3.10)
where A is the cross-sectional area.

Material Resistivity (m) Material Resistivity (m)
Silver 1.6 x 10
-8
Sea water 0.2
Copper 1.7 x 10
-8
Polyethylene 2 x 10
11

Gold 2.4 x 10
-8
Glass 10
12

Iron 1.0 x 10
-7
Fused quartz 7.5 x 10
17

Change of with temperature: for many materials, including metals, the relation between and
temperature T is approximated by

=
o
[1 + (T-T
o
)] (3.11)

where
o
is the resistivity at temperature T
o
, is the temperature coefficient of resistivity for the material.
Resistivity of a metal

=
n e
m
2
(3.12)
here n is the number of free electrons per unit volume and is the mean time between collisions of an
electron with the atoms of the metal.
37

3.4 Electrical energy and power
Rate of electrical energy transfer: P = Vi [W] (3.13)
Resistive dissipation: P = Ri
2
[W] (3.14)
In a resistor, electric potential energy is converted to internal thermal energy via collisions between charge
carriers and atoms.

3.5 Electromotive force (EMF)
The electromotive force of a device is the work the device does to force a unit positive charge from the
negative to the positive terminal

dq
dW
= [V] (3.15)

3.6 Kirchhoffs rules
Loop rule: The algebraic sum of the changes in potential encountered in a complete traversal of any loop
of a circuit must be zero.

Junction rule: The sum of the currents entering any junction must be equal to the sum of the currents
leaving that junction.

Single loop circuits (Fig.3.3) :
R r +
= i [A] (3.16)

Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4

According to the loop rule, the potential difference caused by the battery ( ) must be compensated for by
the potential drops across the two resistors (r and R) in Fig. 3.3. Notice that the potential (V) starts at V
a

and then returns again to V
a
after resistor R (Fig. 3.4).

Power: P = Vi (3.17)

P
R1
= R
1
i
2
(3.18)

3.7 Resistors in series and in parallel

Series resistances R
eq
= R
i
(3.19)

Parallel resistances
=
i eq
R
1
R
1
(3.20)
38

3.8 RC circuits (Fig. 3.5)
1) Charging a capacitor
= Ri + V = R
dt
dq
+
C
1
q
dt
dq
+
RC
1
q =
R
1

Let x = q - C
dt
dx
+
RC
1
x = 0
x
dx
= -
RC
dt
ln(x) = -
RC
t
+ const x = Aexp(-
RC
t
)
q = C + Aexp(-
RC
t
)
since q(0) = 0 A = -C
q = C (1- exp(-
RC
t
)) (3.21)
i =
R
exp(-
RC
t
) (3.22)

Fig. 3.5
2) Discharging a capacitor
0 = Ri + V = R
dt
dq
+
C
1
q
dt
dq
+
RC
1
q = 0
q
dq
= -
RC
dt
q = A exp(-
RC
t
)
since q(0) = C A = C
q = Cexp(-
RC
t
) (3.23)
i = -
R
exp(-
RC
t
) (3.24)

The negative sign indicates that the current flows in the opposite direction. The quantity = RC is called
the time constant. It dictates the rate of voltage build up on the capacitor, and the rate of current decrease.

Problems
Electric current
3.1) An isolated conducting sphere has a 10cm radius. One wire carries a current of 1.000.002 A into it.
Another wire carries a current of 1.000.000 A out of it. How long would it take for the sphere to increase
in potential by 1000 V ?

3.2) A lightning of current I = 100kA strikes the ground at point O (Fig. P3.1). The current spreads through the
ground uniformly over a hemisphere centered on the strike point. The resistivity of the ground is =
100m. Find the potential difference between A and B. The radial distance OA = 60m, OB = 62m
Solution : J =
2
r 2
I
E = J =
2
r 2
I
V
AB
= -
OB
OA
Edr
39

Fig. P3.1 Fig. P3.2

3.3) Consider the circuit in Fig. P3.2 with (t) = 12sin(120t) V, r = 10. Find the value of R such that the
power in R is maximized ?

Circuit
3.4) A 9.0 volt battery is connected across a light bulb (R = 3.0 ). How many electrons pass through the
resistor in one minute? How many joules of energy are generated in one minute?"

3.5) A battery has an internal resistance of 0.75 and an emf of 9V. It is placed a cross a 5 resistor and a
10F capacitor hooked up in parallel.
a) After the capacitor has charged, what is the current through the resistor?
b) What is the charge on the capacitor?
c) If the battery is disconnected, how long will it take the capacitor to reach one-third of its initial
voltage?

3.6) The capacitor C in Fig. P3.3 is initially uncharged. At t = 0, the switch K is closed. Determine an
expression for the potential difference V and the current i of the circuit.


3.7) In Fig. P3.4,
1
= 12V,
2
= 24V, r
1
= 10, r
2
= 5, R = 2. Determine i
1
, i
2
, i.

3.8) The circuit in Fig. P3.5 has = 12V, R
1
= 10, R
2
= 30, r = 5. Find the currents i
1
, i
2
, i.


3.9) The circuit in Fig. P3.6 has
1
= 12V,
2
= 6V,
3
= 9V, r
1
= 4, r
2
= 3, r
3
= 2. Find the currents i
1
, i
2
,
i
3
.
40

3.10) The capacitor C in Fig. P3.7 is initially uncharged. At t = 0, the switch K is closed. Determine an
expression for the potential difference V and the current i of the circuit.

Additional problems
3.11) A flat conducting plate of thickness t has a semicircular structure as depicted in Fig. P3.8. Call the
inner radius a and the outer radius b. The conductivity of the metal is .
a) A potential difference V
o
is applied along the semicircular borders: the inner radius BEC is kept at
potential V
o
while the outer radius AFD is kept at potential 0. Find the potential everywhere on
the plate, the electric field E, the current density J and the ohmic resistance of the conductor R.
b) We now change the connections and apply the potential difference along the straight sections: AB is
kept at potential V
o
and CD at 0. Find the potential everywhere on the plate, the electric field E,
the current density J and the ohmic resistance of the conductor R.

3.12) A circuit is connected as shown in Fig.3.9. At before t = 0, the switch is in position 1 for a long time. At t
= 0, the switch S is moved to position 2.
a) Find the charge on the capacitor at t = 0 in terms of V, C and R.
b) Find the current at t = 0 after the switch is moved to position 2 in terms of V, C and R.
c) Find the current at t > 0 after the switch is moved to position 2 in terms of V, C, R and t.
d) Find the energy stored in the capacitor at t = 0 in terms of V, C and R.
e) Find the power dissipation in the resistors and the total energy dissipated in terms of V, C and R at t
> 0.

Fig. P3.9

3.13) A power station transmits 200MW of electric power, at a voltage V over a distance L = 300 km to the
users. The transmission lines are made of 5 cm
2
cross sectional area aluminum cables.
a) Find the ohmic resistance R of the transmission line ?
b) There is a total voltage drop V along the two lines, thus the voltage delivered to the user is V - V.
Express this voltage loss V in term of R and the current I, and also in terms of the power P and the
voltage V.
c) It is desirable that V be at most 2% of V. Since P and R are given, this imposes a condition on the
voltage V. What is the minimum voltage V needed to keep V down to 2% of V.
d) What is the power dissipated in the lines ?
e) If the distance between the wires is 8m (assume the run parallel), what then is the Lorentz force on a
25m segment of one of these wires ?

3.14) An electrical circuit comprises a 12 V battery and two resistors in series: a 100 resistor and a 60
resistor.
a) Assuming the battery is ideal, find
- the potential difference across the 100 resistor,
- the total power dissipated by the resistors.
41
b) If the battery has an internal resistance of 2, find the potential difference across the 100 resistor.
c) Now suppose the battery is ideal but the potential difference across the 100 resistor is measured
using a voltmeter with internal resistance R
v
. If the voltmeter reading is 7.20 V, find R
v
.

3.15) A parallel plate capacitor has square plates of side length 40 mm, separated by 0.6 mm of ceramic with
dielectric constant k
o
= 130. The dielectric strength of the ceramic is 8.0 10
6
V/m.
a) Calculate the capacitance.
b) What is the maximum potential difference which can be applied to the capacitor.
c) The capacitor is discharged through a resistor R. Find an expression for the time t
10
taken for the
charge on the capacitor to decrease to 10% of its initial value.
d) Find the required value of R if t
10
= 1 ms.

Homeworks 3
H3.1 The capacitor C in Fig. H3.1 is initially uncharged. At t = 0, the switch K is closed. Determine an
expression for the potential difference V and the current i of the circuit ( in [V], r and R in [], C in [F])

Fig. H3.1 Fig. H3.2

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
r 100 150 200 250 300 100 150 200 250 300 100 150 200 250 300 100
R 300 450 600 750 900 300 450 600 750 900 300 450 600 750 900 300
C 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
r 100 150 200 250 300 100 150 200 250 300 100 150 200 250 300 100
R 300 450 600 750 900 300 450 600 750 900 300 450 600 750 900 300
C 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
r 100 150 200 250 300 100 150 200 250 300 100 150 200 250 300 100
R 300 450 600 750 900 300 450 600 750 900 300 450 600 750 900 300
C 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 40 42 44 46 48
r 100 150 200 250 300 100 150 200 250 300 100 150 200 250 300 100
R 300 450 600 750 900 300 450 600 750 900 300 450 600 750 900 300
C 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 25

42
n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
r 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 10 15
R 30 50 60 70 90 30 50 30 50 60 70 90 30 50 30 50
C 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 25

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96

20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
r 15 20 25 30 40 50 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 10 15 20
R 30 50 60 70 90 30 50 60 70 90 30 50 60 70 90 30
C 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 25

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112

30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
r 25 30 40 50 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 10 15 20 25 30
R 50 60 70 90 30 50 60 70 90 30 50 60 70 90 30 50
C 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 25

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128

40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70
r 40 50 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 10 15 20 25 30 40 50
R 50 60 70 90 30 50 60 70 90 30 50 60 70 90 30 50
C 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 25 20

H3.2 Determine the currents i, i
1
, i
2
in Fig. H3.2. (
1
and
2
in [V], r
1
, r
2
and R in [])

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
2
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25
r
1
5 6 8 10 12 15 16 18 5 6 8 10 12 15 16 18
r
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4
R 8 9 10 11 12 13 8 9 10 11 12 13 8 9 10 11

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
2
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25
r
1
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4
r
2
5 6 8 10 12 15 16 18 5 6 8 10 12 15 16 18
R 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
2
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25
r
1
4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7
r
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4
R 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
43

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
2
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25
r
1
6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7 8 9
r
2
5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 7 8
R 8 9 10 11 12 13 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 10 11

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
1
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10
2
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25
r
1
8 9 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5
r
2
7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8
R 8 9 10 11 12 13 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 10 11

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
1
25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20
2
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25
r
1
4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7
r
2
9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3
R 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
1
35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30
2
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25
r
1
6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7 6 7
r
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4
R 10 11 12 13 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 6 7 8 9

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
1
45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
2
35 40 45 50 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25 20 25 30
r
1
4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7
r
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4
R 10 11 12 13 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 6 7 8 9

44
Chapter 4 MAGNETISM

4.1 The magnetic field
The most familiar source of magnetic fields is a bar magnet. One end of the bar magnet is called the North
pole and the other, the South pole. If we place some compasses near a bar magnet, the needles will align
themselves along the direction of the magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 4.1. The observation can be
explained as follows: A magnetic compass consists of a tiny bar magnet that can rotate freely about a
pivot point passing through the center of the magnet. When a compass is placed near a bar magnet which
produces an external magnetic field, it experiences a torque which tends to align the north pole of the
compass with the external magnetic field.

Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 : Magnetic field of a bar magnet

When two magnets or magnetic objects are close to each other, there is a force that attracts the poles
together. When two magnetic objects have like poles facing each other, the magnetic force pushes them
apart (Fig. 4.3). Magnets also strongly attract ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel and cobalt.

Fig. 4.3 Like poles repel, opposite poles attract

Magnetic field lines: Magnetic field lines emanate primarily from the north pole of a magnet and curve
around to the south pole.

Fig. 4.4

45
The Earths magnetic field behaves as if there were a bar magnet in it (Fig. 4.5). Note that the south pole
of the magnet is located in the northern hemisphere.

Fig. 4.5 : Magnetic field of the Earth Fig. 4.6:The iron filings suggest
the magnetic field line of a bar magnet

4.2 Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field
1) The Lorentz force
Consider a test particle with charge q moving through the magnetic field B
r
with the velocity v
r
. The
Lorentz force is

B x v q F
B
r
v
r
= (4.1)

The SI unit for B is the Tesla (T) : 1T = 1 N/(Am) = 10
4
Gauss. The implications of (4.1) include:
- The force is perpendicular to both the velocity v of the charge q and the magnetic field B.
- The magnitude of the force is F = qvBsin where is the angle < 180 between the velocity and the
magnetic field. This implies that the magnetic force on a stationary charge or a charge moving parallel
to the magnetic field is zero.
- The right-hand rule gives the direction of a vector resulting from the cross product of two other
vectors. To find the direction of the resulting vector sweep the fingers of the right hand from the
direction of the first vector to the direction of the second vector over the smallest possible angle
between the vectors. The direction in which the thumb points is the direction of the resulting vector.

Fig. 4.7 : The right-hand rule

2) A charged particle circulating in a magnetic field (Fig. 4.8)
A charge particle with mass m and charge magnitude |q| moving with velocity v
r
perpendicular to a
uniform magnetic field B
r
will travel in a circle of radius r

r
mv
vB | q |
2
= r =
B | q |
mv
(4.2)
46
The frequency of the revolution
f =
2
=
T
1
=
r 2
v
=
m 2
B | q |
(4.3)

Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9

4.3 Magnetic force acting on a current-carrying conductor (Fig. 4.9)
Consider a length L of the wire in Fig. 4.9. The amount of charge moving through the wire

q = it = iL/v

(v : drift speed)

F
B
= qvBsin() = iLBsin()

( : angle v, B)
A straight wire carrying a current i in a uniform magnetic field experiences a sideways force

B x L i F
B
r r r
= (4.4)

the direction of the length vector L
r
is that of the current i. (The length vector L
r
has magnitude | L
r
| = L
and is directed along the wire segment in the direction of the current.)

Fig. 4.10

Exercise: The mass spectrometer is shown in the following figure in which it shows an
arrangement used to measure the masses of ions. An ion of mass m and charge +q is produced
essentially at rest in source S, a chamber in which a gas discharged is taking place. The ion is
accelerated by potential difference V and allowed to enter a magnetic field B
r
. In the field it
47
moves in a semicircle, striking a photographic plate at distance x from the entry slit. Show that
the ion mass m is given by
2
2
B q
m= x
8V
.

Fig. 4.11

4.4 Torque on a current loop in a uniform magnetic field
A coil (of area A and N turns, carrying current i) in a uniform magnetic field B
r
will experience a torque
r
given by

B x
r
r r
= (4.5)

here
r
is the magnetic dipole moment of the coil, with magnitude = NiA and direction given by the
right hand rule (grasp the coil with the fingers of the right hand in the direction of the current i, the thumb
point to the direction of
r
(Fig. 4.12).

Fig. 4.12

4.5 The Hall effect
Fig. 4.13: a strip of copper carrying a current i is immersed in a magnetic field B. The charges (electrons)
will experience a deflecting force F
B
. Under the effect of the force F
B
, the electrons will be pushed toward
the right edge of the strip, leaving uncompensated positive charges in fixed positions at the left edge. An
electric field E is produced within the strip, pointing from left to right. The electric field exerts an electric
force F
E
on each electron, tending to push it to the left. An equilibrium is established when the electric
force cancels the magnetic force.
48
The Hall potential difference

V = Ed

When the electric force and the magnetic force are in balance

eE = ev
d
B

Where v
d
is the drift speed : |v
d
| =
neA
i

A : cross-sectional area of the strip, n : number of charge per unit volume.

a b c
Fig. 4.13

4.6 The Biot-Savart law
1) The magnetic field set up by a current-carrying conductor can be found from the Biot-Savart Law : The
contribution B d
r
to the field produced by a current element s id
r
at a point P located a distance r from the
current element is

3
o
r
r x s id
4
B d
r r
r
= (4.6)

Here r
r
is a vector that points from the element to P. The quantity
o
= 4x10
-7
Tm/A 1.26x10
-6
called
the permeability constant.

Fig. 4.14
49

2) Magnetic field of a long straight wire (Fig. 4.15)
Biot-Savart law

2
o
r 4
) sin( ids
dB

=
with r =
2 2
R s + and sin() = sin(-) =
2 2
R s
R
+

=
0
2
o
ds
r 4
) sin( i
2 B =
0
2 / 3 2 2
o
ds
) R s (
R
2
i
=
R 2
i
o
[T] (4.7)

Fig. 4.15 Fig. 4.16

3) Magnetic field due to a current in a circular arc of wire (Fig.. 4.16)
Arc-shaped wire with central angle , radius R, center C, carrying current i

B =
R 4
i
o

[T] (4.8)

4) Force between two parallel currents
Two parallel wires carrying currents in the same direction attract each other (Fig. 4.17)

B
a
is the magnetic field at wire b produced by the current in wire a.

F
ba
is the resulting force acting on wire b because it carries current in field B
a
.

Fig. 4.17 Fig. 4.18

In Fig. 4.18, the system of two current carrying wires is viewed in the direction of the currents. With the
currents perpendicular to the plane of the drawing and directed "into" the plane, the magnetic field created
by current i
a
circulates along (is tangent in clockwise direction to) circles centered at current i
a
. The figure
shows the direction of this magnetic field B
a
at the location of current i
b
.
50

The magnitude of B
a
at every point of wire b is :

B
a
=
d 2
i
a o
(4.9)

The force F
ba
on a length L of wire b due to the external magnetic field B
a
is

a b ba
B x L i F
r r r
= (4.10)

Since L and B
a
are perpendicular to each other

F
ba
=
d 2
i Li
b a o
(4.11)

Parallel currents attract each other. Antiparallel currents repel each other.

4.7 Amperes law
1) Amperes law: Consider Fig. 4.19

s d B
r
r
=
o
i (4.12)

i = i
2
i
1
(4.13)

Fig. 4.19 Fig. 4.20 Fig. 4.21

2) Magnetic field outside a long straight wire with current (Fig. 4.20)

s d B
r
r
= 2rB =
o
i
r 2
i
B
o
= (4.14)

3) Magnetic field inside a long straight wire with current (Fig. 4.21)

2
o
R 2
ir
B
= (4.15)

51
4.8 The magnetic field of a solenoid
1) Solenoid
Amperes law (Fig. 4.22)

s d B
r
r
= Bh =
o
i
enc
=
o
nhi B =
o
ni (4.16)

n : number of turns per unit length

Fig. 4.22 Fig. 4.23 Fig. 4.24

2) Toroid
Amperes law (Fig. 4.23)

s d B
r
r
= B2r =
o
i
enc
=
o
Ni

B =
r 2
Ni
o
(4.17)

N : total number of turns

In contrast to the situation for a solenoid, B is not constant over the cross section of a toroid.

3) Current-carrying coil as a magnetic dipole (Fig. 4.24)
Biot-Savart law

B =
( )
2 / 3
2 2
2
o
z R 2
iR
+
(4.18)

4.9 Magnetic flux. Gausss law in magnetism
1) The magnetic flux
B
through an area A in a magnetic field B
r
is defined as

B
=
A .d B
r r
[Wb] (4.19)

where the integration is taken over the area.

2) Gausss law in magnetism
The net magnetic flux through any (closed) Gaussian surface is zero.

52

B
=
A .d B
r r
= 0 (4.20)

The simplest magnetic structure that can exist is a magnetic dipole. Magnetic monopoles do not exist.

4.10 Displacement current and the general form of Ampres law
1) Maxwells law of induction : a changing electric flux induces a magnetic field B
r

s .d B
r
r
=
o
o
dt
d
E
(4.21)

side view top view
Fig. 4.25 : A circular parallel plate capacitor is being charged by a constant current

Example : A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates of radius R is being charged as in Fig. 4.25.
Derive an expression for the magnetic field at radius r R. Evaluate the field magnitude for r = R/5 =
11mm and dE/dt 1.5x10
12
V/ms. Derive an expression for the magnetic field at radius r > R.
r R : 2rB =
o
o
dt
d
E
=
o
o
(r
2
)
dt
dE
B =
o
o
2
r
dt
dE

r > R : 2rB =
o
o
dt
d
E
=
o
o
(R
2
)
dt
dE
B =
o
o
r 2
R
2
dt
dE

2) Ampere-Maxwell law
Amperes law

s .d B
r
r
=
o
i (4.22)

Combining (4.21) and (4.22) yields Ampere-Maxwell law

s .d B
r
r
=
o
i +
dt
d
E
o o

(4.23)

3) Displacement current
The quantity

53
i
d
=
dt
d
E
o

(4.24)

has the dimension of a current and is called the displacement current. Rewrite (4.23)

s .d B
r
r
=
o
i +
o
i
d
(4.25)

Fig. 4.26 : i = i
d

The displacement current i
d
can be viewed as the continuation of the real current i (Fig. 4.26). The
magnitude and the direction of the magnetic field produced by the displacement current i
d
is determined as
the one of the real current i.

Example : The circular parallel plate capacitor in previous example is being charged with a current i.
Determine the magnetic field B at a radius r from the center. Assume that i
d
is uniformly spread over the
full plate area

s .d B
r
r
=
o
i
d
2
2
R
r
2rB =
2
2
d o
R
r i
B =
2
d o
R 2
r i
=
2
o
R 2
ir

(where the integration is taken over the circle of radius r.)

4.11 Magnetic materials
A bar magnet strongly attracts an iron piece, but other materials are weakly attracted and some are
actually repelled. We may use this response of material to the field of a bar magnet to broadly classify
magnetic materials. All magnetic are classified into three categories. These are: diamagnetic,
paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials. The classification depends on the magnetic dipole moment of
atoms of the material and on the interactions among the atoms. When the different magnetic materials are
placed in a uniform magnetic field, the field lines are changed as shown in figure 4.27.

1. Diamagnetic material: the diamagnetic materials are those substances which are feebly magnetized in
the direction opposite to the applied field. So, they are weakly repelled by magnets as shown in figure
4.27. Examples of diamagnetic material are bismuth, copper, water, alcohol, mercury etc. the
magnetic moment of atoms of a diamagnetic material is zero. But they acquire induced dipole
moments when the material is placed in an external magnetic field. These moments, however, are
opposite in direction to the applied field. So, the magnetization in a diamagnetic material always
opposes the applied field. They are repelled by magnets. The diamagnetic materials move from a
stronger to a weaker field. These materials are independent of temperature.

54
2. Paramagnetic material: the paramagnetic materials have atoms that have permanent magnetic
moments. These moments interact weakly with each other and randomly orient in different directions.
When an external magnetic field is applied to the material, its atomic moments tend to line up with the
field. The magnetic field inside it is the sum of the applied field and the induced field due to
magnetization. These are found in solid liquid and gas. A paramagnetic rod, freely suspended in a
magnetic field. The paramagnetic materials are temperature dependent and follow curie law.

3. Ferromagnetic material: the ferromagnetic materials are highly magnetized in a magnetic field. The
examples of ferromagnetic materials are iron, nickel and cobalt, and their alloys such as alnico.
Godolinium and dysprosium are ferromagnetic at low temperature, and compounds such as CrO used
in a magnetic tap recording are also ferromagnetic materials though though neither chromium nor
oxygen is ferromagnetic. They are highly attracted by magnets. The magnetic susceptibility is positive
and very high, and varies with applied field.

Fig. 4.27

Fig.4.28: Ferromagnetism

55

Problems
Magnetic field
4.1) A flexible wire, carrying a current i, passes between the pole faces of a magnet. Under the influence of the
magnetic field, the wire is deflected. Determine the direction of the current i in each case (Fig. P4.1)

i = 0 i 0 Fig. P4.2
Fig. P4.1
4.2) In Fig. P4.2, a metal wire of mass m = 25mg can slide with negligible friction on 2 horizontal parallel rails
separated by distance d = 4cm. The track lies in a vertical uniform magnetic field of magnitude 50mT. At
time t = 0, a source is connected to the rails, producing a constant current i = 10mA in the wire and rails
(even as the wire moves). At t = 50ms, what are the speed and the direction of motion of the wire.

4.3) An ion of mass m and charge q is produced in source S (Fig. P4.3). The initially stationary ion is
accelerated by the electric field due to a potential difference e. The ion leaves S and enters a separator
chamber in which a uniform magnetic field B is perpendicular to the path of the ion. The magnetic field B
causes the ion to move in a semicircle and thus strikes a detector at the bottom wall of the chamber.
Suppose that B = 80mT, e = 1000V, q = +1.6022x10
-19
C, x = 1.6254m. What is the mass m of the
individual ion ?

Fig. P4.3 Fig. P4.4

4.4) Magnetic levitation is used in high-speed trains. Conventional electronmagnetic technology is used to
suspend the train over the tracks; the elimination of rolling friction allows the train to achive very high
speeds (in excess of 400km/h). The principle of magnetic levitation can be given as the following
problem. A straight horizontal copper rod carries a current of 50.0 A from west to east in a region between
56
the poles of large electromagnet (Fig. P4.4). In this region there is a horizontal magnetic field toward the
north-east (that is, 45
o
north of east) with magnitude 1.20 T. Find
a) The magnitude and direction of the force on a 1.00-m section of rod.
b) If the horizontal rod is in mechanical equilibrium under the action of its weight and the magnetic
force. What is the mass of the horizontal rod?
c) While keeping the rod horizontal, how should it be oriented to maximize the magnitude of the force.
d) What is the force magnitude and the mass of the rod in case (c).

A B Fig. P4.6
Fig. P4.5

4.5) Two concentric, circular wire loops, of radii r
1
= 12cm and r
2
= 10cm, are located in an xy plane, each
carries a clockwise current of 2A. Find the magnitude of the net magnetic dipole moment of the system
(Fig. P4.5A). Repeat for the reversed current in the outer loop (Fig. P4.5B).

4.6) Consider a rectangular coil of wire in a magnetic field as shown in Fig. P4.6. The coil has height a and
width b. The current in the coil is i.
a) Find the force on each side of the coil.
b) As the rectangular wire rotates, the force on the sides AB and CD is non-zero. Does this effect the
rotation ?
c) Are the forces on sides BD and AC constant in magnitude throughout a given rotation ?

4.7) A solid metal cube of edge length d = 1.5cm, moving in the positive y direction at velocity v = 4m/s
through a uniform magnetic field B = 0.05T in the positive z direction (Fig. P4.5).
a) Which cube face is at a lower electric potential and which is at a higher electric potential ?
b) What is the potential difference between the faces of higher and lower electric potential ?

Fig. P4.7 Fig. P4.8

Magnetic field by an electric current
4.8) Find the magnetic field at point O in Fig. P4.8 where OA = 15cm, OB = 20cm, = /3 rad, I = 1A.

57
4.9) Find the magnetic field at the center O of the semicircle in Fig. P4.9 where L = 12cm, R = 10cm.

Fig. P4.9 Fig. P4.10 Fig. P4.11
4.10) A conducting rectangle MNPQ (Fig.P4.10), carrying current I
2
, is placed near a long wire carrying current
I
1
. Find the net force on the rectangle due to I
1
.

4.11) Find the magnetic field at point P in Fig. P4.11.

4.12) Two long, parallel copper wires of diameter 2.5 mm carry currents of 10 A in opposite directions. Their
central axes are 20 mm apart.
a) Find the magnetic flux per meter of wire that exists in the space between those axes.
b) What percentage of this flux lies inside the wires. ?
c) Repeat part a) for parallel currents.

4.13) Two wires, both of length L, are formed into a circle and a square, and each carries current i. Show that
the square produces a greater magnetic field at it center than the circle produces at it center.

Displacement current and the general form of Ampres law
4.14) The magnitude of the electric field between the two circular parallel plates is E = 4x10
5
6x10
4
t V/m
(Fig. P4.12). The plate area is 4x10
-2
m
2
. Determine
a) the magnitude and the direction of the displacement current between the plates.
b) the magnitude and the direction of the induced magnetic field.

Fig. P4.12 Fig. P4.13

4.15) Two wires, parallel to a z axis and a distance 2r apart, carry equal currents i in opposite directions as
shown in Fig. P4.13. A circular cylinder of radius r/2 and length L has it axis on the z axis, midway
between the wires. Use Gauss law for magnetism to derive an expression for the net outward magnetic
flux through the half of the cylindrical surface above the x axis. (Hint : find the flux through the portion of
the xz plane that lies within the cylinder.)

58
4.16) A capacitor C with circular plates of radius b. The distance between the two plates is d. Initially the
capacitor is charged to a voltage V
o
. At t = 0 the switch is closed and the capacitor discharges through the
resistor R (Fig. P4.14).
a) Find the charge Q as a function of time of the capacitor.
b) Find the electric field E, the magnetic field B and the displacement current i
d
between the capacitor
plates.

Fig. P4.14 Fig. P4.15

4.17) The capacitor C in Fig. P4.15 has circular plates of radius b. The space d between the two plates is small
compared to b so that we can ignore the fringing effects. Initially C is uncharged. At t = 0 the switch K is
closed and the capacitor charges through the resistor r.
a) Find the potential difference V and the current i of the circuit.
d
plates.

4.18) Two square conducting loops carry currents of 5.0 A and 3.0 A as shown in Fig. P4.16. What is
the value of the line integral
s d B
r
r
for each of the two closed paths shown?

Fig P4.16

Additional problems
4.19) In a Hall-effect experiment, a current of 3A sent lengthwise through a conductor of 1 cm wide, 4 cm long,
and 10 m thick, produces a transverse (across the width) Hall potential difference of 10 V when a
magnetic field of 1.5T is passed perpendicularly through the thickness of the conductor.
a) Find the drift velocity of the charge carriers and the number density of charge carriers.
b) Show on a diagram the polarity of the Hall potential difference.

4.20) A current I flows in a wire which changes from radius r
1
to radius r
2
as shown in Fig P4.17. The current
density J inside the wire is uniform J = J(z). z
1
and z
2
are far from the place where the wire changes radius.
a) Find the current density J at z
1
and z
2
in terms of I, r
1
and r
2
.
b) Find the magnetic field B at z
1
and z
2
both inside and outside of the wire in terms of I, r
1
and r
2
.
c) Sketch the magnetic field B at z
1
and z
2
as functions of r.

59

Fig P4.17

4.21) A coaxial cable consists of a solid inner conductor of radius R
1
and an outer concentric cylindrical tube of
inner radius R
2
and outer radius R
3
. The two conductors carry equal and opposite currents I
o
which
however are not uniformly distributed across their cross sections, instead, their current densities J vary
linearly with distance from the center, i.e., J
1
= C
1
r for the inner one and J
2
= C
2
r for the outer one (where
C
1
and C
2
are constants). Find the magnetic field B at a distance r from the axis of the cable
a) r < R
1

b) R
1
< r < R
2

c) R
2
< r < R
3

d) R
3
< r

4.22) A thin, flat, infinitely long ribbon of width W carries a uniform current I. Determine the magnetic field at
a point P that is in the plane of the ribbon at a distance x from one edge. Test your result in the limit for
W0.

4.23) Find the magnetic field at the center of a square loop, which carries a steady current I. Let R be the
distance from center to side. Find the field at the center of a regular n-sided polygon, carrying a steady
current I. Again, let R be the distance from the center to any side. Check that your formula reduces to the
field at the center of a circular loop, in the limit of large n.

4.24) An infinite fat wire, with radius a, carries a constant current I, uniformly distributed over its cross section.
A narrow gap in the wire, of width d << a, forms a parallel plate capacitor, as shown in Fig. P4.18. Find
the magnetic field in the gap, at a distance d < a from the axis.

Fig. P4.18

4.25) Two power lines lie parallel to each other, separated by 20 cm. They carry parallel currents, both of
magnitude 3000 A.
a) Find the force per unit length on one line due to the current in the other line. Is the force attractive or
repulsive?
b) Consider a point P lying halfway between the two lines.
- What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at P due to the two currents?
- If the currents in the two lines were antiparallel, what would be the magnitude of the magnetic field
at P?

60
4.26) An ion of has mass 1.16 x 10
-26
kg and charge e. It is accelerated through a potential difference of 220 V
then enters a region of uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.80 T directed perpendicular to the initial
direction of motion of the ion.
a) Find the velocity of the ion as it enters the field.
b) Find the radius of the ions path in the field.
c) Draw a diagram of the ions motion (mark clearly the direction of the magnetic field.)

4.27) A certain material has
r
= 3000. This indicates that the material is
A) a dielectric B) an insulator C) ferromagnetic D) a rare earth element E) water

4.28) Four long parallel wires each carry currents of equal magnitude. The cross-sectional diagrams in Fig.
P4.19 show the directions of the currents in three different cases (a, b and c). Consider the point at the
centre of the square. In which case is the magnetic field at this point greatest?
A) a B) b C) c D) all the same (non-zero) E) all the same (zero)

a b c
Fig. P4.19

4.29) The figure P4.20 shows a cross-section through three conductors carrying currents I
1
= 4A, I
2
= 6A and I
3

= 2A, in the directions shown. Four paths are marked: a, b, c and d. For which path does the line integral
s d B
r
r
take the largest positive value? Assume each line integral is evaluated by traveling anticlockwise
around the loop.
A) a B) b C) c D) d E) b and d (equal)

P4.20 P4.21
4.30) Name three uses of magnets or magnetic materials.

4.31) An electron travelling with velocity v = 5 10
6
m/s in the positive x-direction enters a region of
uniform magnetic field B = 25 mT in the positive z-direction. Describe the subsequent motion of
the particle. Illustrate your answer with a diagram showing the direction of the field and the
motion of the particle, and calculate any relevant distances. How would the motion of the particle
be different if it was a proton?

4.32) Consider a long straight wire carrying a current 200 A.
61
a) Find the magnetic field at a perpendicular distance a = 10 cm from the wire
b) Suppose three such identical wires lie parallel to each other, separated by distances of 10 cm,
so that in cross-section their centres form an equilateral triangle, as shown in the figure P4.21.
All three wires carry parallel currents of 200 A. Find the magnitude and direction of the force
per unit length on the top wire due to the currents in the other two wires.

4.33) A conducting strip is placed in a perpendicular magnetic field. When a current passes along the
strip, a potential difference appears across the strip in a direction perpendicular to the directions
of the magnetic field and the current flow. This phenomenon is known as:
A) diamagnetism B) ferromagnetism C) Lenzs law

D) the Maxwell effect E) the Hall effect

4.34) The torque felt by a current-carrying coil in a uniform magnetic field does not depend on
A) the area of the loop
B) the current
C) the magnetic field
D) the number of turns on the coil
E) the shape of the loop

Homeworks 4
H4.1 A solid metal cube of edge length d [cm], moving in the positive y direction at velocity v [m/s] through a
uniform magnetic field B [T] in the positive z direction (Fig. H4.1).
a) Which cube face is at a lower electric potential and which is at a higher electric potential ?
b) What is the potential difference between the faces of higher and lower electric potential ?

Fig. H4.1 Fig. H4.2 Fig. H4.3

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
d 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7
v 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
B 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
d 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7
v 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3
B 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.06

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
d 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7
v 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3
B 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
62

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
d 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7
v 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4
B 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
d 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9
v 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
B 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
d 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.2
v 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3
B 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
d 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4
v 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5
B 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.05

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
d 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 2.5 4.6
v 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
B 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.05
H4.2 A conducting rectangle MNPQ (Fig.H4.2), carrying current I
2
, is placed near a long wire carrying current
I
1
. Find the net force on the rectangle due to I
1
(sizes are in cm, currents are in A).

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
a 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46 48 50 52 54
b 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
d 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
I
1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
I
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
a 56 58 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46 48 50
b 28 29 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 25
d 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
I
1
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
I
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
a 52 54 56 58 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46
b 26 27 28 29 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23
d 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
I
1
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
I
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
63

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
a 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46 24 26 28 30 32
b 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 25 15 16 17 18 19 21
d 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
I
1
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 20 25 30
I
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
a 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
b 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 25 15 16 17 18 19 21
d 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
I
1
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
I
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
a 32 34 36 38 42 44 46 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42
b 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 25 15 16 17 18 19 21
d 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 5 6
I
1
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 20 25 30 35 40 45
I
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
a 36 38 42 44 46 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 32 34
b 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 25 15 16 17 18 19 21
d 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 5 6 7 8
I
1
60 65 70 75 80 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 65 70 75
I
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
a 42 44 46 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 32 34 36 38
b 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 25 15 16 17 18 19 21
d 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
I
1
60 65 70 75 80 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 65 70 75
I
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

H4.3 The magnitude of the electric field between the two circular parallel plates is E = t [V/m] (Fig. H4.3).
The plate area is A [m
2
]. Determine
a) the magnitude and the direction of the displacement current between the plates.
b) the magnitude and the direction of the induced magnetic field.

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

100 120 150 180 200 220 250 280 300 320 350 380 400 420 450 480
A 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

500 520 550 580 600 620 650 680 700 720 750 780 800 820 850 880
A 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
64

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

900 920 950 980 110 170 210 270 310 370 410 470 510 570 810 870
A 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

210 270 310 370 410 470 510 570 810 870 210 270 310 370 410 470
A 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

210 270 310 370 410 470 510 570 810 870 210 270 310 370 410 470
A 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96

210 270 310 370 410 470 510 570 810 870 210 270 310 370 410 470
A 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112

210 270 310 370 410 470 510 570 810 870 210 270 310 370 410 470
A 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128

215 275 315 375 415 475 515 575 815 875 215 275 315 375 415 475
A 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
65
Chapter 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

5.1 Faradays law of induction
1) In Fig. 5.1 an ammeter is connected in the circuit of a conducting loop. When the bar magnet is moved
closer to, or farther from, the loop, an electromotive force (emf) is induced in the loop. The ammeter
indicates currents in different directions depending on the relative motion of magnet and loop. Notice
that, when the magnet stops moving, the current returns to zero as indicated by the ammeter

Fig. 5.1 : Electromagnetic induction

The magnetic flux
B
through an area A in a magnetic field B
r
is defined as (Fig. 5.2)

B
=
A .d B
r r
[Wb] (5.1)

where the integration is taken over the area.

Fig. 5.2

Faradays Law of Induction : The induced electromotive force

e =
dt
d
B
(5.2)

2) Lenzs law : An induced current has a direction such that the magnetic field due to the current opposes the
changes in the magnetic flux that induced the current. The induced emf has the same direction as the
induced current.

3) Electromotive force and the induced electric field : An emf is induced by a changing magnetic flux
even if the loop through which the flux is changing is not a physical conductor. The induced emf is related
to the electric field E by

e =
s d E
r
r
(5.3)

66
where the integration is taken around the loop. It follows from (5.2) and (5.3) that

s d E
r
r
=
dt
d
B
(5.4)

a changing magnetic field B
r
induces an electric field E
r
.

5.2 Inductors
1) Inductance

L =
i
N
B
[H] (5.5)

The inductance per unit length near the middle of a long solenoid of cross sectional area A and n turns per
unit length

L =
o
n
2
A (5.6)

2) Self-induction : If the current in a coil changes with time, an emf is induced in the coil
e = -
dt
di
L (5.7)
The direction of e is found from the Lenzs law : the direction of e acts to oppose the changes that
produces it.

5.3 Series RL circuit
1) Rise of current (Fig. 5.3)
For t < 0, the switch K is at 2, i = 0A.
For t > 0, the switch K is at 1. Apply the loop rule

E =
dt
di
L + Ri

i =
E
R
(1-e
-t/
) (5.8)

where =
L
R
: inductive time constant.

Fig. 5.3 Fig. 5.4

67

2) Decay of current (Fig. 5.4)
For t < 0, the switch K is at 1, i =
E
R
.
For t > 0, the switch K is at 2. Apply the loop rule
0 =
dt
di
L + Ri
i =
E
R
e
-t/
(5.9)
where =
L
R
is the inductive time constant.

5.4 Magnetic energy
Magnetic energy stored in an inductance

U
B
=
2
1
Li
2
(5.10)

Density of magnetic energy = magnetic energy / volume

u
B
=
o
2
2
B
(5.11)

5.5 Mutual induction
If coil 1 and 2 are near each other, a changing current in either coil can induce an emf in the other. This
mutual induction is described by

e
1
= -
dt
di
M
2
(5.12)

e
2
= -
dt
di
M
1
(5.13)

where M (measured in henries) is the mutual inductance for the coil arrangement.

Problems
5.1) A small loop of area 10cm
2
is placed inside a long solenoid that has 800 turns/cm and carries a
sinusoidally varying current I of amplitude 1A and angular frequency 300rad/s. The central axes of the
loop and the solenoid coincide. What is the amplitude of the electromotive force induced in the loop ?

5.2) In Fig. P5.1, the magnetic flux through the loop increases according to the relation
B
= 6t
2
+ 7t where
B

is in miliwebers and t is in seconds. What is the magnitude of the electromotive force induced in the loop
when t = 2s ? Is the direction of the current through R to the right or left ?

5.3) In Fig. P5.2, the triangle ABC is moving into a magnetic field B with velocity v. Find the electromotive
force e(t) induced in the loop. If the triangle has resistance R, find the magnitude and direction of the
current i in the triangle. AB = a, BC = b
68

Fig. P5.1 Fig. P5.2

5.4) A rectangular coil of N turns and of length a, width b is rotated at frequency f in a uniform magnetic field
B indicated in Fig. P5.2. The coil is connected to co-rotating cylinders, against which metal brushes slide
to make contact. Find the electromotive force induced in the coil.

Fig. P5.2 Fig. P5.3

5.5) In Fig. P5.3, a rectangular loop of wire with length a = 2cm, width b = 0.8cm and resistance R = 0.4m is
placed near an infinitely long wire carrying current i = 4A. At t = 0, r = r
o
= 0.1cm. The loop is then
moved away from the wire at constant speed v = 3mm/s. Find the magnitude of the magnetic flux through
the loop and the current induced in the loop.

5.6) Find the mutual inductance between the long wire and the rectangular loop (of N turns) in Fig. P5.3.

5.7) In Fig. P5.4, a long rectangular conducting loop, of width L, resistance R, and mass m, is hung in a
horizontal, uniform magnetic field B that exists only above line a-a. The loop is then dropped. During its
fall, it accelerates until it reaches a certain terminal speed v. Find an expression for v.

Fig. P5.4 Fig. P5.5

5.8) In Fig. P5.5, the current in the infinitely long wire is i = t, the rectangle has resistance R. Find the value
and the direction of the induced current in the rectangle.
69

5.9) A rectangular loop of n closely packed turns is positioned near a long straight wire as shown in Fig. P5.6.
What is the mutual inductance M for the loop-wire combination ?

Fig. P5.6 Fig. P5.7

5.10) A coil with resistance 0.05 and self-inductance 0.01H is connected across a 12-volt battery of negligible
internal resistance.
a) How long after the switch is closed will the current reach 95% of its final value ?
b) At that time how much energy (in Joules) is stored in the magnetic field ?
c) How much energy has been delivered by the battery up to that time ?

5.11) A wire bent into a semicircle with a radius r rotates with a constant angular velocity (Fig. P5.7). The
wire is connected to a resistor R through a conductor of dimensions a and b in the y and x direction
respectively to form a closed loop. The loop is placed into a uniform magnetic field B (into the page).
a) Find the total flux through the loop as function of time.
b) Find the EMF created in the loop. Indicate the direction of the current over time.
c) While the semicircle rotates, the external magnetic field starts decreasing as B(t) = B
o
e
-t
. Find the
current i through the resistor as a function of time.

5.12) Consider a coil of wire rotating in a magnetic field. The induced emf does not depend on
A) the angular speed of rotation
B) the area of the coil
C) the number of turns on the coil
D) the magnetic field
E) the resistance of the coil

5.13) A certain coil of wire can be modeled by a resistor R = 2 in series with an inductor L = 5 mH. At time t
= 0 the switch is closed, connecting the coil to a 9 V battery.
a) What will be the value of the current (i) initially? (ii) after a long time?
b) How long will it take for the current to reach 95% of its final value?
c) If the coil has 100 turns, find the final value of magnetic flux through the coil.

5.14) The figure P5.8 shows a conducting rod ab which makes contact with two metal rails. The rails lie parallel
to each other, separated by 75 cm, and are connected through a 18 resistor. The rod and rails can be
assumed to have negligible resistance. The apparatus lies in a uniform magnetic field B = 1.2 T directed
into the page. The rod is moved to the right at a constant speed v = 4 m/s.
a) Find the magnitude of the emf induced in the rod, and the magnitude and direction of the induced
70
current.
b) Find the force required to keep the rod moving at this constant speed. (Assume friction is negligible.)

Fig. P5.8 Fig. P5.9

5.15) A bar magnet is held above a current loop as shown in Fig. 5.9. Which of the following will produce a
clockwise current in the loop?
A) hold the magnet stationary
B) move the magnet towards the loop
C) move the magnet away from the loop
D) both (B) and (C)
E) none of the above

5.16) Consider two coils. Coil 1 has 1000 turns and a self-inductance of 75 mH. Coil 2 has 50 turns and a self-
inductance of 5 mH. The mutual inductance of the coils is 20 mH. Coil 1 carries a current of 0.5 A which
is increasing at a rate 4 A/s, while coil 2 carries no current. The emf induced in coil 1 is:
A) 0.015 V B) 0.15 V C) 0.30 V D) 38 V E) 300 V.

5.17) Consider again the coils in the question 5.16. The magnetic flux linking coil 2 is:
A) 1 10
5
Wb B) 5 10
5
Wb C) 2 10
4
Wb D) 8 10
4
Wb E) 0.2 Wb.

Homeworks 5
H5.1 In Fig. H5.1, the magnetic flux through the loop increases according to the relation
B
= at
2
+ bt where
B

is in miliwebers and t is in seconds. What is the magnitude of the electromotive force induced in the loop
when t = 1s ? What is the magnitude and the direction of the current through R [] ?

Fig. H5.1 Fig. H5.2

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
a 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
b 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
71
R 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
a 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
b 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
R 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
a 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
b 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
R 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
a 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 25 26 27 28 29
b 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 6 7
R 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
a 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
b 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
R 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
a 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
b 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
R 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
a 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57
b 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
R 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
a 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
b 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 38 39
R 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49

H5.2 In Fig. H5.2, a rectangular loop of wire with length a [cm], width b [cm] and resistance R [m] is placed
near an infinitely long wire carrying current i = 10A. At t = 0, r = r
o
= 0.1cm. The loop is then moved
away from the wire at constant speed v = 10cm/s. Find the magnitude and the direction of the current
induced in the loop.

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
a 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46 48 50 52 54
b 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
a 56 58 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46 48 50
72
b 28 29 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 25
R 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
a 52 54 56 58 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46
b 26 27 28 29 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23
R 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
a 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46 24 26 28 30 32
b 24 25 26 27 28 29 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21
R 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 16 17 18 19 20

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
a 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46 48 50 52 54
b 24 25 26 27 28 29 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21
R 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 16 17 18 19 20

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
a 56 58 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46 48 50
b 26 27 28 29 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23
R 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 16 17 18 19 20

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
a 52 54 56 58 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46
b 28 29 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 25
R 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 16 17 18 19 20

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
a 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 44 46 24 26 28 30 32
b 28 29 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 25
R 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 16 17 18 19 20

73
Chapter 6 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUIT

6.1 RLC circuit
The storage energy (Fig. 6.1)

U = U
E
+ U
B
=
2
Li
2
1
+
2
c
Cv
2
1
[J] (6.1)

1) Undamped oscillation
Consider the circuit in Fig. 6.1. At t < 0, the switch K is at 1. At t > 0, the switch K is at 2.
If the circuit is lossless (there is no resistance)

dt
dU
= Li
dt
di
+ Cv
c
dt
dv
c
= 0 (6.2)
i = -C
dt
dv
c

dt
di
= -C
2
c
2
dt
v d

LC
2
c
2
dt
v d
+ v
c
= 0 (6.3)

v
c
(t) = Vcos(t) (6.4)

and i(t) = VCsin(t) (6.5)

where
LC
1
= (6.6)

Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.2

2) Damped oscillation
Consider the circuit in Fig. 6.2. At t < 0, the switch K is at 1. At t > 0, the switch K is at 2.
If a dissipative element R is present

dt
dU
= Li
dt
di
+ Cv
c
dt
dv
c
= -Ri
2
(6.7)
LC
2
c
2
dt
v d
+ RC
dt
dv
c
+ v
c
= 0 (6.8)

v
c
(t) = V
o
e
-Rt/2L
cos(t+
o
) (6.9)
where
2
)
L 2
R
(
LC
1
=
74

6.2 Alternating current circuit
1) Resistive load (Fig. 6.3): the current i and the voltage e across the resistor are in phase. The impedance of
the resistor

R
I
V
z
m
m
= =

I
m
, V
m
: amplitude of i and e, respectively.

2) Inductive load (Fig. 6.4): the current in the inductor lags the voltage by 90. The impedance of the
inductor

L
I
V
z
m
m
= =

I
m
, V
m

Fig. 6.3 Fig. 6.4 Fig. 6.5 Fig. 6.6

3) Capacitive load (Fig. 6.5): the current in the capacitor leads the voltage by 90.The impedance of the
capacitor

C
1
= =
m
m
I
V
z
I
m
, V
m

4) The series RLC circuit (Fig. 6.6)
The impedance of the circuit
2
\
|
+ = =
C
1
- L R
I
V
z
2
m
m

The phase constant
R
C
1
- L
) tan( =

C
1
L
> : the circuit is more inductive than capacitive, the current i lags the voltage e.

C
1
L
< : the circuit is more capacitive than inductive, the current i leads the voltage e.

C
1
L
= : the circuit is in resonance, the current i and the voltage e are in phase.
75
The resonance frequency:
LC
1
o
=

6.3 Phasor
The sinusoidal quantity i = I
m
cos(t+) is represented by a vector of length I
m
which rotates around the
origin with the angular speed (Fig. 6.7). At time t = 0 this vector is the phasor I
m
of the sinusoidal
quantity.

Fig. 6.7 Fig. 6.8

6.4 Transformer (Fig. 6.8)

2
1
2
1
n
n
u
u
=

1
2
2
1
n
n
i
i
=

Problems
6.1) Consider the circuit in Fig. P6.1 with e(t) = 12sin(120t) V. When S
1
and S
2
are open, i leads e by 30.
When S
1
is closed and S
2
is open, i lags e by 30. When S
1
and S
2
are closed, i has amplitude 0.5A. What
are R, L and C ?


6.2) Consider the circuit in Fig. P6.2 with e(t) = 12sin(120t) V, r = 10. Find the value of R such that the

6.3) Consider the circuit in Fig. P6.3 with e(t) = 12sin(120t) V, L = 26.5mH. Find the value of R such that the

76
6.4) Consider the circuits in Fig. P6.4 where R = 100, L = 100mH, C = 10F, e = 100sin(t) volts. Find i
R
(t),
i
L
(t), i
C
(t), V(t), the storage energy of the capacitor, the storage energy of the inductor, and the total
storage energy in 3 cases :
a) = 500 rad/s, b) = 1000 rad/s, c) = 2000 rad/s

Fig. P6.4

6.5) Consider the circuit in Fig. P6.5 where e = 100sin(t) volts, R = 100, L = 100mH, C = 10F. Determine
i(t), v
R
(t), v
L
(t), v
C
(t), the storage energy of the capacitor U
C
(t), the storage energy of the inductor U
L
(t),
the average power of the resistor P
R
, the average power of the source P
e
in 3 cases :
a) = 500 rad/s, b) = 100 rad/s, c) = 1000 rad/s

Fig. P6.5 Fig. P6.6

6.6) Consider the circuit in Fig. P6.6 where R = 100, C = 10F, e = 100sin(1000t) volts. The capacitor C has
circular plates of radius a, the space between the two plates is d = 0.1mm.
a) Find the voltage v and the current i.
d
plates.

6.7) A typical light dimmer used to dim the stage lights in a theater consist of a variable inductor L
connected in series with the light bulb B as shown in the figure P6.7. The power supply is 220 V (rms) at
60 Hz; the light bulb is marked 220 V, 1000W
a) What maximum inductance L is required if the power in the light bulb is to be varied by a factor of
five? Assume that the resistance of the light bulb is independent of its temperature?
b) Could one use a variable resistor instead of an inductor? If so, what maximum resistance is required?
Why isnt this done?
77

Fig. P6.7 Fig. P6.8

6.8) Let q(t) be the charge on the capacitor in a series RLC circuit driven by a periodic EMF e = E
m
cos(t).
a) Derive a differential equation showing the time evolution of the charge on the capacitor.
b) Use the known solution for i(t) and the definition i = dq/dt to find an expression for q(t). What is the
amplitude q
m
of q(t)?
c) Show that the maximum charge amplitude is at =
2 2 2
o
L 2 / R

6.9) A single loop circuit consists of a resistor R, a 12 H inductor and a 3.2 F capacitor. Initially the capacitor
has a charge of 6.2 C and the current is zero.
a) R = 7.2 . Find the charge on the capacitor 10 complete cycles later.
b) Find R such that the maximum charge on the capacitor decays to 99% of its initial value in 50 cycles.

6.10) An LC oscillator consists of a 2 mH inductor and a 2 nF capacitor. The maximum voltage is 4V.
a) Find the frequency of the oscillations.
b) Find the maximum current and the maximum energy stored in the inductor.

6.11) The circuit in Fig. P6.8 is driven by an EMF V = V
o
sin(t)
a) At time t
1
, the switch is closed on A.
- Calculate the impedance of the circuit.
- What is the frequency
o
that maximizes the average power dissipated in the resistor R?
- For =
o
, what is the average power dissipated in the resistor R?
- For =
1
=
LC 2
1
. Calculate the current i flowing through the resistor R. What is the phase
between i and V ? Is i leading or lagging V?
- How does the amplitude I
o
of the current i depend on the frequency ? Draw a graph of I
o
vs.
b) At time t
2
, the switch is closed on B.
- Calculate the impedance of the circuit.
- How does the amplitude I
o
of the current i depend on the frequency ? Draw a graph of I
o
vs.

6.12) The circuit in Fig. P6.9 is driven by an alternating EMF V = V
o
sin(t)
a) The switch is initially put into position A. The frequency of the AC driving voltage is adjusted until
the amplitude of the current delivered to the circuit is maximized. What is this frequency?
b) The frequency is left untouched and the switch is now placed in the open position. Use this frequency
for the rest of the problem. Compute the phase angle between the current and the driving EMF.
Does the current lead or lag the EMF ? For what value of resistance R is the amplitude of the current
delivered in the open position half that delivered in position A ?
c) The switch is finally put into position B. What is the amplitude of the current delivered to the circuit?
What is the average power supplied by the EMF source ?
78

Fig. P6.9 Fig. P6.10

6.13) Consider the circuit in Fig. P6.10 where C
1
= 10,000 F, C
2
= 1,000 F, and L = 10H, C
1
is initially
charged to 75V. Explain how to open and close the switches so as to discharge C
1
and charge C
2
. Starting
at t = 0, you should give explicitly times for opening and closing each switch. What is the final voltage
across C
2
.

6.14) A generator has an internal resistance r = 0.4 and produces an EMF e(t) = 150cos(100t)V.
a) If a load resistor R = 15 is connected to the generator. Find the average power delivered to the load ?
b) If a transformer is connected between the generator and the load resistor R = 15. Find the ratio of
turns of the transformer such that the power delivered to the load is maximized ? Find the maximum
value of the power ?

6.15) A circuit contains a self-inductance L = 15mH in series with a capacitor C = 5F and a resistor R = 80.
The circuit is driven by a alternating voltage V(t) = 40sin(t)V.
a) What is the value of the resonance frequency
o
?
b) Consider 3 separate cases for which = 0.25
o
, =
o
, = 4
o
respectively. For each case
calculate the peak current I
o
, the energy U
c
(t) and the energy U
L
(t) stored, respectively, in the
capacitor and in the inductor as a function of time.

6.16) Electricity supplied to homes in Vietnam is said to be 50 Hz, 220 V. These figures represent
A) the angular frequency and voltage amplitude
B) the angular frequency and rms voltage
C) the angular frequency and peak to peak voltage
D) the frequency and voltage amplitude
E) the frequency and rms voltage

6.17) An AC circuit contains a 10 resistor, a 100 F capacitor and an inductor L connected in series. In order
for the circuit to resonate at 100 Hz, the value of L (in henries) must be
A) 1/4
2
B) 1/2 C) 1 D) 2 E) 4
2
F) A, B, C, D, E are wrong

6.18) A neon sign requires a 13 kV rms voltage. This is to be obtained from a 220 V rms power supply using a
single transformer.
a) Find the required turns ratio for the transformer.
b) The amplitude of the current supplied to the neon sign must not exceed 30mA. Find the maximum rms
current allowed in the primary circuit.

79
6.19) The RLC circuit shown in Fig. P6.5 has R = 2 , L = 0.1 mH and C = 40 F. The AC source provides a
voltage of amplitude 5 V and angular frequency = 25 000 rad/s.
a) Find the impedance of the circuit.
b) Suppose the current in the circuit is i = I cos(t).
- Find the value of the current amplitude, I.
- Write a corresponding expression for the instantaneous voltage across the source. Does the voltage
lead or lag the current?
c) Find the average power dissipated by the circuit.

6.20) The figure P6.11 shows the current i and driving emf in a series RLC circuit. From the graph we can
deduce that:
A) C < L
B) C > L
C) C < 1/(
2
L)
D) C > 1/(
2
L)
E) We do not have enough information to deduce any of the above

Fig. P6.11
6.21) In order to convert a 220 V a.c. signal to 15 V a.c. we should use
A) a step-up transformer
B) a step-down transformer
C) a half-wave rectifier
D) an antenna
E) a capacitor

6.22) A RLC series circuit has R = 10, L = 2.5mH and C = 12F. The a.c. source provides a voltage
of amplitude 24V. The frequency of the voltage is adjusted so that the circuit is in resonance.
a) Find the angular frequency
0
at which resonance occurs.
b) Find the impedance of the circuit, the amplitude of the current and the amplitude of the
voltage across each component.
c) At the moment that the voltage across the resistor takes its maximum value, what are the
voltages across the inductor and capacitor?

Homeworks 6
H6.1 Consider the circuits in Fig. H6.1 where e = 100sin(1000t) volts. Find i
R
(t), i
L
(t), i
C
(t), V(t), the storage
energy of the capacitor, the storage energy of the inductor, and the total storage energy (R in , L in mH,
C in F).

80

Fig. H6.1 Fig. H6.2

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
R 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
L 5 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350
C 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
R 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
L 5 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350
C 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
R 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
L 5 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350
C 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
R 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150
L 5 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350
C 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
R 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250
L 5 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350
C 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
R 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300
L 5 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350
C 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
R 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350
L 5 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350
C 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
R 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380
L 5 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350
C 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70

81

H6.2 Consider the circuits in Fig. H6.2 where e = 100sin(1000t) volts. Find i(t), the storage energy of the
capacitor, the storage energy of the inductor, and the total storage energy (R in , L in mH, C in F).
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
R 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
L 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
C 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
R 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
L 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
C 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
R 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
L 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
C 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
R 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
L 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
C 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
R 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
L 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
C 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
R 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
L 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
C 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
R 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
L 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
C 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128
R 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
L 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
C 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

82
Chapter 7 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

7.1 Maxwells equations
1) Maxwells equations
Gauss law for electricity
surface closed
A .d E
r r
=
o
q
(7.1)

Gauss law for magnetism
surface closed
A .d B
r r
= 0 (7.2)

Faraday s law
path closed
s .d E
r
r
= -
t
B

(7.3)

Ampere-Maxwell law
path closed
s .d B
r
r
=
t

E
o o

+
o
i (7.4)

2) Vector calculus (or vector analysis)
del operator :
z
i
y
i
x
i
z y x
=
r r r
(7.5)

gradient : grad(V) =
z
V
i
y
V
i
x
V
i V
z y x
=
r r r
(7.6)

Maps scalar fields to vector fields.
Measures the rate and direction of change in a scalar field.

divergence : div( F
r
) = ( )
z z y y x x z y x
F i F i F i .
z
i
y
i
x
i F
r r r r r r r
+ +
|
|
\
|
=
=
z
F
y
F
x
F
z
y
x
(7.7)

Maps vector fields to scalar fields.
Measures the magnitude of a source or sink at a given point in a vector field.

83
Property :

=
surface closed volume
A .d F .dV F
r r r
(7.8)

curl: curl( F
r
) = rot( F
r
) = ( )
z z y y x x
x
z y x
x F i F i F i
z
i
y
i
x
i F
r r r r r r r
+ +
|
|
\
|
=
=
z y x
z y x
F F F
z y x
i i i
r r r
(7.9)

Maps vector fields to vector fields.
Measures the tendency to rotate about a point in a vector field.

Property :

=
path closed surface
s .d F A .d F x
r
r r r
(7.10)

Laplacian: )) div(grad(V V . . .V V
2
= = =
= V
z
i
y
i
x
i .
z
i
y
i
x
i
z y x z y x
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
r r r r r r

=
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
V
y
V
x
V
(7.11)

Maps scalar fields to scalar fields.
A composition of the divergence and gradient operations.

F
r
= F
z y x
2
2
2
2
2
2
r
|
|
\
|
=
z z y y x x
i F i F i F
r r r
+ + (7.12)

Property : F
r
= F
2
r
- x x F
r
(7.13)

3) Maxwells equations in term of del operator
Gauss law for electricity
volume
.dV E
r
=
surface closed
A .d E
r r
=
o
q
volume
.dV
o

It follows that E
r
=
o
(7.14)

84
Gausslaw for magnetism
volume
.dV B
r
=
surface closed
A .d B
r r
= 0

It follows that B
r
= 0 (7.15)

Faraday s law
surface
A .d E x
r r
=
path closed
s .d E
r
r
= -
t
B

= - A d .
t
B
r
r
surface

It follows that E x
r
= -
t
B
r
(7.16)

Ampere-Maxwell law
surface
A .d B x
r r
=
path closed
s .d B
r
r
=
dt
d
E
o o

+
o
i
=
|
|
\
|
+
surface
A d J
t
E

o o o
r r
r

It follows that B x
r
= J
t
E

o o o
r
r
+
(7.17)

4) Wave equation
Applying (7.13) yields

E
r
= E
2
r
- x x E
s
(7.18)

With J = 0 and = 0
E
r
= 0 and x E
s
= -
t
B
r
(7.19)
We have
E
r
= x
t
B
r
=
t
B x
r
=
t
E

2
2
o o
r
(7.20)

Inserting (7.19) and (7.20) into (7.18) we have the wave equation

E
r
-
t
E

2
2
o o
r
= 0 (7.21)

7.2 Electromagnetic waves
An electromagnetic wave consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The various possible
frequencies of electromagnetic waves form a spectrum, a small part of which is visible light. An
electromagnetic wave traveling along an x axis has an electric field E
r
and a magnetic field B
r
with
magnitudes that depend on x and t
85

E = E
m
sin(kx-t) (7.22)

B = B
m
sin(kx-t) (7.23)

where : angular frequency of the wave, k : angular wave number of the wave. These two components
can not exist independently. The two fields continuously create each other via induction : the time varying
magnetic field induces the electric field via Faraday s law of induction, the time varying electric field
induces the magnetic field via Maxwell s law of induction.

a) b)
Fig. 7.1 a) Electric field induced by magnetic field b) Magnetic field induced by electric field

Fig. 7.2 : The electromagnetic spectrum

The key features of an electromagnetic wave
- The electric field E
r
is always perpendicular to the magnetic field B
r
. The electric field E
r
and the
magnetic field B
r
are always perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is traveling (the wave is
a transverse wave). The cross product E
r
x B
r
always gives the direction in which the wave travels.
- The fields always vary sinusoidally with the same frequency and in phase with each other.
86
- All electromagnetic waves, including visible light, have the same speed c (3x10
8
m/s) in vacuum. The
electromagnetic wave requires no medium for its travel. It can travel through a medium such as air or
glass. It can also travel through vacuum.
c
k
1
B
E
o o
m
m
=
=

= =
B
E
(7.24)

7.3 Energy flow
The rate per unit area at which energy is transported via an electromagnetic wave is given by the Poynting
vector

o
1
S= Ex B
r r r
(7.25)

Fig. 7.3 : Electromagnetic wave

The direction of S
r
(and thus of the waves travel and the energy transport) is perpendicular to the
direction of both E
r
and B
r
. Since E
r
and B
r
are perpendicular

o
2
o
c
E EB
S
= =
2
m
o
E
c
sin
2
(kx-t) [W/m
2
] (7.26)
The time-averaged of S is called the intensity I of the wave

2
m
o
E
I =
2c
[W/m
2
] (7.27)
A point source of electromagnetic waves emits the wave isotropically (i.e. with equal intensity in all
directions). The intensity of the waves at distance r from a point source of power P
s
is

s
2
P
I =
4r
[W/m
2
] (7.28)

7.4 Radiation pressure
When a surface intercepts electromagnetic radiation, a force and a pressure are exerted on the surface. If
the radiation is totally absorbed by the surface, the force is

IA
F=
c
(7.29)
where I is the intensity of the radiation and A is the area of the surface perpendicular to the path of the
radiation. If the radiation is totally reflected back along its original path, the force is
87

2IA
F=
c
(7.30)
The radiation pressure p
r
is the force per unit area

r
F
p =
A
(7.31)

Problems
7.1) An electromagnetic wave with frequency 4x10
14
Hz travels through vacuum in the positive direction of an
x axis. The wave has its electric field directed parallel to the y axis with amplitude E
m
. At time t = 0, the
electric field at point P on the x axis has a value of E
m
/4 and is decreasing with time. What is the distance
along the x axis from point P to the first point with E = 0 if we search in
a) the negative direction of the x axis
b) the positive direction of the x axis

7.2) An airplane flying at a distance of 10km from a radio transmitter receives a signal of intensity 10W/m
2
.
What is the amplitude of the electric and magnetic component of the signal at the airplane ? If the
transmitter radiates uniformly over a hemisphere, what is the transmission power ?

7.3) The maximum electric field 10m from an isotropic point source of light is 2V/m.
a) Find the amplitude of the electric field and the amplitude of the magnetic field
b) Find the average intensity of the light there.
c) Find the power of the source.

7.4) Sunlight just outside Earths atmosphere has an intensity of 1.4 kW/m
2
. Although this radiation consists
of a spectrum of frequencies, many of the interesting properties do not depend on frequency and can
therefore be calculated by using the methods described for monochromatic waves.
a) What is the average energy density in the solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere?
b) What average force would the radiation exert on a completely absorbing surface with an area of 1m
2

oriented perpendicular to the Earth-Sun line?
c) What is the average value of the electric field and the magnetic field in the wave?

7.5) A plane electromagnetic wave, with wave length 3m, travels in vacuum in the positive direction of an x
axis. The electric field, of amplitude 300V/m, oscillates parallel to the y axis. What are the frequency,
angular frequency and angular wave number of the wave ? What is the amplitude of the magnetic field
component ? Parallel to which axis does the magnetic field oscillates ? What is the time-averaged rate of
energy flow associated with this wave ? The wave uniformly illuminates a surface of area 2m
2
. If the
surface totally absorbs the wave, what are the rate at which momentum is transfered to the surface and the
radiation pressure on the surface ?

7.6) An isotropic point source emits light at wavelength 500nm, at rate of 200W. A light detector is positioned
400m from the source. What is the maximum rate
B
t
at which the magnetic component of the light

changes with time at the detectors location ?

7.7) The large radio telescope in Arecibo, Puerto Rico can detect a signal which lays down on the entire
surface of the earth a power of only one picowatt.
a) What is the power that would be received by the Arecibo antenna for such a signal ? The antenna
diameter is 300m.
88
b) What would be the power of an isotropic source at the center of our galaxy that could provide such a
signal ? The galactic center is 2.2x10
4
light-year away.

7.8) An electromagnetic wave is the superposition of two linearly polarized waves along the y and z
directions and is described by the following equation
) kx t cos( E z ) kx t sin( E y E
o o
+ =
r

a) Find the magnitude of the electric field at all points of space for all times.
b) What is the direction of propagation of this wave?
c) What is the magnetic field B?

7.9) Consider a plane, monochromatic wave traveling in a homogeneous medium. Find the wave length, the
wave number, the frequency, the speed, the propagation direction, the components of the magnetic field
vector (B
x
, B
y
, B
z
), and the Poynting vector (magnitude and direction) in three cases
a) E
x
= E
y
= 0, E
z
= -25sin(1.57x + 4.7110
8
t)
b) E
x
= E
z
= 0, E
y
= 50cos(3.14x 9.4210
8
t)
c) E
x
= E
y
= 0, E
z
= 40cos(6.28x + 1.3410
9
t)
where E is measured in V/m, t in sec, and x in m.

7.10) A current I = dQ/dt delivers charge to a capacitor. This capacitor has radius a, and the plates are separated
by a distance d.
a) Find the Poynting vector due to the electric field and the magnetic field between the capacitor plates.
Give both the magnitude and the direction.
b) Calculate the total power P flowing into the capacitor. Given the Poynting vector found in (a), what is
the correct surface to use for the integral?
c) Integrate this power over time. Assuming that the capacitor has charge 0 at t =0 and has some charge
level Q at a later time t, show that the total energy that flows into the capacitor is given by U = Q
2
/2C.

7.11) A coaxial cable transmits DC power from a battery to a load. The cable consists of two concentric, long,
hollow cylinders of zero resistance. The inner cylinder has radius a, the outer has b, and the length of both
is L. The battery provides an EMF E between the two conductors at one end of the cable, and the load is a
resistance R connected between the two conductors at the other end.
a) How much power is dissipated in the resistor?
b) What are the electric field E
r
and the magnetic field B
r
in the cable?
c) What is the Poynting vector S
r
in the cable?
d) Suppose the battery is now reversed. Does the direction of S
r
change?

Fig P7.12 The waveguide

7.12) Two long conductors of width a and separation d form a waveguide as shown in Fig. P7.12.
89
a) Find the inductance per unit length L
o
and the capacitance per unit length C
c
in terms of d and a.
b) One end of the transmission line is driven by a voltage V(t) = V
o
f(zk t). Find the electric and
magnetic fields E
r
and B
r
and the Poynting vector S
r
in terms of d, a and V
o
.
c) Find the impedance Z of the waveguide.
d) At z = 10cm from the driven end of the waveguide, the waveguide changes to width a + a (a << a),
and separation d + d (d << d). What is the impedance Z of the waveguide for z > 10cm? Use a
Taylor expansion to express your answer as a linear function as a and d.
e) How must a and d be related in order for Z = Z?

7.13) The basic equations of electromagnetism is called Maxwells equations which are given in the vacuum
(J = 0, = 0) as below:
= D
r
(Gausss law for magnetism)
0 B =
r
(Gausss law for electricity)

t
B
E x
=
r
r
(Faradays law)

t
D
J H x
+ =
r
r r
(Ampere-Maxwells law)
where E J
r r
= , E D
o
r r
= , H B
o
r r
= . Show that from Maxwells equation the following wave
equation can be derived
2
2
o o
t
E
E

r
r
= 0

7.14) The distance from the Earth to the Moon is 3.8x10
5
km. The time taken for a radar signal to travel from
Earth to the Moon and back again is approximately
A) 0.4 s B) 1.3 s C) 2.5 s D) 8 s E) 16 s F) A, B, C, D, E are wrong

7.15) If the amplitude of the electric field in an electromagnetic wave is 1 kV/m then the amplitude of the
magnetic field is
A) 3.310
-6
T B) 6.710
-6
T C) 2.7 T D) 8.010
8
T E) 3.010
8
T
F) A, B, C, D, E are wrong

7.16) Radio waves differ from visible light waves in that radio waves:
A) have higher frequency B) have lower frequency C) travel faster
D) travel slower E) cannot travel in a vacuum F) A, B, C, D, E are wrong

7.17) The units of light intensity are:
A) J B) J/m
2
C) J/s D) W/m
2
E) W/s F) A, B, C, D, E are wrong

7.18) A television station broadcasts a sinusoidal TV signal at a power of 315 kW. Assume the signal is emitted
uniformly over a hemisphere. Find the amplitude of the electric field of the wave at a house 5 km from the
antenna.

7.19) Which of the following statements is incorrect?
A) Blue light has higher frequency than microwaves
B) Blue light travels faster than radio waves
C) Blue light and x-rays can both travel in a vacuum
D) Blue light has shorter wavelength than red light
90
E) Blue light transports energy

7.20) Light with an intensity of 1 kW/m
2
falls normally on a surface and is completely absorbed. The radiation
pressure is:
A) 1 kPa B) 3 10
5
Pa C) 3.3 10
6
Pa D) 3.3 10
6
Pa E) 6.7 10
6
Pa

Homeworks 7
H7.1 A plane electromagnetic wave, with wave length [m], travels in vacuum in the positive direction of an x
axis. The electric field, of amplitude E [V/m], oscillates parallel to the y axis. What are the frequency,
angular frequency and angular wave number of the wave ? What is the amplitude of the magnetic field
component ? Parallel to which axis does the magnetic field oscillates ? What is the time-averaged rate of
energy flow associated with this wave ? The wave uniformly illuminates a surface of area 2m
2
. If the
surface totally absorbs the wave, what are the rate at which momentum is transfered to the surface and the
radiation pressure on the surface ?

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
E 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850

n 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5
E 25 50 75 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

n 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5
E 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950

n 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
E 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

n 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
E 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

n 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96

2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5
E 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850

n 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112

3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5
E 25 50 75 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

n 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128

4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
E 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

91
Appendix I
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
10
24
yotta- Y 10
-24
yocto- y
10
21
zetta- Z 10
-21
zepto- z
10
18
exa- E 10
-18
atto- a
10
15
peta- P 10
-15
femto- f
10
12
tera- T 10
-12
pico- p
10
9
giga- G 10
-9
nano- n
10
6
mega- M 10
-6
micro-
10
3
kilo- k 10
-3
milli- m
10
2
hecto- h 10
-2
centi- c
10
1
deka- da 10
-1
deci d

Appendix II
Constant Symbol Value
Speed of light in vacuum C 3x10
8
m/s
Elementary charge e 1.6x10
-19
C
Avogadro constant N
A
6.02x10
23
mol
-1

Permittivity constant
o
8.85x10
-12
F/m
Permeability constant
o
1.26x10
-6
H/m
Electron mass m
e
9.11x10
-31
kg
Proton mass m
p
1.67x10
-27
kg
Neutron mass m
n
1.68x10
-27
kg

Appendix III
Dot product of two vectors is a scalar
A
r
B
r
= | A
r
|.| B
r
|.cos() = A
x
B
x
+ A
y
B
y
+ A
z
B
z

Cross product of two vectors is a vector
C
r
= A
r
x B
r

where | C
r
| = | A
r
|.| B
r
|.sin() and the direction of C
r
is determined by the right hand rule.

The line integral of the vector F
r
along the curve L from A to B is a scalar

B
A
L d F
r r
=
B
A
dL F ) cos( | | =
x
x
B
A
x x
dL F +
y
y
B
A
y y
dL F +
z
z
B
A
z z
dL F

92

The surface integral of the vector F
r
through the surface A is a scalar

A
dA n F
r
r
=
A
dA F ) cos( | | = ( )
+ +
A
z z y y x x
dA n F n F n F

The volume integral of the scalar F over the volume V

V
FdV

Appendix IV: Trigonometric formula
sin(x+y) = sin(x)cos(y) + sin(y)cos(x)
cos(x+y) = cos(x)cos(y) - sin(x)sin(y)
sin(x)cos(y) = [sin(x+y) + sin(x-y)]/2
cos(x)cos(y) = [cos(x-y) + cos(x+y)]/2
sin(x)sin(y) = [cos(x-y) - cos(x+y)]/2
sin(x) + sin(y) = 2sin[(x+y)/2]cos[(x-y)/2]
cos(x) + cos(y) = 2cos[(x+y)/2]cos[(x-y)/2]
cos(x) - cos(y) = -2sin[(x+y)/2]sin[(x-y)/2]

Appendix V
Surface of a sphere of radius R : S = 4R
2

Volume of a sphere of radius R : V = 4R
3
/3
Circumference of a circle of radius R : C = 2R
( ) ( )
2 / 1
2 2 2
2 / 3
2 2
a x a
x
a x
dx
+
=
+

Appendix VI: Magnetic Properties of Material
[http://www.tutorvista.com/content/physics/physics-iv/magnetism-matter/magnetic-properties.php#]
On the basis of their magnetic properties different materials are classified as: diamagnetic substance,
paramagnetic substance, ferromagnetic substance.

Diamagnetic Substance
Michael Faraday discovered that a specimen of bismuth was repelled by a strong magnet. Diamagnetism
occurs in all materials. These materials are those in which individual atoms do not possess any net
magnetic moment. [Their orbital and spin magnetic moment add vectorially to become zero]. The atoms
93
of such material however acquire an induced dipole moments when they are placed in an external
magnetic field.

The diamagnetic materials are Type 1 superconductors as they exhibit perfect conductivity and perfect
diamagnetization when cooled to very low temperature. The superconductor repels a magnet and in turn is
repelled. Such perfect diamagnetism in superconductors exhibiting the above phenomena is called
Meissner effect.

Some important properties are:
1) When suspended in a uniform magnetic field they set their longest axis at right angles to the field as
shown

2) In a non-uniform magnetic material, these substances move from stronger parts of the field to the
weaker parts. For e.g.,. when diamagnetic liquid is put in a watch glass placed on the two pole pieces
of an electromagnet and current is switched on the liquid accumulates on the sides.
[Note on increasing the distance between the pole, the effect is reversed]

3) A diamagnetic liquid in a U shaped tube is depressed, when subjected to a magnetic field.

4) The lines of force do not prefer to pass through the specimen, since the ability of a material to permit
the passage of magnetic lines of force through it is less.

5) The permeability of the substance, that is,
r
< 1.
6) The substance loses its magnetization as soon as the magnetizing field is removed.
94
7) Such specimen cannot be easily magnetized and so their susceptibility is negative.
Example: Bismuth, antimony, copper, gold, quartz, mercury, water, alcohol, air, hydrogen etc.

Paramagnetic substance
Paramagnetic substance are attracted by a magnet very feebly. In a sample of a paramagnetic material, the
atomic dipole moments initially are randomly oriented in space.

When an external field is applied, the dipoles rotate into alignment with field as shown

The vector sum of the individual dipole moments is no longer zero.
The paramagnetic substance develops a weak magnetization in the direction of the field.
When a paramagnetic rod is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it aligns itself in the
direction of magnetic field.

The lines of force prefer to pass through the material rather than air that is mr > 1 that is their
permeability is greater than one.

As soon as the magnetizing field is removed the paramagnetics lose their magnetization.
In a non-uniform magnetic, the specimen move from weaker parts of the field to the stronger parts
(that is it accumulates in the middle).
A paramagnetic liquid in U tube placed between two poles of a magnet is elevated.

95
The magnetization of paramagnetism decreases with increase in temperature. This is because the
thermal motion of the atoms tend to disturb the alignment of the dipoles.
Example: Aluminum, platinum, chromium, manganese, copper sulphate, oxygen etc.,

Ferromagnetic substance
Ferromagnetism, like paramagnetism, occurs in materials in which atoms have permanent magnetic dipole
moments. The strong interaction between neighboring atomic dipole moments keeps them aligned even
when the external magnetic field is removed.

These substances get strongly magnetized in the direction of field.
The lines of force prefer to pass through the material rather than air that is mr>1 that is their
permeability is greater than one.

In a non-uniform magnetic, the specimen move from weaker parts of the field to the stronger parts
(that is it accumulates in the middle).
A paramagnetic liquid in U tube placed between two poles of a magnet is elevated.

For ferromagnetic materials mr is very large and so its susceptibility i.e., Xm is positive.

Ferromagnetic substances retain their magnetism even after the magnetizing field is removed.
The effectiveness of coupling between the neighboring atoms that causes ferromagnetism decreases
by increasing the temperature of the substance. The temperature at which a ferromagnetic material
becomes paramagnetic is called its curie temperature. For example the curie temperature of iron is
1418
o
F, which means above this temperature, iron is paramagnetic.
Example: Iron, cobalt, nickel and number of alloys.

Curie Law in Magnetism
Pierre Curie experimentally discovered that intensity of magnetization I is directly proportional to Bo
(flux density in vacuum) and inversely proportional to the absolute temperature T of the material
That is I a Bo/T
96
or I=c Bo/T

Here, C is Curies constant.

The saturation region explains that at a particular stage, all atomic dipoles present in the specimen align in
the direction of the field.

Domain Theory
With ferromagnetic substance, there are regions roughly 0.01 mm in size in which coupling of dipoles is
perfect. Such regions are called domains. In each domain, however, the dipoles point in different
directions and so add up vectorially to give zero in an unmagnetized ferromagnet as shown below.
(a)

On placing ferromagnets in an external magnetic field, the domains having magnetic moments in the
direction of magnetic field start growing in size at the cost of other domains.

(b)

Thus, the number of magnetic moments pointing in the direction of the magnetic field increases and for a
strong field, the material gets strongly magnetized.

97

Hysteresis

Consider an iron being magnetized slowly by a changing magnetizing field (H). The intensity of
magnetization is found to increase along OA. On decreasing H slowly, I also decreases but does not
follow AO. When H = 0, I has a non-zero valve equal to OB. This implies that some magnetism is left in
the specimen. This value of I which is non-zero when H = 0 that is OB is called retentivity or residual
magnetism.

When the field is applied in the reverse direction, the I decreases along BC till its zero at C. The valve of
H which has to be applied to the magnetic material in reverse direction so as to reduce its residual
magnetism to zero, is called its coercivity. On increasing H further, I increases along CD till it acquires a
saturation at D. On changing the field, I follows a path DEFA. This closed loop is called hysteresis loop
and represents cycles of magnetization a specimen has undergone. The hysteresis therefore refers to
lagging behind. Here I lags behind H.

The shape and size of hysteresis loop is characteristic of each material, because of their difference in
retentivity, coercivity etc.

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Electricity and Magnetism

: from a large distance, the ring looks like a point charge.

: electric field produced by an infinite sheet of uniform charge

, for r < R (1.25)

(A : the area of the plate)

at which the magnetic component of the light

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