Essentials

EssentialsEssentials of Buddhism
EssentialsEssentials
Ven. Pategama Gnanarama Ph.D.
eBUDDHANET'S
BOO !"B#A#$
E%mail& 'dea('uddhanet.net
)e' site& ***.'uddhanet.net
Buddha Dharma Edu+ation Asso+iation "n+.
Essentials of
Buddhism
Ven. Pategama Gnanarama Ph.D.
Prin+i,al
Buddhist and Pali -ollege of Singa,ore
There has 'een a noti+ea'le la+. of a good
te/t'oo. on Buddhism for uni0ersit1 and +ollege
students. Ven. Gnanarama2s 'oo. on Essentials
of Buddhism meets this demand 0er1 su++essfull1.
There has 'een a noti+ea'le la+. of a good
te/t'oo. on Buddhism for uni0ersit1 and +ollege
students. Ven. Gnanarama2s 'oo. on Essentials
of Buddhism meets this demand 0er1 su++essfull1.
Prof. Guna,ala Dharmasiri
De,artment of Philoso,h1
Uni0ersit1 of Peradeni1a
Sri !an.a
A +onsistent and +om,rehensi0e treatise on
Essentials of Buddhism.
Prof. a,ila A'ha1a*ansa
Post Graduate "nstitute of
Pali and Buddhist Studies
Uni0ersit1 of elani1a
Sri !an.a
3irst ,u'lished in Singa,ore in 4555
Pu'lished '1 author
"SBN 67895:9476598
; Pategama Gnanarama 4555
All rights reser0ed.
:
B1 the same author&
B1 the same author&
.
Three -enturies after the Great De+ease <Sinhala=
4.
Plato <Sinhala= +o%author
>.
A Stud1 of ?ata.a Tales <Sinhala=
:.
An A,,roa+h to Buddhist So+ial Philoso,h1 <English=
@.
Earl1 Buddhism and Pro'lems of "nter,retation
<Sinhala=
A.
The Bission A++om,lished <English=
C.
As,e+ts of Earl1 Buddhist So+iologi+al Thought
<English=
@
-ontents
-ontents
%%%% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%%@
"ntrodu+tion D A+.no*ledgements % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%88
-ha,ter One
8.
The Buddha in the Pali -anon %%%% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%8>
#enun+iationE Self%Bortifi+ation D Enlightenment % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%8@
The Buddha2s Bission %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%8A
Salient 3eatures of the Thera0ada -on+e,t of the Buddha % % % % % % % % %%87
-ha,ter T*o
4.
"m,ermanen+e as a Basi+ 3a+t of E/isten+e % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%48
Arguments Addu+ed in the Anattala..haFa%sutta % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%48
Em,iri+al O'ser0ation of 3a+ts % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%4>
Et1mologi+al D Do+trinal Beaning of the Term Gani++a2 %%% % % % % % % % %%4:
"m,ermanen+e& the Nature of all -om,onent Things % % % %% % % % % % % % %%4@
"s -ons+iousness SoulH % % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%47
-ha,ter Three
>.
The -on+e,t of Du..ha in Earl1 Buddhist Tea+hing %%% % % % % % % % %%>5
The Et1mologi+al Definition D the E/egesis %%% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%>8
Ph1siologi+alE Ps1+hologi+al D Do+trinal A,,li+ations of the Term %%%>4
Three inds of 3eeling %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%>A
Different inds of Ha,,iness % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%>7
-ha,ter 3our
:.
The Theor1 of Egolessness <anatta= in Earl1 Buddhism % % % % % % % % %%:5
Bonism in "ndian Philoso,h1 % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%:8
The Buddhist -riti+ism of the Theor1 of Ego %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%:>
3i0e Aggregates are -onditioned %%% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%::
Do+trine of Egolessness as 0ia Bedia % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%:@
A
Bod1 and Bind are De0oid of Ego %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%:@
Bod1 and Bind are De0oid of Ego %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%:@
The Totalit1 of 3i0e Aggregates is not Ego % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%:C
The )orld is Em,t1 of an Ego % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%:C
-ons+iousness is Egoless % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%:C
-ha,ter 3i0e
@.
The 3irst No'le Truth& Suffering <du..ha sa++a= % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%@5
The T*o E/tremes are to 'e A0oided '1 a Truth%See.er %% % % % % % % % %%@5
)h1 are The1 -alled GNo'le2 D GTruths2H % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%@8
The Dhamma is -om,ared to Bedi+ine % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%@4
The Thera,euti+ A,,roa+h % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%@>
"s Buddhism Pessimisti+H % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%@@
-ha,ter Si/
A.
The Se+ond No'le Truth& -ause of Suffering <du..hasamuda1a sa++a= A5
English D Pali S1non1ms for -ra0ing % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%A5
Threefold -ra0ing in #elation to Si/ Senses D Si/ Sense O'Ie+ts % % %%A8
-ra0ing as a Bulti%Signifi+ant Term in Buddhist Do+trine %% % % % % % % % %%A4
The Threefold -ra0ing %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%A@
-ra0ing as the Origin of Personalit1 D Suffering % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%AC
-ha,ter Se0en
C.
The Third No'le Truth& -essation of Suffering <du..hanirodha sa++a= C>
Ni''Jna as the -essation of Suffering % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%C>
Ni''Jna as "ndefina'le in Terms of !ogi+ D #easoning %%%% % % % % % % % %%CA
Ni''Jna in Negati0e Pers,e+ti0e %%% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%C6
Ni''Jna in Positi0e or -on0entional Pers,e+ti0e % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%75
So,Jdisesa D Anu,Jdisesa Ni''Jna % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%78
C
-ha,ter Eight
7.
The 3ourth No'le Truth& Biddle Path <maIIhimJ ,aKi,adJ= % % % % %%78
The No'le Eightfold Path <ari1o aKKhangi.o maggo= % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%74
The Biddle Path in #elation to So+ial )elfare % % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%77
Buddhist So+ial Ethi+s %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%76
-ha,ter Nine
6.
The Buddhist Theor1 of De,endent Origination <,aKi++asamu,,Jda= 6>
The Theor1 as the -entral Do+trine of Buddhism % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%6:
S1non1mous Terms Used in Pali D in English % % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%6A
The -ausal #elati0it1 as a General #ule % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%6A
The -hain of -ausation % % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %%67
The 3a+t that "gnoran+e is not the 3irst -ause % % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %855
"ndu+ti0e "nferen+e D the Theor1 of -ausation % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %855
-ha,ter Ten
85.
A'odes of Beings D )orld S1stems as Des+ri'ed in Buddhism %85>
A'odes of Beings % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % %%%85>
)orld S1stems % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % %% % % %857
-ha,ter Ele0en
88.
3reedomE 3ree )ill D #es,onsi'ilit1 in Buddhist Pers,e+ti0e %%885
Philoso,hi+al E/,osition of the Terms % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %885
Buddhism on 3reedomE 3ree )ill D #es,onsi'ilit1 % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %88>
-ha,ter T*el0e
84.
BindE its Nature D 3un+tion as Des+ri'ed in Buddhism % % % % % % % %886
)hat is BindH % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % %% % % %886
The Nature D 3un+tion of the Bind % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %845
The Dhamma,ada on the Bind % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %84>
Bind is -onditional D #elati0e % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %84:
The -lassifi+ation of Bind in the A'hidhamma % % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %84@
7
-ha,ter Thirteen
8>.
Authorit1 D !ogi+ in Buddhism %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %847
The JlJma%Sutta on Authorit1 D !ogi+ % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %846
The Buddhist -riti+ism of Authorit1 D !ogi+ %%% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8>5
-ha,ter 3ourteen
8:.
-riteria of Ethi+al ?udgement in Buddhism % % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8>C
Different Vie*s on Ethi+al ?udgement % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8>C
The Buddhist Vie* % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8>7
Three Prin+i,al #eferen+es % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8>6
A Uni0ersal -riterion of Ethi+al ?udgement %%%% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8:>
-ha,ter 3ifteen
8@.
The Buddhist Anal1sis of Truth D #ealit1 %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8:@
The -lassifi+ation of Pro,ositions A++ording to Truth Value % % % % % % % %8:C
The Theor1 of -orres,onden+e % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8:C
The Theor1 of -oheren+e D -onsisten+1 % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8:6
The Theor1 of Verifi+ation % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8:6
The Theor1 of Dou'le Truth % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8@8
#ealit1 D Truth % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % %% % %8@4
-ha,ter Si/teen
8A.
Em,iri+ism D Buddhism % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8@@
Em,iri+ism in )estern Philoso,h1 %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8@@
The Em,iri+ist Tenden+1 in Buddhism % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8@A
-ha,ter Se0enteen
8C.
"s Buddhism #ationalisti+H % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8C5
#ationalism in )estern Philoso,h1 % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8C4
#ationalism Versus Em,iri+ism % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8C>
6
-ha,ter Eighteen
87.
Ban D So+iet1 in Buddhist Pers,e+ti0e % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8C8
)ho is BanH % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % %%% % % %8C4
A UniLue Position is As+ri'ed to Ban in Buddhism % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8C>
Ban D So+iet1 % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % %% % % %8C@
BuddhismE Ban D So+iet1 % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %8CA
-ha,ter Nineteen
86.
Pragmati+ D Utilitarian A,,roa+h in Buddhism % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %875
S+holars on Buddhist A,,roa+h %%%% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %875
Utilitarianism and Pragmatism& An O0er0ie* %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %874
Buddhism as a )a1 of Pra+ti+e % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %87:
-ha,ter T*ent1
45.
An E0aluation of Buddhism as a Philoso,h1 D a #eligion % % % % % %876
)hat is Philoso,h1H %%%% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %876
"s Buddhism a Philoso,h1H % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %868
)hat is #eligionH % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % %%%864
Buddhism as a #eligion % % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %86:
-ha,ter T*ent1%One
48.
Uses D A'uses of )ealth % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %86C
3a+ing the Situation *ith Understanding % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %867
The Blue,rint of Su++essful !i0ing %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %866
A Ban for All Seasons %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %458
E+onomi+ Planning % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %454
The Uses D A'uses of )ealth % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %45:
Bla+. Bone1E Dirt1 Bone1 D Eas1 Bone1 % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %45A
A,,endi/
3or 3urther #eading& % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % %%%456
A''re0iations %%%% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % %% % % % % % % % % %%% % % % % % % %48:
85
"ntrodu+tion D A+.no*ledgements
"ntrodu+tion D A+.no*ledgements
graduate
Di,loma E/amination in Buddhist Studies +ourse
of the Buddhist and Pali Uni0ersit1 of Sri !an.a.
Sin+e the *or. is meant for studentsE e0er1 +ha,ter
a,,ears as a unit '1 itself and is +onfined to a fe* ,ages.
The +ha,ters and ,ages of referen+e 'oo.s are gi0en for
further reading.
" am also grateful to&
M
Prof. Guna,ala Dharmasiri and Prof. a,ila A'ha1a*ansa
for their remar.s '1 *a1 of introdu+ing the 'oo..
M
Biss Sumedha Tan for t1,esetting and formatting the
entire *or..
M
Biss VaIira Nue. for going through the ,roofs and
suggesting man1 alterations in the ,resentation.
M
Ven. Bhi..huni SunandaE Prof. -handima )iIe'andara
and Dr. <Biss= Gnana Ng $uen $en for hel,ing me in
numerous *a1s.
M
!ast 'ut not leastE Ven. ). #atanasiri Thera and
Tisarana Buddhist Asso+iation for the unreser0ed
en+ouragement gi0en to all m1 Dhamma a+ti0ities.
P. Gnanarama Thera
Ti%Sarana Buddhist Asso+iation
65 Du.u #oad
45OCO4555 Singa,ore :4@46:
88
The 3ull1 Enlightened One
The 3ull1 Enlightened One
-om,lete )or.s of S*am1 Vi0e.ananda """E ,. @47
84
8. 8.
The BuddhaE the 3ull1 Enlightened OneE *as 'orn a'out
t*o thousand fi0e hundred 1ears ago in the .ingdom of
a,ila0atthu at the Himala1an 3oothillsE as the son of the
Sa.1an .ing Suddhodana and the Lueen Bahama1a. His
+lan name *as Gotama <S.t. Gautama= and the name
gi0en to him at the naming +eremon1 attended '1 man1 a
*ise man on the in0itation of the .ing *as SiddhatthaE
<S.t. SiddhJrtha= Pone *ho fulfilled the as,irationQ. A
*ee. later his mother diedE 'ut a de0oted foster%mother
*as found in his auntE Baha,aIa,ati GotamiE *ho also
*as the .ing2s *ife. "t *as she *ho 'rought him u, as her
o*n son. "t is re+orded in the +anoni+al te/ts that he *as
'rought u, in lu/ur1.
As the +ustom of the da1 the .ing made the astrologers
and soothsa1ers assem'le to foretell the future of
the +hild. Out of the se0en assem'led for the o++asion si/
*ise men ,redi+ted that he *ould 'e+ome either a uni0ersal
monar+h or a BuddhaE 'ut the 1oungest of them
de+lared that he *ould 'e+ome a Buddha to sa0e
man.ind from the sufferings of +1+le of 'irths and deaths.
Then there +ame a hol1 sage named Asita to see the
'a'1. Asita *ith his ,enetrating *isdom sa* the future of
the ,rin+e Siddhattha and de+lared&
P$our sonE O .ingR is one of those rare men 'orn
onl1 at rare inter0als. A great +hoi+e lies 'efore
him. He ma1 'e+ome a su,reme *orld%rulerE *ith
.ings under himE or he ma1 'e+ome ,erfe+t in
*isdom and 'e+ome a BuddhaE an Enlightened
8>
One. Trul1E O .ingR " thin. 1our son *ill 'e+ome a
Buddha. But no* " am old. " shall not li0e to see
the glor1 of 1our son2s a+hie0ements nor shall "
hear his *ords of *isdom.Q
One. Trul1E O .ingR " thin. 1our son *ill 'e+ome a
Buddha. But no* " am old. " shall not li0e to see
the glor1 of 1our son2s a+hie0ements nor shall "
hear his *ords of *isdom.Q
ful
and too. e0er1 attem,t to ma.e the ,rin+e2s life in the
,ala+e a ha,,1 and +ontented one. He *as gi0en the 'est
edu+ation and *as trained to 'e a .ing.
One da1E ing Suddhodana too. the ,rin+e out to
*at+h the s,ring ,loughing +eremon1. At the +eremon1
the .ing and some of the no'les too. ,art and dro0e the
o/en *hen the first furro*s *ere ,loughed. Siddhattha
*as ha0ing his o*n attendants and the1 sat *ith him at the
side of the field under a rose%a,,le tree. As he *at+hed he
sa* his father dri0e off the ro1al ,loughE then the no'les
and the farmers follo*ing them. )hen the time +ame for
feastingE his attendants *ent off to hel, ,re,are the feast.
Siddhattha *as ha,,1 to 'e alone under the shade of a
rose%a,,le tree. There he sat aloneE thin.ing o0er the da12s
in+idents. He .e,t on ,ondering o0er the o/en that had to
drag at the hea01 *ooden 1o.esE ho* the attendants
goaded them mer+ilessl1 and ho* the la'our made e0er1one
s*eat in the heat of the sun. So dee,l1 did he ,onder
that he 'egan to meditateE his thoughts 'e+ame +on+entrated
until he forgot his surroundings. )hen the attendants
+ame 'a+. to find himE the1 sa* him seated +ross
8:
legged under the tree. So dee, *ere his thoughts that he
did not hear them e0en *hen the1 +alled himE until he
+ame out of his meditation. $ears after*ardsE Siddhattha
*as to use the .no*ledge of +on+entration that he gained
under the rose%a,,le tree in his stri0ings to find a solution
to life2s ,redi+ament.
legged under the tree. So dee, *ere his thoughts that he
did not hear them e0en *hen the1 +alled himE until he
+ame out of his meditation. $ears after*ardsE Siddhattha
*as to use the .no*ledge of +on+entration that he gained
under the rose%a,,le tree in his stri0ings to find a solution
to life2s ,redi+ament.
erl1
or *ho had an1 illness *as .e,t in an1 of these
,ala+esE and no one *as allo*ed to tal. of an1 sad su'Ie+tR
of death or the loss of dear ones or an1 .ind of unha,,iness.
A++ording to the traditional +ustom among the
Sa.1ansE at the age of si/teenE he *as married to the
oli1an ,rin+essE $asodharaE after e/hi'iting his feat of
arms in o,en +ontest.
#enun+iationE Self%Bortifi+ation D Enlightenment
E0er1thing *ent *ell until he sa* the four omens& a si+. manE
an old manE a +or,se and a re+luse. The first three omens
signif1 the nature of life s1m'oli+all1 and the fourth *as
+onsidered as the ideal life to go in sear+h of truthE the remed1
for unsatisfa+toriness of life. At the age of t*ent1%nineE after
the 'irth of his son #ahulaE he renoun+ed the *orld to 'e+ome
a re+luse. As re+orded in the Ari1a,ari1esana%sutta
of the BaIIhima%ni.a1aE ,ra+tising meditation under the
tea+her Alara alama he a+hie0ed u, to the third meditati0e
a'sor,tion of 3ormless s,here and under Udda.a
#ama,uttaE the fourth meditati0e a'sor,tion of 3ormless
8
s,here. But realising that it *as not *hat he *as sear+h
8@
ing forE he resorted to e/treme forms of self%mortifi+ation
*ith the ,ur,ose of realising truth. His austere as+eti+
,ra+ti+es are des+ri'ed in detail in the Bahasahanada
4
sutra of the BaIIhima%ni.a1a. !ater onE after ,rolonged
meditationE he realised the Truth at the age of thirt1%fi0e
under the shade of the Bodhi Tree at Buddha Ga1aE Ga1a.
After the enlightenment he *as +alled the BuddhaE the
Enlightened One or more +orre+tl1E SammJsam'uddhaE
the 3ull1 Enlightened One.
The Buddha2s Bission
The ne/t fort1%fi0e 1ears of His life until His ,assing a*a1
He de0oted for the sole ,ur,ose of enlightening others.
Until the last moment of His mortal e/isten+e He follo*ed
an a+ti0e dail1 routine and s,ent e0er1 se+ond of His life
,ur,osefull1 *hile enlightening others in the matters
related to this life and the ne/t. At the age of eight1E as
re0ealed in the BahJ,arini''Jna%suttaE He *as *ea. and
fee'le in 'od1 'ut He *as effi+ient and strong in mindR
>
His self%+onfiden+e and determination *ere fresh as e0er.
As the sutra ,ortra1s Him in man1 an instan+eE the
Buddha in His eighties *as failing in ,h1si+al health due
to ad0an+ed age and the a+ti0e life He s,ent touring
man1 ,arts of North "ndia *hile su'sisting on *hate0er
food He re+ei0ed at ,eo,les2 doorste,s. But He *as
sound and sta'le in +arr1ing out the mission He undertoo.
at the age of thirt1%fi0e. The sutta re+ords a num'er
8. B."E ,. 8A5ff.
4. B."E ,. A7ff.
>. D. ""E ,. C4 ff.
8A
of instan+es of His in+om,ara'le +om,assion *hi+h He
'esto*ed generousl1 on all as a Tea+her ,ar e/+ellen+e
'1 disseminating freel1 *hat He had realised at the foot of
the Bodhi Tree.
of instan+es of His in+om,ara'le +om,assion *hi+h He
'esto*ed generousl1 on all as a Tea+her ,ar e/+ellen+e
'1 disseminating freel1 *hat He had realised at the foot of
the Bodhi Tree.
,ared
Himself to a lotus 'orn of mud 'ut unsullied '1 mudd1
*aterR a human 'orn in the *orld 'ut not of the *orld.
He ne0er +laimed that He *as a Sa0iour or a Bessiah or a
Pro,het or a Di0ine Bessenger. But He in referring to His
mission hum'l1 asserted that He *as onl1 a GPath #e0ealer2
<magga..hJ1in=E one *ho ,oints out the *a1.
As the last moment of His mortal e/isten+e dre*
nearer the Buddha en+ouraged the mon.s to get their
dou'ts +learedE if the1 had an1&
P"f 1ou ha0e an1 dou't as to the Buddha or the
Dhamma or the Path or the BethodE inLuire freel1.
Do not 'e de,ressed after*ards *ith the thought
S our Tea+her *as *ith usE 'ut *e +ould not 'ring
oursel0es to inLuire dire+tl1 from Him.Q
3or the se+ond and the third time the Buddha insisted
8C
that the1 get their dou'ts +leared. But no'od1 s,o.e u,.
3or the fourth time the Buddha ,ro,osed a *a1 of getting
their dou'ts +leared&
that the1 get their dou'ts +leared. But no'od1 s,o.e u,.
3or the fourth time the Buddha ,ro,osed a *a1 of getting
their dou'ts +leared&
en+e for the Tea+her. !et 1our Luestions 'e +om
muni+ated to a friendR so that he ma1 as. me.Q
But no'od1 had an1 Luestion to as. for +larifi+ation. 3orE
e0en the most 'a+.*ard among the gathering *as no
longer lia'le to 'e 'orn in a state of suffering and *as
assured of attaining sainthood.
Born as ,rin+e at the Himala1an 3oothillsE after a 0er1
strenuous sear+h for si/ 1earsE He attained EnlightenmentE
the self%illumination *ithout an1 e/ternal hel, *hatsoe0er.
Until the last 'reath of His life He dedi+ated Himself to the
no'le tas. of enlightening others. Sir Ed*in Arnold *riting
the introdu+tion to his +lassi+ G!ight of Asia2 o'ser0ed
three fa+ets of the life of the Buddha 'lended into one
and stated that PHe +om'ined the ro1al Lualities of a
,rin+e *ith that of an intelle+t of a sage and the de0otion
of a mart1r.Q -ertainl1E the magnanimous +hara+ter of the
Buddha founded on ro1al 'irthE the ,erfe+t *isdom that
He a+hie0ed as the great sage and the dedi+ated ser0i+e
to enlighten othersE made Him su,reme.
Salient 3eatures of the Thera0ada -on+e,t of
the Buddha
8.
The Buddha *as a human 'eing 'orn to human
,arents in a s,e+ifi+ ,eriod of histor1.
87
4.
He *as not a Sa0iour of an1 .ind and not e0en a
Di0ine Bessenger.
>.
He attained Enlightenment tra0ersing the ,ath he
e/+a0ated '1 Himself.
:.
He *as an em'odiment of +om,assion <.arunJ= and
*isdom <,aTTJ=.
@.
He *as omnis+ient and He ,ossessed eight .inds of
higher .no*ledges&
a= "nsight <0idassanJ TJna=
'= no*ledge of +reating mental images
<manoma1a iddhi TJna=
+= Ps1+ho%.inesis <iddhi0idha TJna=
d= -lairaudien+e <di''asota=
e= Tele,ath1 <,ara+itta0iIJnana TJna=
f= Antenatal retro+ognition <,u''eni0JsJnussati TJna=
g= -lair0o1an+e <di''a+a..hu=
h= no*ledge of the destru+tion of defilements
<Jsa0a..ha1a TJna=
A.
He is endo*ed *ith 0irtuous +ondu+tE *hi+h is understood
as fifteenfold&
a= #estraint '1 0irtue <sUla=
'= Guarding the doors of the sense fa+ulties
<indri1asam0ara=
+= no*ledge of the right amount in eating <'hoIane
mattaTTutJ=
d= De0otion to *a.efulness <IJgari1Jnu1oga=
e= 3aith <saddhJ=
f= -ons+ien+e <hiri=
g= Boral shame <otta,,a=
h= !earning <hJhusa++a=
86
i= Energ1 <,ara..ama=
I= Bindfulness <sati=
.= Understanding <mati=
l= 3irst meditati0e a'sor,tion <,aKhamaIIhJna=
m= Se+ond meditati0e a'sor,tion <duti1aIIhJna=
n= Third meditati0e a'sor,tion <tati1aIIhJna=
o= 3ourth meditati0e a'sor,tion <+atutthaIIhJna=
C.
He ,rea+hed the oneness of human.ind.
7.
As a so+ial reformer He ele0ated the ,osition of *omen.
6.
He ,rea+hed against +aste s1stem and o,ened the
doors of His dis,ensation to all.
85.
He 'e+ame Buddha '1 ,erfe+ting all the ten
Perfe+tions in his ,re0ious 'irths.
M
"m,ermanen+e of All Phenomena
Baster AssaIi to Sa++a.a&
PThis is ho* the Blessed One dis+i,lines his dis+i,lesE
Aggi0essanaE and this is ho* the Blessed One2s
instru+tion is usuall1 ,resented to his dis+,les&
GBhi..husE material form is im,ermanentE feelng is
im,ermanentE ,er+e,tion is im,ermanentE formations
are im,ermanentE +ons+iousness is im,ermanent.2Q
-Vlasa++a.a%suttaE B. "E ,. 447
B!DB. ,. >44
45
4. 4.
"m,ermanen+e <ani++a=E Unsatisfa+toriness <du..ha= and Egolessness
<anatta= are 'asi+ fa+ts of e/isten+e. -olle+ti0el1
these three are named in Buddhism as GThree Signata2 <tila..haFa=
or GThree -hara+teristi+s of E/isten+e2. At the outset
it is ,lausi'le to see ho* these three do+trines ha0e 'een
e/,lained in relation to one another in the Anattala..haFasuttaE
the se+ond dis+ourse deli0ered '1 the Buddha after
:
His Enlightenment. The dis+ourse in Luestion *as addressed
to the first fi0e +on0erts. The dis+ourse +learl1
sho*s the arguments addu+ed '1 the Buddha to esta'lish
these three fundamental +hara+teristi+s of e/isten+e.
Arguments Addu+ed in the Anattala..haFa%sutta
Addressing the fi0e mon.s the Buddha. said&
PBod1E mon.sE is not self. No*E *ere this 'od1 selfE
mon.sE this 'od1 *ould not tend to si+.nessE and
one might get the +han+e of sa1ing in regard to the
'od1E G!et 'od1 'e+ome thus for me2. But inasmu+hE
mon.sE as 'od1 is not selfE therefore 'od1
tends to si+.nessE and one does not get the +han+e
of sa1ing in regard to the 'od1E G!et 'od1 'e+ome
thus for meE let 'od1 not 'e+ome thus for me2.
3eeling is not selfW and one does not get the
+han+e of sa1ing in regard to feelingE G!et feeling
:.
S. """E ,. AAR Vin. ". ,,. 8>98:. As the dis+ourse *as addressed to a
grou, of fi0e as+eti+sE it is +alled GPaT+a%sutta2 in the Sam1uttani.a1a.
48
'e+ome thus for meE let feeling not 'e+ome thus for
me2. Per+e,tion is not selfWR mental formations are
not selfWR +ons+iousness is not selfW. "nasmu+hE
mon.sE as +ons+iousness is not selfE therefore
+ons+iousness tends to si+.nessE and one does not
get the +han+e to sa1 in regard to +ons+iousnessE
G!et +ons+iousness 'e+ome thus for meE let +ons+iousness
not 'e+ome thus for me2. )hat do 1ou
thin. a'out this mon.sH "s 'od1 ,ermanent or
im,ermanentHQ
Then the dialogue follo*s&
P"m,ermanentE !ord.Q
PBut is that *hi+h is im,ermanent sorro*ful
<du..ha= or ha,,1 <su.ha=HQ
PSorro*fulE !ord.Q
PBut is it fit to +onsider that *hi+h is im,ermanentE
sorro*fulE of a nature to +hangeE as GThis is mineE
this am "E this is m1 selfHQ
P"t is notE !ord.Q
P"s feelingW ,er+e,tionW mental formationsW
+ons+iousness ,ermanent or im,ermanentHQ
P"m,ermanentE !ord.Q
PBut is that *hi+h is im,ermanent sorro*ful or
ha,,1HQ
PSorro*fulE !ord.Q
PBut is it fit to +onsider that *hi+h is im,ermanentE
sorro*fulE of a nature to +hangeE as GThis is mineE
this am "E this is m1 selfHQ
P"t is not soE !ord.Q
44
P)hereforeE mon.sE *hate0er is 'od1E ,astE futureE
,resentE internal or e/ternalE gross or su'tleE lo* or
e/+ellentE *hether it is far or nearW *hate0er is
feelingW *hate0er is ,er+e,tionW *hate0er is
mental formationW all shouldE '1 means of right
*isdomE 'e seenE as it reall1 isE thus& This is Pnot
mineE this am " notE this is not m1 self.Q
P)hereforeE mon.sE *hate0er is 'od1E ,astE futureE
,resentE internal or e/ternalE gross or su'tleE lo* or
e/+ellentE *hether it is far or nearW *hate0er is
feelingW *hate0er is ,er+e,tionW *hate0er is
mental formationW all shouldE '1 means of right
*isdomE 'e seenE as it reall1 isE thus& This is Pnot
mineE this am " notE this is not m1 self.Q
ingE
he is dis,assionateR through dis,assion he is
freedR in freedom he a+Luires the .no*ledge that
G" am freed2 and he .no*sE that Gdestro1ed is 'irthE
there is no more 'eing as su+h and su+h2.Q
Em,iri+al O'ser0ation of 3a+ts
The im,ortan+e of the foregoing dis+ourseE for the stud1 of
Buddhist do+trine of the 'asi+ +hara+teristi+s of e/isten+eE
is highl1 0alued for se0eral reasons. The +hara+teristi+s of
im,ermanen+eE unsatisfa+toriness and non%su'stantialit1
ha0e 'een esta'lished in the dis+ourse not as a result of
an1 .ind of meta,h1si+al inLuir1 or as an out+ome of an1
m1sti+al intuition. "t is a Iudgement arri0ed at '1 o'ser0ationE
in0estigation and anal1sis of em,iri+al data. The
method follo*ed in a+hie0ing the 'asi+ fa+ts of e/isten+e is
indu+ti0e as o,,osed to dedu+ti0e method of reasoning.
On the other hand the three +hara+teristi+s are interrelated
and inter%*o0en *ith one another. So mu+h so one
esta'lishes the realit1 of the other t*o. The fa+t of "m,er
4>
manen+e ,ro0es the fa+ts of Unsatisfa+toriness and Non%
Su'stantialit1 and the fa+t of Unsatisfa+toriness on the
other hand esta'lishes the 0alidit1 of "m,ermanen+e and
the theor1 of Non%Su'stantialit1. The theor1 of Non%
Su'stantialit1 or Egolessness 0erifies the realit1 of "m,ermanen+e
and Unsatisfa+toriness. Hen+e the three 'asi+
+on+e,ts of Buddhist do+trineE "m,ermanen+eE Unsatisfa+toriness
and Non%Su'stantialit1 ha0e 'een ,ro0ed on
the mutual su,,ort of ea+h indi0idual +hara+teristi+. As
stated in a different +onte/t that *hi+h is transient is unsatisfa+tor1
<1ad ani++aX taX du..haX= and that *hi+h is
unsatisfa+tor1 is no%self <1aX du..haX tadanattJ=. The
theor1 as a *hole e/hausts the *orld%0ie* of Buddhism.
The dis+ourse 'eing a dialogue 'et*een the Buddha and
the grou, of fi0e mon.s +on0erted at the outset of the
Buddha2s mission elu+idates the fundamental fa+ts of
em,iri+ indi0idualit1 as ,lainl1 as ,ossi'leE a0oiding an1
.ind of meta,h1si+al reasoning.
Et1mologi+al D Do+trinal Beaning of the Term
Gani++a2
The term Gani++a2 is an adIe+ti0e usuall1 used in the sense
of a noun. GAni++aX2 is the neuter noun used in the language.
Both the *ords are ,refi/ed *ith negati0e Ga2.
Therefore the *ord means Gim,ermanent2 or Gim,ermanen+e2E
used as the anton1m of Gni++a2 <na ni++an2ti
ani++aX=. But in the A'hidhamma +ommentaries the deri0ation
of the *ord has 'een tra+ed to root Gi2 to go. )ith
the ,refi/ Gan2 gi0ing the meanings G+annot 'e gone to2E
Guna,,roa+ha'le as a ,ermanent e0erlasting state2. The
4:
term has the a,,lied meanings of Gunsta'ilit12E Gim,ermanen+e2E
and Gin+onstan+12. The Visuddhimagga defines it
as Gthat *hi+h is not ,ermanent <ni++a= is im,ermanent
@
<ani++a=2 <na ni++aX ani++aX=. The +ommentar1 on the
Dhammasangini defines it as Gthat *hi+h ha0ing +ome into
A
'eing +eases to 'e2 <hut0J a'hJ0aKKhena=. The transient
+hara+ter of all things mental or material is an em,hati+
assertion found throughout the Buddhist do+trine. The
+orre+t understanding of itE is a ,rimar1 +ondition for right
.no*ledge.
"m,ermanen+e& the Nature of all -om,onent
Things
)hen *e +onfine oursel0es to the first of the three +hara+teristi+sE
*e see that "m,ermanen+e or transient nature of all
,henomena finds e/,ression in the +anon in numerous +onte/ts.
3or instan+e *e +ome a+ross in the BahJ,arini''Jnasutta&
P"m,ermanent are all +om,onent thingsE
The1 arise and +easeE that is their natureE
The1 +ome into 'eing and ,ass a*a1E
C
#elease from them is 'liss su,remeQ.
The dis+ernment of the transient nature of all +om,ounded
things as the1 reall1 are <1athJ'hVta=E is taught
as the ,ath to ,urit1. "t is said in the Dhamma,ada&
@. Vis. ,. @4@
A. DhsA. i0E 7@
C. D. ""E ,. 8@C
4@
PTransient are all +om,onent thingsR *hen this *ith
*isdomE one dis+ernsE then one is disgusted *ith
7
unsatisfa+torinessR this is the ,ath to ,urit1Q.
"t is to 'e noted that the Pali *ord used for +om,onent
things is Gsan.hJra2 *hi+h has different meanings. "t is
used in the ,resent +onte/t to mean *hat is +om,oundedE
+onditioned and +ausall1 arisen. A++ording to Buddhist
anal1sis e0er1 ,henomenon of our e/,erien+e is +ausall1
6
+onditioned. Ni''Jna alone is 'e1ond +ausal ne/us.
"n the +anon 0er1 stri.ing similes ha0e 'een dra*n to
'ring out the e,hemeral nature of the fi0e aggregates
of em,iri+ indi0idualit1& +or,orealit1 <ru,a=E sensation
<0edanJ=E ,er+e,tion <saTTJ=E mental formations <san.hJra=
and +ons+iousness <0iTTJFa=. The Buddha +om,ares +or,orealit1
to a lum, of foamE feeling to a 'u''leE ,er+e,tion
to a mirageE mental formation to a ,lantain trun. <*hi+h is
,ithless= and +ons+iousness to an illusion and sa1s&
P)hat essen+eE mon.sE +ould there 'e in a lum, of
foamE in a 'u''leE in a mirageE in a ,lantain trun.E
and in an illusionHQ
The Buddha +ontinues&
P)hate0er +or,orealit1 there 'e S *hether ,astE
,resentE or futureR internal or e/ternalR gross or
su'tleR lo* or loft1R far or near S that +or,orealit1E
the mon. seesE meditates u,onE e/amines *ith
s1stemati+ attention. He thus seeingE meditating
7. Dh,. 4CC
6. See N1anatilo.a Ven. 9 Buddhist Di+tionar1 for further annotations
4A
u,onE and e/amining *ith s1stemati+ attentionE
*ould find it em,t1E he *ould find it unsu'stantial
and *ithout essen+e. )hat essen+eE mon.sE +ould
there 'e in +or,orealit1HQ
u,onE and e/amining *ith s1stemati+ attentionE
*ould find it em,t1E he *ould find it unsu'stantial
and *ithout essen+e. )hat essen+eE mon.sE +ould
there 'e in +or,orealit1HQ
gates
and as.s&
P)hat essen+eE mon.sE +ould there 'e in feelingE
in ,er+e,tionE in mental formationsE and in
85
+ons+iousnessHQ
Therefore in Buddhism the sum total of the tea+hing of
"m,ermanen+e is that all +om,onent things that ha0e +onditioned
e/isten+e are a ,ro+ess and not a grou, of a'iding
entitiesE 'ut the +hange o++urs in su+h a ra,id su++essionE
one does not ,er+ei0e their arising <uda1a= and 'rea.ing u,
<0a1a=. Therefore tends to regard mind and 'od1 as stati+
entities. "t has 'een sho*n that ,eo,le are a++ustomed to
thin.ing their o*n mind and 'od1 and the e/ternal *orld
as *holes or dis+rete entities. So long as one fails to see
things as ,ro+esses in motionE one *ill not understand
transient nature of all ,henomena. )hen one sees things
as the1 reall1 areE one realises that life is a mere flu/ +onditioned
'1 internal and e/ternal +auses. As e0er1thing is
fleetingE no*here +an one find ha,,iness 'ut onl1 unsatisfa+toriness.
"t is to 'e noted that al*a1s the three +hara+teristi+s
are mutuall1 in+lusi0e and the ,roof of one ,ro0es
the other t*o. no*ledge of "nsight <0idassanJ%TJna= is
attained '1 realising the Three Signata.
85. S. """E ,. 8:5
4C
"s -ons+iousness SoulH
"s -ons+iousness SoulH
+orded
in the Bahatanhasan.ha1a%sutta of the BaIIhimani.a1aE
a mon. +alled SJti misunderstood the tea+hing of
the Buddha and held the 0ie* that +ons+iousness is a
,ermanent entit1 that ,asses from one e/isten+e to another.
His +on+e,t of +ons+iousness <0iTTJFa= is similar to
GnirJsra1a 0iITJna2 dis+ussed in the U,anishads. "n this instan+e
the Buddha stated +ategori+all1 that there is no
arising of +ons+iousness *ithout relati0e +onditions <aTTatra
88
,a++a1J natthi 0iTTJnassa sam'ha0o=. "n another +onte/t
tooE the +onsideration of +ons+iousness as a ,ermanent
entit1 has 'een +riti+ised '1 the Buddha. 3or He states&
P"t *ere 'etter O mon.sR if the ignorant and untaught
man1fol. regards the 'od1E *hi+h is +om,osed
of the four elements as egoE rather than the
mind. And *h1 do " sa1 soH Be+ause it is e0identE
O mon.sE that this 'od1 *hi+h is +om,osed of four
elements lasts one 1earE lasts t*o 1earsE lasts three
1earsE fourE fi0eE tenE t*ent1E thirt1 1earsE lasts for
fort1 1earsE lasts fift1 1earsE hundred 1ears and
e0en longer. But that *hi+h is +alled the mindE
intelle+tE +ons+iousness .ee,s u, an in+essant
round '1 da1 and '1 night of ,erishing as one
84
thingE and s,ringing u, as anotherQ.
88. B."E ,. 4@A
84. S.""E ,. 6A
47
The Buddha2s last *ords to the mon.s *as also a reminder
of the truth of im,ermanen+e&
P"ndeedE O mon.sE " de+lare to 1ouE de+a1 is
inherent in all +om,onent things. Stri0e for
8>
,erfe+tion through heedfulnessQ.
M
Per0asi0e Unsatisfa+toriness
P)hile Gsuffering2 is the +on0entional translation for the
Buddha2s *ord du..haE it does not reall1 do the *ord
Iusti+e. A more s,e+ifi+ translation *ould 'e something
on the order of G,er0asi0e unsatisfa+toriness2.
The Buddha is s,ea.ing on a num'er of le0els here.
!ifeE he sa1sE is filled *ith a sense of ,er0asi0e
unsatisfa+torinessE stemming from at feast three
sour+es.Q
Bar. E,stein
Thoughts *ithout a Thin.erE ,. :A
8>. D.""E ,. 8::
46
>. >.
GDu..ha2 is the se+ond fundamental +hara+teristi+ of e/isten+e
and the 3irst No'le Truth of the list of 3our No'le
Truths. The term Gdu..ha2 has 'een used in Buddhist
tea+hing to +on0e1 the totalit1 of e/,erien+es of a
normal human 'eing in the *orld. "t has 'een rendered
into English in numerous *a1s. The +ommon rendering
'eing Gsuffering2E man1 more different English *ords are
'eing used '1 different Buddhist s+holars to +on0e1 the
meaning of the original Pali term. Among themE the
*ords Gill2E G,ain2E Gsorro*2E Ginse+urit12E Gun,leasantness2E
Ganguish2E Gan/iet12E Gunha,,iness2E G+onfli+t2E and Gunsatisfa+toriness2
are found. Toda1E the most +ommonl1 used
*ords in Buddhist *ritings for the term Gdu..ha2E are
Gsuffering2 and Gunsatisfa+toriness2. "n this 'oo.E *here0er
ne+essar1 *e also *ill use those t*o *ords. The
anton1m of Gdu..ha2 is Gsu.ha2E *hi+h is translated often
as G'liss2E G,leasure2 or Gha,,iness2. "n Buddhist usage it is
not merel1 sensual ,leasureE it is the ha,,1 feeling in
ordinar1 sense. But it is also used to +on0e1 an ethi+al
im,ort of do+trinal signifi+an+e. "n PaliE man1 other
*ords are used to 'ring out the im,ort of suffering.
Sorro* <so.a=E lamentation <,aride0a=E ,ain <du..ha=E
grief <domanassa=E and des,air <u,J1Jsa= are the most
,o,ularl1 used. The +on+e,t of suffering ne+essaril1
in+ludes the general inse+urit1 of the *hole of our
e/,erien+e.
>5
The Et1mologi+al Definition D the E/egesis
The Et1mologi+al Definition D the E/egesis
PThe *ord Gdu2 <G'ad2= is met *ithin the sense of 0ile
<.u++hita=R for the1 +all a 0ile +hild a Gdu,utta2 <'ad
+hild=. The *ord G.haX2 <G%ness2=E ho*e0erE is met
*ithin the sense of em,t1 <tu++ha=E for the1 +all
em,t1 s,a+e G.haX2. And the 3irst Truth is 0ile
'e+ause it is the haunt of man1 dangersE and em,t1
'e+ause it is de0oid of the lastingnessE 'eaut1E
,leasure and selfE +on+ei0ed '1 rash ,eo,le. So it
is +alled Gdu..haX2 <G'adness2Y sufferingE ,ain=E
8:
'e+ause of 0ileness and em,tiness.Q
"t has 'een +lassified further into three as,e+ts for 'etter
understanding&
". "ntrinsi+ suffering <du..ha%du..ha=
"". Suffering in +hange <0i,arinJma%du..ha=
""". Suffering due to formation <san.hJra%du..ha=
Bodil1 and mental ,ainful feeling are +alled intrinsi+
suffering 'e+ause of their indi0idual essen+eE their name
and ,ainfulness. Bodil1 and mental ,leasant feeling are
+alled suffering in +hange 'e+ause the1 are a +ause for the
arising of ,ain *hen the1 +hange. 3eeling of eLuanimit1
and the remaining formations of the three ,lanes are +alled
suffering due to formation 'e+auseE the1 are o,,ressed '1
rise and fall. Su+h 'odil1 and mental affli+tion as eara+heE
8:. Vis ,. :6: and ,. :66R B. " ,. >5>
>8
tootha+heE fe0er 'orn of lustE fe0er 'orn of hateE et+.E is
+alled +on+ealed suffering 'e+ause it +an onl1 'e .no*n '1
Luestioning and 'e+ause the infli+tion is not o,enl1 e0ident.
"t is also +alled suffering not e0ident. The affli+tion
,rodu+ed '1 the thirt1%t*o tortures et+.E is +alled e/,osed
suffering 'e+ause it +an 'e .no*n *ithout Luestioning and
'e+ause the infli+tion is o,enl1 e0identR it is also +alled
e0ident suffering. E/+e,t for intrinsi+ sufferingE all gi0en in
the e/,osition of the truth of suffering 'eginning *ith 'irth
are also +alled indire+t suffering 'e+ause the1 are the 'asis
8@
for one .ind of suffering or another. "ntrinsi+ suffering is
8A
+alled dire+t suffering.
Ph1siologi+alE Ps1+hologi+al D Do+trinal
A,,li+ations of the Term
Suffering or unsatisfa+toriness <du..ha= as des+ri'ed in
the s+ri,tures has a *ider +onnotation. "t has 'een used to
denote a narro* ,h1si+al meaning as *ell as a ,s1+hologi+al
meaning side '1 side *ith a usage of do+trinal
im,ort. All these three a,,li+ations of the term is Luite
+learl1 seen in the anal1sis of suffering found in the first
dis+ourse of the Buddha addressed to the first fi0e
+on0erts at "si,atanaE Benares. E/,laining the 3irst No'le
TruthE *hi+h is named as the No'le Truth of SufferingE
the Buddha +ontinued&
PAnd thisE mon.sE is the No'le Truth of Suffering&
'irth is sufferingE old age is sufferingE disease is
8@. Vi'hanga ,. 66R See also The Path ZV"E 8AE ,,. >49:>
8A. Vis. ,. :66
>4
suffering and d1ing is sufferingE asso+iation *ith
*hat is not dear is sufferingE se,aration from *hat
is dear is sufferingE not getting *hat one *ants is
suffering S in short the fi0e aggregates of gras,ing
suffering and d1ing is sufferingE asso+iation *ith
*hat is not dear is sufferingE se,aration from *hat
is dear is sufferingE not getting *hat one *ants is
suffering S in short the fi0e aggregates of gras,ing
<,an+a%u,Jdana..handha= are suffering.Q
This is a 0er1 ,re+ise statement full of meaning +o0ering
all s,heres of human lifeE *hi+h delineates the influen+e of
suffering in man1 as,e+ts. 3irstl1E 'irthE old ageE disease
and death ha0e 'een mentioned to illustrate the ,h1siologi+al
as,e+t of the issue. Se+ondl1E the ,s1+hologi+al as,e+t
has 'een 'rought to light '1 the fa+ts of asso+iation of
*hat is not dearE se,aration from *hat is dear and not
getting *hat one *ants and thirdl1E the do+trinal as,e+t is
stated '1 the fa+t of the fi0e aggregates of gras,ing. )hat
Buddhaghosa e/,lained in the Visuddhimagga as intrinsi+
suffering <du..ha%du..ha=E suffering in +hange <0i,arinJmadu..ha=E
and suffering due to formation <san.hJra%du..ha=
are found im,li+it in this des+ri,tion. Therefore in a 'roader
sense all as,e+ts of suffering 'rought to light in the dis+ourse
in Luestion are mutuall1 in+lusi0e. Therefore it is
e/,ressed as a unitar1 +on+e,t in Buddhism e/hausting
e0er1 fa+et of human e/isten+e. -on+ealed sufferingE e/,osed
suffering or e0ident sufferingE dire+t suffering and indire+t
suffering des+ri'ed '1 Buddhaghosa are e/egeti+al
ela'orations of the original +on+e,t of the tea+hing on
do+trinal grounds.
The first t*o as,e+ts +alled the ,h1siologi+al and
the ,s1+hologi+al as,e+ts of suffering are Luite +lear. The
8C. Vin. "E ,. 85
>>
do+trinal as,e+t of suffering is stated in 'rief in the
dis+ourse referring to fi0e aggregates of gras,ingE
namel1&
do+trinal as,e+t of suffering is stated in 'rief in the
dis+ourse referring to fi0e aggregates of gras,ingE
namel1&
gras,ing of materialit1 <rV,a u,JdJna=
ii. gras,ing of feeling <0edanJ u,JdJna=
iii. gras,ing of ,er+e,tion <saTTJ u,JdJna=
i0. gras,ing of mental formation <san.hJra u,JdJna=
0. gras,ing of +ons+iousness <0iTTJna u,JdJna=
"n other *ordsE holding on to fi0e +onstituent fa+tors of
em,iri+ indi0idualit1E *hether the1 are internal or e/ternal
+ause suffering. B1 the fi0e termsE the as,e+ts of materialit1
or +or,orealit1E sensationE ,er+e,tionE +onation and
+ognition are to 'e understood. "n fa+tE the +lassifi+ation
of fi0e aggregates +o0ers the entire ,henomenal e/isten+e.
Ho* the1 +ause ,roliferation <,a,an+a= ultimatel1
leading to suffering is des+ri'ed gra,hi+all1 in the Buddhist
theor1 of ,er+e,tion found in earl1 Buddhism as *ell
as in the later A'hidhamma ,hiloso,h1 in a mu+h more
ela'orate form. "t is to 'e notedE ho*e0erE that *hi+h
leads to suffering are not the fi0e aggregates 'ut the mental
,ro+ess of gras,ing <u,a[J[0dJ= thereof. Suffering
that one has to e/,erien+e in one2s *anderings in the
+1+le of e/isten+e has to 'e understood in this do+trinal
'asis and not on the +onstituent fa+tors of indi0idualit1.
No* let us e/amine ho* these sufferings are des+ri'ed
*ith additional items in the Sa++a0i'hanga%sutta of the
BaIIhima%ni.a1a. The dis+ourse gi0es the follo*ing des+ri,tion
des+ri'ing ea+h item that +ontri'utes to suffering&
>:
8.
Birth <IJti=
The 'irth of 'eings into the 0arious orders of 'eingsE
their +oming to 'irthE ,re+i,itation in a *om'E
generationE the manifestation of the aggregatesE
o'taining the 'ases for +onta+t.
4.
Aging <IJra=
The aging of 'eings in the 0arious orders of 'eingsE
their old ageE 'ro.enness of teethE gre1ness of hairE
*rin.ling of s.inE de+line of lifeE *ea.ness of fa+ulties.
>.
Death <maraFa=
The ,assing of 'eings out of the 0arious orders of
'eingsE their ,assing a*a1E dissolutionE disa,,earan+eE
d1ingE +om,letion of timeE dissolution of
aggregatesE la1ing do*n of the 'od1.
:.
Sorro* <so.a=
The sorro*E sorro*ingE sorro*fulnessE inner sorro*E
and inner sorro*fuless of one *ho has en+ountered
some misfortune or is affe+ted '1 some ,ainful state.
@.
!amentation <,aride0a=
The *ail and lamentE *ailing and lamentingE 'e*ailing
and lamentation of one *ho has en+ountered
some misfortune or is affe+ted '1 some ,ainful state.
A.
Pain <du..ha=
Bodil1 ,ainE 'odil1 dis+omfortE ,ainfulE un+omforta'le
feeling 'orn of 'odil1 +onta+t.
C.
Grief <domanassa=
Bental ,ainE mental dis+omfortE ,ainfulE un+omforta'le
feeling 'orn of mental +onta+t.
>@
7.
Des,air <u,J1Jsa=
The trou'le and des,airE the tri'ulation and
des,eration of one *ho has en+ountered some
misfortune or is affe+ted '1 some ,ainful state.
6.
Not to o'tain *hat one *ants is suffering <1am ,i
i++haX na la''ati=
The fa+t that the a'o0e situations +annot 'e a0erted
'1 mere *ishing.
85.
3i0e aggregates of gras,ing <,aT+a u,JdJna..handha=
Baterial formE feelingE ,er+e,tionE thought formation
and +ons+iousness affe+ted '1 +lingingE in shortE are
87
suffering.
Three inds of 3eeling
"n a 'roader senseE Buddhism identifies three .inds of
feeling& Ha,,1 <su.ha=E Sorro*ful <du..ha= and ELuanimous
<u,e..hJ=. Ha,,1 feeling that one e/,erien+es in
one2s life ma1 turn to 'e unha,,1 after*ards. Sorro*ful
feeling ma1 turn to 'e ha,,1 due to some reason or
other. A ,erson *ho is hungr1 is ha,,1 *hen he is fed.
But he is not a'le to retain that ha,,iness fore0er. Again
he *ill 'e hungr1 and he is to 'e fed. The same is the
,ro+edure *ith regard to +hange of ,ostures. A ,erson
*ho .ee,s standing for along time finds it ha,,1 for him
to sit do*n +omforta'l1. But it is not ,ossi'le for him to
.ee, on sitting all the time. Soon he finds that it is +om
87.
B. """E ,. 4:6
>A
forta'le for him to +hange the ,osture. This means that
these feelings are transitor1 and su,erfi+ial. There is the
uni0ersal truth of suffering underl1ing all these feelings. So
it is +lear that suffering <du..ha= has 'een used in a narro*E
su,erfi+ial sense as *ell as in a 'road ,hiloso,hi+al
senseR *hi+h is nothing 'ut im,ermanen+e <1aX ani++aX
taX du..haX=.
Ea+h of the aggregates of indi0idualit1 is in a +onstant
flu/ and there is no one2s Go*n%ness2 in an1 of them.
Therefore the Buddhist di+tum Gthat *hi+h is im,ermanent
is suffering2 is to 'e +onsidered as a uni0ersal truth.
Suffering one has to en+ounter throughout one2s life is
self%e0ident for the most ,artE and needs no ela'oration.
"n other *ordsE one is o0er*helmed '1 unsatisfa+tor1 and
+onfli+ting situations that one e/,erien+es in one2s da1 to
da1 life and needs no +omment. Be+ause the internal and
e/ternal +onfli+ts that one has to fa+e throughout one2s
life are signified '1 the +on+e,t of suffering in BuddhismE
some are of the o,inion that G+onfli+t2 is the 'est English
*ord that +arries full im,ort of the Pali *ord.
To a greater e/tentE the +ulti0ation of right attitude to
life *ill ease some of the suffering that one has to en+ounterE
'e+ause it is o'0ious that *rong attitude to life +ontri'utes
mu+h of the suffering. 3eeling of something la+.ing
looms large in our li0es. Until it is filledE it .ee,s on +ausing
,ain. But *hen it is filledE a ne* 0oid is +reated and
,rodu+es suffering until it is satisfied. Pleasure *e anti+i,ated
0anishesE no sooner than it is ,rodu+edE and ne*
e/,e+tations then arise +ontri'uting to mental ,ain again.
Ne* a+LuisitionsE *hi+h ,rodu+e ha,,iness and ,leasure
>C
for a +ertain ,eriod of timeE gi0e rise to disa,,ointmentE
des,air and frustration.
for a +ertain ,eriod of timeE gi0e rise to disa,,ointmentE
des,air and frustration.
Buddhism s,ea.s of different .inds of ha,,iness. Bon.s2
ha,,iness <,a''aIIJ%su.ha= is +ontrasted *ith la1men2s
ha,,iness <gihi%su.ha=. "n the same *a1 ha,,iness of sensual
enIo1ment <.Jma%su.ha= is +ontrasted *ith ha,,iness
of renun+iation <ne..hamma su.ha=. Similarl1E ha,,iness of
a+Luisition <u,adhi su.ha=E ha,,iness of ha0ing influ/es
<sJsa0a su.ha=E ,h1si+al ha,,iness <.J1i.a su.ha= are +ontrasted
*ith ha,,iness of non%a+Luisition <niru,adhi%su.ha=E
ha,,iness of freedom from influ/es <anJsa0a su.ha= and
mental ha,,iness <+etasi.ha%su.ha=.
Suffering\
Ban is 1o.ed to the .ammi+ +artE
Suffering rolls on 'ehind his feetE
-arrot is hanging in front of his noseE
But *ith ho,es he forges ahead.
Drags the +art on rugged ,athE
Until at last meet *ith death\
P. Gnanarama
M
>7
Non%Su'stantialit1 of Phenomena
Non%Su'stantialit1 of Phenomena
Then the Blessed one loo.ed 'a+. and addressed the
0enera'le #ahula thus&
G#ahulaE an1 .ind of material form *hate0erE
*hetherE ,astE future or ,resentE internal or
e/ternalE gross or su'tleE inferior or su,eriorE
far or nearE all material form should 'e seen as
it a+tuall1 is *ith ,ro,er *isdom thus& GThis is
not mineE this am " notE this is not m1 self.2Q
BahJrJhulo0Jda%suttaE B. "E :4894
B!DBE ,. @4C
>6
:. :.
The theor1 of egolessness <anatta= is the third of the Three
-hara+teristi+s of E/isten+e taught in earl1 Buddhism. "n
order to denote the anton1m of Ego <atta=E the English
*ordsE GSoul2E GSelf2E GSu'stantialit12E and GEntit12 are also
used. Therefore the Buddhist theor1 of Egolessness is often
dis+ussed as the theor1 of GNo%Soul2E or GNo%Self2E or GNon%
Su'stantialit12E or GNo%Entit12. Here *e also in0aria'l1 use
these *ords to denote the Buddhist tea+hing on Egolessness
<anatta= as found in the earl1 Buddhist +anoni+al s+ri,tures.
"t should 'e noted at the 'eginning *hat is denoted '1
the *ord Gatta2 and *hat it does not +onnoteE in the
tea+hing of the Buddha. "n PaliE the *ord has 'een used
in no less than fi0e meanings&
8.
As Goneself in the +on0entional sense. <e.g.E attJ hi
attano nJtho=
4.
As one2s o*n ,erson in+luding 'oth ,h1si+al and
mental as,e+ts of a ,erson. <e.g.E atta'hJ0a,aKilJ'ha=
>.
GSelf2 as a su'tle meta,h1si+al entit1. <e.g.E atthi me attJ=
:.
En+liti+ G%atta E in the sense of G%ness2. <e.g.E so+itattaX=
@.
As a result of ,honeti+al +on0ergen+e on the Sans.rit
*ord GJ,ta E meaning Go'tained2.<e.g.E attaX nirattaX
na hi tassa hoti=
The fa+t that the *ord Gatta2 has 'een used in the +anon in
the sense of GEgo2 or GSelf2E onl1 *hen referred to the
theor1 of soul held '1 other religionists of the da1 is +lear.
"n man1 other instan+es it +arries onl1 the +on0entional
:5
sense of Goneself2. Those *ho ha0e not ,ro,erl1 understood
the different im,li+ations of the *ord tend to assert
other*ise. The Buddhist theor1 of egolessness tea+hes that
neither *ithin the 'od1 nor *ithin the mental ,henomena
and e/ternal ,henomena +an 'e found an entit1E self%
e/istingE a'idingE immuta'le su'stan+e +alled GSelf2. No
mani.inE Ga man in man2E is found as maintained '1 aKha
U,anisad *hi+h has referred to a man or ,rin+i,le <,urusa=
of the si]e of thum' residing al*a1s in the heart of man.
The theor1 of egolessness is a fundamental Buddhist do+trine
ha0ing ,arti+ular signifi+an+e in Buddhism. The im,ersonalit1
of all e/isten+e has 'een esta'lished on the 'asis of
+ontinual self%+onsuming ,ro+ess of arising and ,assing of
'odil1 and mental ,henomena. "t has 'een sho*n that
*ithin or *ithout this ,ro+ess there is no entit1 *hi+h +an
'e ta.en as self in terms of Gthis is mine2 <etaX mama=E Gthis
am "2 <eso hamasmi= and Gthis is m1 self2 <eso me attJ=.
Bonism in "ndian Philoso,h1
The theor1 of soul is dee,%rooted in "ndian thought and
found e0en in the Vedas. As the #ig VedaE the earliest
religious do+ument in "ndiaE re0eals the 'elief of a monisti+
,rin+i,le has gi0en rise to the +on+e,t of soul
<,resented as 'rahman and Jtman= in later times. The
86
H1mn of -reation found in the #ig Veda is +onsidered
im,ortant in this regard. "t s,ea.s of GThat one2 <tad e.aX=
*hi+h *as at the 'eginning. "ts s,ontaneous unfolding
into e0er1thing is des+ri'ed in the h1mn. "t *as im,er
86. #V. ZE 846
:8
sonal and free from m1thologi+al elements. "t *as the
unitar1 *orld groundE the 3irst -ause as the1 thought.
sonal and free from m1thologi+al elements. "t *as the
unitar1 *orld groundE the 3irst -ause as the1 thought.
fle+ted
in a ,an of *ater. But this ,h1si+al ,ersonalit1E it is
argued on em,iri+al groundsE is su'Ie+t to deathR therefore
it +annot 'e soul. Then the soul is identified *ith self in the
dream%state. AgainE it is identified *ith the state of dee,
slee,. "n different stages of the de0elo,ment of the +on+e,t
different names *ere gi0en for its identifi+ation. "ndi0idual
soul or mi+ro+osmi+ soul <,rat1agJtman or ,udgalJtman=
*as differentiated from ma+ro+osmi+ soul <IagadJtman=.
The indi0idual souls *ere +onsidered as the manifestations
of the ma+ro+osmi+ soul. The *hole uni0erse is a manifestation
of the ma+ro+osm. "t is saidE in the 'eginning Sat
<Being= *as aloneE *ithout a se+ond. "t thought& PBa1 " 'e
man1Q. No* it di0ersified into the three elements& fire
<teIas=E *ater <J,=E earth <,rthi0i= and then into others until
organi+ 'odiesE in+luding those of human 'eingsE ha0e
+ome into 'eing. The 0arious as,e+ts of the monisti+ ,rin+i,le
ha0e 'een ela'oratel1 dis+ussed in different U,anisad
te/ts in numerous *a1s.
The theor1 is summarised in the Bhaga0ad%GitJ to
illustrate the migration of self from one 'od1 to another
and +om,ared it to a ,erson *earing a ne* garmentE
+asting a*a1 the *orn out one. "t is un'orn and it does
not die. "t is ,rime0al and eternalE it is not destro1ed e0en
:4
*hen the 'od1 is destro1ed. "t +an ne0er 'e +ut to ,ie+es
'1 an1 *ea,onE nor 'urned '1 fireE nor moistened '1
45
*aterE nor *ithered '1 the *ind.
The Buddhist -riti+ism of the Theor1 of Ego
The theor1 of ego has 'een +riti+ised in Buddhism together
*ith another famous 0ie* at the time. Those *ho as+ri'ed
eternit1 and immuta'ilit1 to ego *ere +alled eternalists
<sassata0Jdin= and those *ho reIe+ted the theor1 on em,iri+al
grounds *ere +alled nihilists or materialists <u++heda0Jdin=.
A++ording to eternalism 'od1 is one and the soul
is another <aTTam IU0aX aTTaX sariraX=. As the soul is
im,risoned in the 'od1 ,ending release for the union *ith
the uni0ersal soulE one has to ,ra+tise ,enan+e for its
release. "n the BrahmaIJla%sutta of the Digha%ni.a1a no less
than fift1%fi0e eternalist theories ha0e 'een mentioned. The
nihilists or the materialists on the other hand held the 0ie*
that the 'od1 and the soul are one <taX Ii0aX taX sariraX=E
and that the soul is onl1 a ,s1+ho%,h1si+al unit *hi+h does
not sur0i0e death. )ith the death of a ,erson his soul also
,erishes. Therefore the1 ad0o+ated the indulgen+e in sensual
,leasures. Se0en .inds of nihilist theories ha0e 'een
mentioned in the BrahmaIJla%sutta. These t*o 0ie*s are
diametri+all1 o,,osed to ea+h other and named as e/tremes.
The arguments of im,ermanen+e and suffering ad
45.
VJsJXsi IUrFJni 1athJ 0ihJ1a S na0Jni grhnJti naro ,arJni
TathJ sarUrJn 0ihJ1a IUrFJn S an1Jni sam1Jti na0Jni dehi S 4.44
NainaX +hindati sastrJni S nainaX dahati ,J0a.o
Na +ainaX .leda1ant1J,o S na sos1ati mJrutah S 4.4>
:>
du+ed in the Anattala..hana%sutta ,ro0e that the 0ie* is
untena'le on em,iri+al grounds. The three +on+e,ts& im,ermanen+e
<ani++a=E suffering <du..ha=E and egolessness
<anatta= are inter%related and inter%mingledE *hi+h the dis+ourse
in Luestion has attested *ith adeLuate ,roofs.
"n the +anonE the ,ro'lem of re'irth is e/,lained on
the tea+hing of De,endent OriginationR *hi+h itself is
suffi+ient to sho* in *hi+h *a1 one e/isten+e is +onne+ted
*ith former and future e/isten+es. "t is e/,lained in
the tea+hing that the real +onne+ting lin. 'et*een one
e/isten+e and another is not the so +alled Gego2 or an1
.ind of soul su'stan+eE 'ut .amma. The Buddha sa1s&
PThisE O mon.sE is not 1our 'od1E nor that of
others. $ou ha0e rather to see in itE mon.sE old
deeds <.amma=E the result of a+tionsR 0olitions and
48
feelings in former e/isten+es.Q
There is s+ri,tural e0iden+e to sho* that the Buddha has
not maintained an1 .ind of soul su'stan+eE as ,rofessed
'1 the Brahmanas and other as+eti+sE re+luses and founders
of religious se+ts of His da1.
3i0e Aggregates are -onditioned
)hen the Luestion of *ho is that feels *as ,ut to HimE
the Buddha ans*ered&
PThis Luestion is not ,ro,er. Be+ause " do not tea+h
that there is one *ho feels. "fE ho*e0erE the Luest
48. S. Zl"E >C
::
ion is ,ut thus&S -onditioned through *hatE does
feeling ariseH Then the ans*er *ill 'e&S Through
sense%im,ression is feeling +onditionedW through
44
feelingE +ra0ingR through +ra0ingE +lingingRW.Q
Do+trine of Egolessness as 0ia Bedia
The Buddha states&
P" do not tea+h that there is one thing +alled old age
and deathE and that there is someone to *hom the1
'elong. Veril1E if one holds the 0ie* that life
<Ii0aYlife ,rin+i,leE soul= is identi+al *ith the 'od1
<tam Ii0aX taX sariraX=E in that +ase there +an 'e no
hol1 life. And if one holds the 0ie* that life is one
thing 'ut 'od1 another thing <aTTaX Ii0aX aTTaX
sariraX=E also in that +ase hol1 life is im,ossi'le.
A0oiding 'oth of these e/tremes <i.e. +om,lete
identit1 and +om,lete otherness= the Perfe+t One
has taught the do+trine that lies in the middleE
namel1& Through re'irth +onditioned are old age
and deathR Wthrough the ,ro+ess of 'e+omingE
re'irthR Wthrough +lingingE the ,ro+ess of 'e+omingR
4>
et+.W.Q
Bod1 D Bind are De0oid of Ego
PBetter it *ould 'e to +onsider the 'od1 as the ego
rather than the mind. And *h1H Be+ause this
44. S. Z"E 84
4>. S. Z""E >@
:@
'od1 ma1 last for tenE t*ent1E thirt1E fort1E or
fift1 1earsE e0en for hundred 1ears and more. But
that *hi+h is +alled mindE +ons+iousnessE thin.ing
<+ittaYmanaY0iTTJFa=E arises +ontinuousl1
during da1 and night as one thingE and then as
something else it 0anishes. Here the learned
and no'le dis+i,le +onsiders thoroughl1 the
De,endent Origination& *hen this arises then that
arises. Through the arising of thisE that +omes to
ariseR through the e/tin+tion of thisE that 'e+omes
e/tinguishedE namel1& Through ignoran+e arise
the .amma%formationsR through the .ammaformationsE
+ons+iousness <in ne/t life=R through
4:
+ons+iousnessE +or,orealit1 and mindW et+.
"gnorant )orldlings See. Ego in "ndi0idual
3a+tors of 3i0e Aggregates
PAll those as+eti+s and 'rahminsE *ho again and
again in manifold *a1s 'elie0e in an ego or the
ego as the o*ner of that grou,. The1 all do so
*ith regard to the fi0e aggregates of e/isten+eE or
to one of themW. There the ignorant *orldlingW
+onsidersE one of the fi0e aggregates as the egoE or
the ego as the o*ner of that aggregateE or that
aggregates as in+luded in the egoE or the ego as
4@
in+luded in that aggregate.Q
4:. S. Z""E A8
4@. S. Z"""E :C
:A
The Totalit1 of 3i0e Aggregates is not Ego
The Totalit1 of 3i0e Aggregates is not Ego
tionsE
or +ons+iousness as the egoR nor ego as the
o*ner of one of these aggregatesE nor these
aggregates as in+luded *ithin the egoE nor the
ego as in+luded *ithin the aggregates. Of su+h a
learned and no'le dis+i,le it is said that he is no
longer fettered '1 an1 aggregate of e/isten+eE
4A
internal or e/ternal.Q
The )orld is Em,t1 of an Ego
To the Luestion *h1 does one +all the *orld em,t1E ans*er
is gi0en&
PBe+ause the *orld is em,t1 of an ego <atta=E and of
something 'elonging to the ego <attani1a=E therefore
the *orld is +alled em,t1. But *hi+h are the
things that are em,t1 of an egoH Em,t1 of an ego
are the e1e and 0isi'le o'Ie+tsE ear and soundsE
nose and odoursE tongue and tastesE 'od1 and
4C
'odil1 im,ressionsE mind and mind o'Ie+ts.Q
-ons+iousness is Egoless
PW+ons+iousness <mind= is egoless. Also the +auses
and +onditions arising from +ons+iousness are li.e*ise
egoless. Then ho* +ould it 'e ,ossi'le that
4A. S. ZZ""E 88C
4C. S. ZZZVE 7@
:C
+ons+iousness ha0ing arisen through somethingE
+ons+iousness ha0ing arisen through somethingE
*hi+h is egolessE +ould e0er 'e an egoHQ
At first sight the +on+e,t of res,onsi'ilit1 a,,ears to 'e in+om,ati'le
*ith the do+trine of soullessness. Sin+e there is
te/tual e0iden+e refuting the seeming dis+re,an+1E it is not to
'e ta.en seriousl1. "t is stated that a +ertain mon. entertained
the thought that sin+e 'od1E feelingE ,er+e,tionE mental
formations and +ons+iousness is *ithout selfE +ould deeds
not done '1 a selfE affe+t. This su,,osition amounts to sa1ing
that if there is no selfE there +an 'e no ,ersonal identit1
and no ,ersonal res,onsi'ilit1. This is dismissed as an un*arranted
+orollar1 ofE or as going against the tea+hing of
46
the Buddha. "n man1 instan+es in the +anonE the fa+t of
res,onsi'ilit1 is e/,lained on the do+trine of De,endent
Origination. The a'o0e Luotations sho* that the theor1 of
Egolessness is a s,e+ifi+ Buddhist tea+hing.
Ar1an Dis+i,le D Non%su'stantialit1
PThe instru+ted dis+i,le of the Ar1an 'eholds of material
sha,e and so on this *a1& GThis is not mineE this am " notE
this is not m1 self.2 So *hen the material sha,e and so on
+hange and 'e+ome other*ise there arise not for him griefE
sorro*E sufferingE lamentation and des,air.Q
S.E """E ,. 86
47. S. ZZVE 8:8
46. B. """E ,. 86
:7
"llusion of Self%Suffi+ien+1
"llusion of Self%Suffi+ien+1
Bar. E,stein
Thoughts *ithout a Thin.erE ,. ::
:6
@. @.
The 3our No'le Truths are gi0en in 'rief in the first dis+ourse
named the PTurning of the )heel of !a*Q <Dhamma+a..a,,a0attana%
sutta=E deli0ered at "si,atanaE in BenaresE
'1 the Buddha after His Enlightenment. "t is interesting to
note that the sutta 'egins '1 sho*ing the futilit1 of the t*o
e/treme ,ra+ti+es ,re0ailing among the truth see.ers of
the da1. The first of the t*o ,ra+ti+es mentioned in the dis+ourse
*as 'ased on materialism <u++heda%0Jda= and the
other *as on eternalism <sassata%0Jda=.
The T*o E/tremes are to 'e A0oided '1 a
Truth%See.er
Addressing the fi0e as+eti+s *ith *hom He had asso+iation
*hen He ,ra+tised austere as+eti+ism as BodhisattaE
the Buddha sa1s that there are t*o e/tremes to 'e a0oided
'1 a re+luse *ho is see.ing realisation.
The t*o e/tremes are self%indulgen+e <.Jmasu.halli.Jnu1oga=
and self%mortifi+ation <atta.ilamathJnu1oga=.
Atta+hment to *orldl1 enIo1ment in res,e+t of sensual
,leasures is lo* <hUno=E +ommon <gammo=E 'elonging to
ordinar1 man <,othuIIani.o=E igno'le <anari1o=E and +onne+ted
*ith miser1 <anatthasamhito=. Self%mortifi+ation is
<full of= suffering <du..ho=E igno'le <anari1o=E and +onne+ted
*ith miser1 <anaithasamhito=. Although fi0e adIe+ti0es
ha0e 'een used for the former and three for the latter
*ith referen+e to the 'asis of ideolog1 on *hi+h the1
@5
*ere founded for the ,ur,ose of realising truthE the t*o
e/treme ,ra+ti+es are +om,arati0el1 useless. <The *ord
Ganatthasamhita2 also means futilit1=.
*ere founded for the ,ur,ose of realising truthE the t*o
e/treme ,ra+ti+es are +om,arati0el1 useless. <The *ord
Ganatthasamhita2 also means futilit1=.
ledgeE
full enlightenment and Su,reme BlissE Ni''Jna.
Then the dis+ourse summarises the eight fa+tors of the
Biddle Path and mo0es on to re0eal the 3our No'le
Truths& The Suffering or Unsatisfa+toriness <du..ha=E the
-ause of Suffering <du..ha%samuda1a=E the -essation of
Suffering <du..ha%nirodha=E and the Path !eading to the
-essation of Suffering <du..hanirodhagJmini%,ati,adJ=.
The dis+ourse re0eals that the 3our No'le Truths are
three%+ir+led and t*el0efold <ti,ari0aKKaX d0JdasJ.JraX=.
)ith regard to ea+h truthE there is the .no*ledge of the
truth <sa++a%TJFa=E the .no*ledge that it is to 'e +om,rehended
<.i++a%TJFa=E and the .no*ledge of +om,rehension
<.ata%nJna= *hi+h arose in the BuddhaE thus ma.ing
>5
the .no*ledge t*el0efold '1 three +ir+les of ea+h truth.
)h1 are The1 -alled GNo'le2 D GTruths2H
A+ari1a BuddhaghosaE the famous +ommentatorE e/,lains
the 3irst No'le Truth in no less than fifteen *a1s.
A++ording to him these are +alled No'le Truths 'e+ause
the No'le OnesE the Buddhas et+.E ,enetrate them.
BesidesE No'le Truths are the No'le One2s truths. Or
alternati0el1E the1 are +alled No'le Truths 'e+ause of the
>5. S. "VE ,. :45 ffR Vin. "E ,. 85 ff.
@8
no'leness im,lied '1 their dis+o0er1. And furtherE to 'e
no'le is to 'e not unrealR the meaning isE not de+e,ti0eE as
it is saidE PBhi..husE these 3our No'le Truths are realE not
unrealE not other*iseE that is *h1 the1 are +alled No'le
no'leness im,lied '1 their dis+o0er1. And furtherE to 'e
no'le is to 'e not unrealR the meaning isE not de+e,ti0eE as
it is saidE PBhi..husE these 3our No'le Truths are realE not
unrealE not other*iseE that is *h1 the1 are +alled No'le
Truths. Therefore the adIe+ti0e Gari1a2 is used in this
+onte/t to mean Gno'le2 and not to +on0e1 an1 ethni+ or
ra+ial sense at all.
)hat is meant '1 truthH The *ord truth <sa++a= has
'een used in 0arious meanings in the Pali +anon. 3or e/am,leE
*hen it is saidE P!et him s,ea. truth and not 'e
angr1QE it is 0er'al truth. "n the same *a1E the *ord has
'een used in the sense of truth of a'stinen+eE 0ie*sE
>4
ultimate truth and no'le truth. A truth is a fa+tual statementE
*hi+h is +orres,ondent *ith the real state of affairs
and +oherent *ith *hat is e/isting fa+tuall1. These truths
are fa+tualE realE and +an 'e e/,erien+ed as 0erita'le
truths.
The Dhamma is -om,ared to Bedi+ine
Ver1 oftenE the Buddha2s ,rea+hing of the do+trineE to the
suffering *orldE is +om,ared to the administration of medi+ine
to the si+. '1 a ,h1si+ian. Therefore the e/,ounding
of the 3our No'le Truths in the first sermon +an 'e understood
on the analog1 of a ,athologi+al anal1sis of affli+tion
and +ure. Therein the ,resent ,redi+ament of man is anal1sed
in the 3irst No'le Truth *ith its ,h1si+alE ,s1+hologi+al
and do+trinal as,e+ts and sho*s ho* those
>8. Vis. ZV"E ,,. 8:944
>4. Vis. ZV"E ,. 4A
@4
affli+tions are *o0en into the fa'ri+ of our e/isten+e. The
dis+ourse gi0es in 'rief the ,h1si+al as,e+t of affli+tion
stating the fa+ts of 'irthE old ageE disease and death.
Asso+iation *ith the un,leasantE se,aration from the
,leasant and not re+ei0ing *hat is desiredE as gi0en in the
dis+ourseE are to 'e +onsidered as the ,s1+hologi+al as,e+t
of affli+tion. Then the fi0efold gras,ing of the fi0e aggregates
is stated as the do+trinal as,e+t. The Se+ond TruthE
the root +ause of the ,resent affli+tionE *hi+h e/ists in the
form of desireE is 'ro.en do*n into its +onstituents for the
'etter understanding of that +ause. "n the ThirdE the state of
'eing redeemed from affli+tions '1 regaining health is des+ri'edE
*hi+h is nothing 'ut Ni''JnaE the Su,reme Bliss.
"n the 3ourth TruthE the remed1 to ameliorate the affli+tion
is ,res+ri'ed '1 *a1 of the No'le Eightfold Path. "t is Luite
+lear that the theor1 of +ausalit1 also a,,lies to the anal1sis
of sufferingE the +ause of sufferingE the a,,easement of suffering
and the ,ath leading to the a,,easement of suffering.
The Thera,euti+ A,,roa+h
Buddhism *hen ta.en as a *hole is thera,euti+ in
+hara+ter. "t anal1ses +auses and +onditions of the ,resent
,redi+ament of human e/isten+e and suggests remedial
measures to 'e follo*ed for the alle0iation of it. Be+ause
of the s+ientifi+ methodolog1 follo*ed '1 the Buddha in
the first sermonE the -am'ridge ,s1+hologist Thouless sa1s
that it is 0er1 mu+h li.e a modern le+ture on 'a+teriolog1.
)herein the diseaseE the +ause of the disease '1 the
multi,li+ation of 'a+teria and 0iruses in the 'loodstream
@>
and then the +ure and destru+tion of the in0ading 'a+teria
and 0iruses '1 inIe+ting anti'ioti+s and other medi+inal
su'stan+es to theE 'loodstream of the ,atient is e/,lained.
The thera,euti+ a,,roa+h is so fundamental to earl1
BuddhismE Thouless does not hesitate to name it as a
>>
s1stem of ,s1+hothera,1. The Buddha2s a,,roa+h to
suffering and its remed1 *as so rational and +on0in+ing
that a later "ndian ,hiloso,herE tooE follo*ed the same
methodolog1 of anal1sis in order to e/,lain the +1+li+
e/isten+e of 'eings. He is none other than PatanIali *ho
referring to the s+ien+e of medi+ine dre* the analog1 of
diseaseE the +auseE the re+o0er1 and the +ure em,hasi]es
that $oga ,hiloso,h1 is also di0ided into four se+tions.
The +1+le of e/isten+e is sufferingE the +ause of suffering is
the union of ,ra.rti and ,urusa. The termination of the
union is release. #ight 0ision is the means of release.
The +ommentator BuddhaghosaE tooE elu+idating the
im,li+ations of the 3our No'le TruthsE the simile in Luestion
has also 'een dra*n among other similes. 3or he sa1s&
PThe truth of suffering is li.e a diseaseE the truth of
origin is li.e the +ause of the diseaseE the truth of
+essation is li.e the +uring of the disease and the
>:
truth of ,ath is li.e the medi+ine.Q
Assuredl1E Buddhaghosa *as influen+ed not '1 PatanIaliE
'ut '1 an earlier referen+e in the +anon itselfE *here the
>>. Thouless #o'ert H. S -hristianit1 and BuddhismE ,. @
>:. Vis. ZV"E ,. 7C
@:
imager1 of healer and medi+ine has 'een dra*n to illustrate
the Buddha and the do+trine. There Pingi1ani sa1s
to arana,alin&
P?ust sirE as a +le0er ,h1si+ian might in a moment
ta.e a*a1 the si+.ness of one si+. and ailingE
grie0ousl1 illE e0en soE *hene0er one hears the
master Gotama2s dhammaE griefE lamentationE
>@
sufferingE sorro* and des,air 0anish.Q Thus the
thera,euti+ a,,roa+h is an a,,re+iati0e Lualit1
,arti+ular to the do+trine ,rea+hed '1 the Buddha.
"s Buddhism Pessimisti+H
The *ord Gdu..ha2 denotes and +onnotes the totalit1 of our
e/isten+e. Ho*e0er there are some *ritersE distur'ed '1
the fa+t of Gdu..ha2 'eing dis+ussed as the 3irst No'le Truth
in BuddhismE in+line to hold the *rong 0ie* that Buddhism
is ,essimisti+ in outloo. from the 0er1 'eginning.
)hat is ,essimismH Pessimism is a gloom1 0ie* of life.
A ,essimist sees onl1 the *orst as,e+t of e0er1thing. He
al*a1s anti+i,ates defeat. Be+ause of *rong notions haunting
in his mindE he is afraid of fa+ing the fa+ts of life.
PessimismE 'eing an inner +he+. of free a+ti0it1E o0er*helms
one *ith des,airE frustrationE ina+tion and inhi'ition.
-ontrar1 to the ho,elessnessE *hi+h +hara+terises
,essimismE o,timism offers a 'right 0ie* of life full of ho,e.
The o,timist is lo+.ed u, in fool2s ,aradiseE in a uto,ia for
the time 'eing.
>@. A. """E ,. 4C>
@@
See the short and shar, sar+asm of the follo*ing t*o
English e,igrams on PThe O,timistQ and PThe Differen+eQ&
See the short and shar, sar+asm of the follo*ing t*o
English e,igrams on PThe O,timistQ and PThe Differen+eQ&
At ea+h *indo* 'arE
He shouted to his friends&
PAll right so far.Q
GT*i/t o,timist and ,essimist
The differen+e is droll
The o,timist sees the doughnut
The ,essimist sees the hole.
)hen he realises the fa+t of Gdu..ha2E *hi+h is *o0en into
the 0er1 fa'ri+ of our e/isten+eE he is disa,,ointed and
de,ressed. )hen *e +ome fa+e to fa+e not onl1 *ith the
*orld of e/,erien+eE 'ut also *ith our inner feelingsE
as,irations and ,ro+li0itiesE *e are +onfronted *ith all
sorts of ,ro'lems. The non%re+ognition of the star. realities
of life is indeed not a reason to ignore the fa+ts of
0i+issitudes of life. Therefore Buddhism tea+hes us to
understand thingsE as the1 reall1 are <1athJ'hVta=. Sin+e
the Buddhist a,,roa+h is neither ,essimisti+ nor o,timisti+
it ad0o+ates realism *hi+h lies 'et*een those t*o e/tremes.
BesidesE Buddhism does not sto, at anal1sing the
+onstituents of Gdu..ha2E on the +ontrar1E it sho*s an
antidote to o0er+ome it.
The ,s1+hoanal1st 3reud said that man is al*a1s
suffering from an un+ertaint1E a fear e/,ressed in terms of
an/iet1. This harro*ing uneasiness of his mind o0er,o*ers
his reason.
@A
The e/istentialist ,hiloso,her ier.egaard em,hasised
man2s fear that torments him *hen he is +onfronted *ith
life2s ,ro'lems. He named that mental tenden+1 as
Ganguish2 and de+lared that it +an onl1 'e relie0ed '1
trans+endental faith in God. But t*o other e/istentialistsE
Heideggar and ?ean Paul SartreE totall1 den1ing the
e/isten+e of GodE said the honest en+ounter *ith dread
and anguish is the onl1 gate*a1 to Gauthenti+2 li0ing.
The e/istentialist ,hiloso,her ier.egaard em,hasised
man2s fear that torments him *hen he is +onfronted *ith
life2s ,ro'lems. He named that mental tenden+1 as
Ganguish2 and de+lared that it +an onl1 'e relie0ed '1
trans+endental faith in God. But t*o other e/istentialistsE
Heideggar and ?ean Paul SartreE totall1 den1ing the
e/isten+e of GodE said the honest en+ounter *ith dread
and anguish is the onl1 gate*a1 to Gauthenti+2 li0ing.
P" thin. that ,rimiti0e Buddhism must 'e understood
as a s1stem of ,s1+hothera,1. A++e,tan+e of
-hristian faith ma1 of +ourse also gi0e relief from
mental 'urdens 'ut this is onl1 in+idental *hereas
the thera,euti+ aim of Buddhism is fundamental.
This is *h1 " thin. *e +an feel that man1 of the
tea+hings of the Buddha are rele0ant to our needs
in a *a1 that *ould ha0e 'een im,ossi'le to our
grandfathersE 'e+ause *e ha0e a++e,ted and
'e+ome used to the aim of ,s1+hothera,1Q.
All the 3our Truths are +onne+ted to ea+h other '1 *a1 of
+ausal relatedness. The right attitude to 'e de0elo,ed to*ards
suffering is e/,lained in the 3ourth Truth. The foremost
,osition as+ri'ed to right understanding in the ,ath
is signifi+ant in this regard. The understanding of the real
nature of life hel,s indi0iduals model their attitude to life
for the 'etterment of this life here and the life after.
@C
The +ommentator Buddhaghosa *inding u, his long
dis+ussion on suffering sa1s&
The +ommentator Buddhaghosa *inding u, his long
dis+ussion on suffering sa1s&
>A
dro, of its *ater.
Origin of suffering
The Buddha e/,lains to A+ela assa,a&
PA0oiding 'oth the dead%ends of eternit1%0ie* and
annihilation%0ie*E the Tathagata tea+hes the Dhamma '1
the Biddle )a1& -onditioned '1 ignoran+e are the .amma
formationsW and so on. Thus is the origin of this mass of
suffering.Q
S.E ""EE ,. 86948
M
>A. Vis. ZV"E ,. A5
<This +ha,ter is to 'e +onsidered as a +ontinuation of +ha,ter >=
@7
-ra0ing as Ps1+hod1nami+ Thought D
Nar+issism
PThe Buddha des+ri'es t*o t1,es of +ra0ingE ea+h of
*hi+h has a +ounter,art in ,s1+hod1nami+ thought.
The firstE the +ra0ing for sense ,leasuresE *e +an
gras, immediatel1W. The se+ondE *hat the Buddha
+alled the +ra0ing for e/isten+e and none/isten+eE is
*hat *e *ould toda1 +all nar+issisti+ +ra0ing& the
thirst for fi/ed image of selfE as either something or as
nothing. "t is the +ra0ing for se+urit1 *here0er it +an
'e found& in 'e+oming or in death.Q
Bar. E,stein
Thoughts *ithout a Thin.erE ,. @6
@6
A. A.
The Se+ond No'le Truth of the 3our No'le Truths deals
*ith the +ause of suffering. The +ause of suffering is none
other than +ra0ing <tanhJ=. "n the first dis+ourse of the
BuddhaE *hile des+ri'ing the Se+ond No'le TruthE +ra0ing
is e/,lained *ith three e,ithets together *ith its three
as,e+tsE *hi+h +o0er the entire range of human suffering
in the +1+le of 'irths and deaths. The 'rief des+ri,tion of
+ra0ing gi0en in the dis+ourse runs thus& PAnd *hat is the
+ause of sufferingH "t is +ra0ingE *hi+h +auses re'irth <,ono'ha0i.J=E
a++om,anied '1 delight and lust <nandirJgasahagatJ=E
and finding ,leasure in this or that <tatra tatrJ'hinandini=E
namel1E -ra0ing for Sense Pleasures <.JmatanhJ=E
-ra0ing for Being <that isE for +ontinued e/isten+e=
<'ha0a%tanhJ=E and -ra0ing for Non%'eing <that isE for ,er
>C
sonal annihilation= <0i'ha0a%tanhJ=.Q
English D Pali S1non1ms for -ra0ing
"t is to 'e noted that +ra0ing <tanhJ= in Buddhism in+ludes all
0arieties of desire ranging from ,assionate lust or +u,idit1
to su'tle affe+tion and atta+hment of .ind. Therefore the
Pali *ord GtanhJ2E deri0ed from to 'e thirst1E has 'een
rendered into English not onl1 as G+ra0ing2E 'ut also as
Gdesire2E Glust2E Ggreed2E Gatta+hment2E Glo0e2E Gaffe+tion2E G,assion2E
Gthirst2E G1earning2 and the li.e in different +onte/ts.
?ust as in the first dis+ourseE in the De,endent OriginationE
>C. S. "VE ,. :45 ff. and Vin. "E 85 ff.
A5
tooE the *ord GtanhJ2 has 'een used to denote +ra0ing that
+auses gras,ing or +linging leading to re,eated e/isten+e.
tooE the *ord GtanhJ2 has 'een used to denote +ra0ing that
+auses gras,ing or +linging leading to re,eated e/isten+e.
oso,h1
and ,s1+holog1. "t is +harged *ith religious emotion
and delineates the +ausal genesis of suffering and the ,s1+hologi+al
as,e+t of entire human 'eha0iour. As the first of the
three roots of e0ilE the *ord Glo'ha2 or Graga2 denotes +ra0ingE
hatred <dosa= and delusion <moha= 'eing the remaining
t*o of the three roots of e0il. The a'sen+e of *hi+h is the
Su,reme Bliss <Ni''Jna=. The different as,e+ts of +ra0ing
ha0e 'een 'rought to light in the dis+ourses. A *ideE 0ariet1
of terms su+h as& G.Jma2 <sensual ,leasure=E G+handa2 <desire=E
G.ama++handa2 <desire for sensual ,leasure=E GrJga2 <lust=E Grati2
<atta+hment=E G,ema2 <lo0e=E Gsineha2 <affe+tion=E Ggedha2 <greed=E
Gnandi2 <delight=E G,i,Jsa2 <thirst=E G,arilJha2 <+onsuming ,assion=E
Gmu++hJ2 <s*oon=E GissJ2 <en01=E Gma++hari1a2 <a0ari+e=
are used.
The +ausal lin. 'et*een suffering and +ra0ing is a dis+o0er1
of the BuddhaE *hi+h led the Buddha to sear+h for a
*a1 out of the +onditioned relatedness of suffering and +ra0ing.
As the Buddha has sho*nE *hen the +ause of +ra0ing
+eases to 'eE the resultant suffering +eases to 'e simultaneousl1.
Threefold -ra0ing in #elation to Si/ Senses D
Si/ Sense O'Ie+ts
The +om,le/it1 of threefold +ra0ing in the original +lassifi+ation
has 'een des+ri'ed '1 multi,l1ing the three into hundred
and eight in relation to si/ sensesE sense o'Ie+ts and
,astE ,resent and future. "n res,e+t of one2s e1eE earE noseE
A8
tongueE 'od1 and mindE and e/ternal o'Ie+ts of formE soundE
smellE tasteE +onta+t and +on+e,tsE +ra0ing 'e+omes t*el0efold.
"n relation to threefold anal1sis of +ra0ing for sense
,leasureE +ra0ing for 'eing and +ra0ing for non%'eingE
+ra0ing is +ounted as thirt1%si/E *hi+h again multi,lied '1
three ,eriods of time& ,astE ,resent and futureE thus ma.ing
it hundred and eight <A[AY84/>Y>A/>Y857=.
-ra0ing as a Bulti%Signifi+ant Term in
Buddhist Do+trine
"n the Sa..a,aTha%sutta of the Digha%ni.a1aE all +onfli+ts
and +onfrontations in the *orld are tra+ed to +ra0ing
asso+iated *ith the ,rolifi+ tenden+1 of the human mind.
"n the dialogue 'et*een the Buddha and Sa..aE the
Buddha tra+es the +ausal genesis of +onfli+ts to en01 and
a0ari+e rooted in things dear and not dearE *hi+h in turn
'ased on desire <+handa= leading to initial& a,,li+ation
<0i+Jra= and ,roliferation of ,er+e,tion <,a,aT+a saTTJ
san.hJ=. B1 nature +ra0ing s,rings u, and thri0es *here0er
>7
it finds something delightful and ,leasura'le.
Therefore the Dhamma,ada illustrates the nature of
+ra0ing *ith a,t similes&
P3ol. is enra,t in +ra0ingE is terrified li.e a +a,ti0e
hare. Therefore a mon. *ho *ishes his o*n
>6
,assionlessnessE should dis+ard +ra0ing.Q
P#i+hes ruin the foolish 'ut not those in Luest of
'e1ond. Through +ra0ing for ri+hes the ignorant
>7. D. ""E ,. 4CA ff.
>6. Dh,. >:>
A4
man ruins himself as if he *ere ruining others.Q
man ruins himself as if he *ere ruining others.Q
:8
is no griefE mu+h less fear.Q
"n the same 0einE endearment <,i1a=E affe+tion <,ema=E
atta+hment <rati= and lust <.Jma= ha0e 'een mentioned as
:4
the root +ause of grief and fear.
Be+ause of +ra0ing one +lings on to ,leasura'le thoughtsE
thereforeE Pif in an1one the thirt1%si/ streams of +ra0ing
that rush to*ards ,leasura'le thoughts are strongE su+h de
:>
luded ,ersonE torrential thoughts of lust +arr1 off.Q
"nter%relatedness of +ra0ing and suffering is stated *ith
em,hasis&
P)hosoe0er in the *orld o0er+omes this 'ase
unrul1 +ra0ingE from him sorro*s fall a*a1 li.e
::
*ater dro,s from a lotus leaf.Q
P?ust as a tree *ith roots unharmed and firmE though
he*n do*nE s,routs againE e0en soE *hile latent
+ra0ing is not rooted outE this sorro* s,rings u,
:@
again and again.Q
"n the Suna..hatta suttaE +ra0ing has 'een +om,ared to an
arro* and ignoran+e to a ,oisonous humour. There the
:5. Dh,. >>@
:8. Dh,. 48A
:4. Dh,. 484948@
:>. Dh,. >>6
::. Dh,. >>A
:@. Dh,. >>7
A>
Buddha sa1s that that arro* has 'een remo0ed and the
,oisonous humour +ured '1 Him. -ontinuingE the Buddha
sa1s that ,ursuing the sight of unsuita'le forms *ith the
e1eE unsuita'le sounds *ith the earE unsuita'le odours *ith
the noseE unsuita'le fla0ours *ith the tongueE unsuita'le
tangi'les *ith the 'od1 or unsuita'le mind o'Ie+ts *ith the
mind ena'les lust to in0ade the mind. )hen the mind thus
Buddha sa1s that that arro* has 'een remo0ed and the
,oisonous humour +ured '1 Him. -ontinuingE the Buddha
sa1s that ,ursuing the sight of unsuita'le forms *ith the
e1eE unsuita'le sounds *ith the earE unsuita'le odours *ith
the noseE unsuita'le fla0ours *ith the tongueE unsuita'le
tangi'les *ith the 'od1 or unsuita'le mind o'Ie+ts *ith the
mind ena'les lust to in0ade the mind. )hen the mind thus
in0aded '1 lustE suffering *ould follo*.
"n the li0el1 dialogue 'et*een the .ing ora01a and
Elder #attha,ala found in the #aKKha,ala suttaE four statements
summarising the do+trine ha0e 'een e/,lained to
the .ing '1 Elder #attha,ala&
8.
!ife in the *orld is unsta'leE it is s*e,t a*a1
<u,ani1ati lo.o addhu0o=.
4.
!ife in the *orld has no shelter and no ,rote+tor
<attJno lo.o ana'hissaro=.
>.
!ife in the *orld has nothing of its o*nR one has to
lea0e all and ,ass on <assa.o lo.o sa''aX ,ahJ1a
gamanU1am=.
:.
!ife in the *orld is in+om,leteE insatiateE the sla0e
of +ra0ing <Vno lo.o atitto tanhJdJso=.
The fourth statement summarises ho* the entire *orld is
ensla0ed '1 +ra0ing. Being o0er*helmed '1 insatiate desireE
man is al*a1s in ,ursuit of more. The una,,easa'le
nature of +ra0ing is e/,lained *ith an illustrati0e ane+dote
:C
'1 the Elder.
:A. B. ""E ,. 4@A
:C. B. ""E ,,. A79C4
A:
The Threefold -ra0ing
The Threefold -ra0ing
ternal
o'Ie+ts of sense gratifi+ation. The atta+hment to 0isualE
auditor1E olfa+tor1E gustator1 and ta+tile o'Ie+ts of e1eE
earE noseE tongue and 'od1 that *e 1earn forE and fanati+all1
,ursueE end u, in real suffering. "t is not 'e+ause of
the e0il inherent in those o'Ie+tsE 'ut 'e+ause of the *rong
attitude ado,ted to*ards ,er+e,tion. "n order to illustrate
the danger in sensual ,leasure man1 sho+.ing similes ha0e
'een gi0en in the dis+ourses. The AlagaddV,ama sutta of
the BaIIhima%ni.a1aE des+ri'es ho* sensual ,leasure ,ro0ides
little gratifi+ationE mu+h suffering and mu+h des,air
and ho* great is the danger inherent in them. Similes of the
,ie+e of meatE the grass tor+hE the ,it of +oalsE dreamE
the 'orro*ed goodsE the tree laden *ith fruitsE the slaughter
houseE the s*ord sta.eE and the sna.e head ha0e 'een
:7
dra*n. To sho* the futilit1 of the fi0efold sensualit1E the
Potali1a%sutta dra*s the simile of a meatless 'one gi0enE
to a hungr1 dog *aiting '1 a 'ut+her2s sho,. The dog
*ould not 'e a'le to a,,ease its hunger '1 gna*ing the
meatless 'one. E0entuall1 it *ould rea, *eariness and
disa,,ointment.
The BuddhaE re+olle+ting His e/,erien+e in sensual
,leasuresE said to Bagandi1a&
P3ormerl1 *hen " li0ed the household lifeE " enIo1ed
m1selfE ,ro0ided and endo*ed *ith the fi0e +ords of
sensual ,leasureE namel1& *ith forms +ogni]a'le '1
the e1eE *ith sounds +ogni]a'le '1 the earE *ith
:7. B. "E ,. 8>>
A@
odours +ogni]a'le '1 the noseE *ith fla0ours +ogni]a'le
'1 the tongueE and *ith tangi'les +ogni]a'le
'1 the 'od1 that are *ished forE desiredE agreea'le
and li.a'leE +onne+ted *ith sensual desire and ,ro0o+ati0e
of lust. " had three ,ala+esE one for the
rain1 seasonE one for the *interE and one for the
summer. " li0ed in the rains2 ,ala+e for the four
months of the rain1 seasonE enIo1ing m1self *ith
musi+ians *ho *ere all femaleE and " did not go
do*n to the lo*er ,ala+e on a later o++asionE ha0ing
understood as the1 a+tuall1 are the originE disa,,earan+eE
the gratifi+ationE the danger and the es+a,e in
the +ase of sensual ,leasuresE " a'andoned +ra0ing
for sensual ,leasuresE " remo0ed +ra0ing for sensual
,leasures and " a'ide *ithout thirstE *ith a mind
in*ardl1 at ,ea+e. " see other 'eings *ho are not
free from lust for sensual ,leasures 'eing de0oured
'1 +ra0ing for sensual ,leasuresE and " do not en01
themE nor do " delight therein. )h1 is thatH Be+ause
there isE Bagandi1aE a delight a,art from sensual
,leasuresE a,art from un*holesome statesE *hi+h
sur,asses di0ine 'liss. Sin+e " ta.e delight in that " do
:6
not en01 *hat is inferiorE nor do " delight therein.Q
The hedonisti+ attitude to life de,i+ted in the ha'it of see.ing
sensual enIo1ment is one of the e/tremes as outlined in the
first dis+ourseE the PTurning of the )heel of !a*Q. "t is termed
as Self%"ndulgen+e <.Jmasu.halli.Jnu1oga= *hi+h ad0o+ates
the 'est of ,leasures for the senses. Basing their argu
:6. B. "E ,,. @5@9A
AA
ment on materialist 0ie* of lifeE some of the ,hiloso,hers
argued that as there is nothing sur0i0ing deathE one
should enIo1 life '1 *hate0er meansE as long as one li0es.
-ra0ing for 'eing <'ha0a%tanhJ= is rooted in the 'elief
of an immuta'le soulE an ego in one2s 'od1E *hi+h is termed
as eternalism <sassata0Jda=. A++ording to eternalisti+
0ie*E as soul is im,risoned in the 'od1E one has to 'e
'orn again and again to ,ra+tise Hol1 !ifeE so that soul
should get united fore0er *ith the uni0ersal soul <,aramatman=.
3ift1%fi0e 0arieties of eternalist 0ie*s are gi0en in
the BrahmaIala sutta of the Digha%ni.a1a.
-ra0ing for non%'eing <0i'ha0a%tanhJ= is out%and%out
nihilismE ad0o+atingE ,leasures of the flesh. Broadl1 s,ea.ing
'oth -ra0ing for Sensual Pleasures and -ra0ing for
Non%Being <0i'ha0a%tanhJ= are 'ased on materialist 0ie*
of life. A++ording to 'oth grou,s of theorists there is no
,ermanent entit1 +alled soulE *hi+h is onl1 a ,s1+ho%
,h1si+al unit that does not sur0i0e death. Therefore the1
maintained that one should enIo1 life '1 *hate0er meansE
as long as one li0es. "n Bra'maIJla%sutta se0en t1,es of
nihilist 0ie*s ha0e 'een outlined.
-ra0ing as the Origin of Personalit1 D Suffering
-ra0ing is the origin of ,ersonalit1. "t is 'e+ause of the threefold
+ra0ing that ,ersonalit1 originated. )hen the Luestion
of the origin of ,ersonalit1 *as ,ut to Bhi..huni DhammadinnJ
'1 VisJ.haE she re,lied&
P3riend VisJ.haE it is +ra0ingE *hi+h 'rings rene*al
of 'eingE is a++om,anied '1 delight and lustE and
AC
see.ing ,leasure in this and thatR that isE +ra0ing for
sensual ,leasuresE +ra0ing for 'eingE and +ra0ing
for non%'eing. This is +alled origin of ,ersonalit1
see.ing ,leasure in this and thatR that isE +ra0ing for
sensual ,leasuresE +ra0ing for 'eingE and +ra0ing
for non%'eing. This is +alled origin of ,ersonalit1
'1 the Blessed One.Q
Her re,l1 em'odies *hat the Buddha said in His first dis+ourse.
"n the same *a1 0enera'le Sari,utta addressing
the mon.s in the SammadiKKhi%sutta said that origin of suf
@8
fering is threefold +ra0ing. "n the SalJ1atani.a%suttaE ho*
+ra0ing +ontri'utes to 'odil1 and mental suffering is 0i0idl1
des+ri'ed&
P)hen one a'ides inflamed '1 lustE fetteredE infatuatedE
+ontem,lating gratifi+ationE then the fi0e
aggregates affe+ted '1 +linging are 'uilt u, for
oneself in the futureE and one2s +ra0ing gi0es rise to
rene*ed e/isten+eW. One2s 'odil1 and mental
trou'les in+reaseE one2s 'odil1 and mental fe0ers
in+rease and one e/,erien+es 'odil1 and mental
suffering.Q
The sutta states further that 'e+ause of the ignoran+e of the
real nature of the si/ sensesE si/fold +ons+iousnessE si/fold
+onta+tsE and ,leasant or ,ainful or neither ,leasant nor
,ainful feelingsE one is su'Ie+ted to 'oth 'odil1 and mental
@4
suffering. The -ha+ha..a%sutta dis+ussing the underl1ing
@>
tenden+iesE tra+es suffering to ignoran+e and +ra0ing.
@5. B. "E ,. 466
@8. B. "E ,. :7
@4. B. """E ,. 47C
@>. B. """E ,. 47@
A7
No -ra0ingE ho* +an there 'e Grief or 3earH
P3rom +ra0ing is 'orn griefE
from +ra0ing is 'orn fear.
3or one freed from +ra0ing
there2s no grief
Sso ho* fearHQ
Dhamma,adaE 48A
Translated '1 Thanissaro Bhi..hu
M
Ni''Jna as the Destru+tion of !ustE
Hatred D Delusion
The *andering as+eti+ ?am'u.hada.a 0isited 0enera'le
Sari,utta and as.ed&
PGNi''JnaE Ni''Jna\2 is the sa1ing friend Sari,utta.
Pra1E tell me friendE *hat is Ni''JnaHQ
Venera'le Sari,utta re,8ied&
PThe destru+tion of lustE the destru+tion of hatredE the
destru+tion of delusionE friendE is +alled Ni''Jna.Q
S. "VE ,. 4@8
A6
C. C.
The Third No'le Truth is the -essation of Suffering. "n the
first sermonE it is des+ri'ed as the +essation of +ra0ing
*ithout residue and *ith dis,assion <asesa0irJganirodho=E
gi0ing u, <+Jgo=E +om,lete a'andonment <,atinissaggo=E
release <mutti=E and non%atta+hment <anJla1o=. )ith referen+e
to the 3our No'le TruthsE it is stated that the Buddha
gained the .no*ledge that the 3irst No'le Truth is to 'e
+om,rehended full1 <,ariTTe11aX=E and alread1 +om,rehended
it full1 <,ariTTataX=. The Se+ond is to 'e a'andoned
<,ahJta''aX=E and alread1 a'andoned <,ahinaX=R
the Third is to 'e realised <sa++hi.Jta''aX=E and alread1
realised <sa++hi.ataX=R and the 3ourth is to 'e de0elo,ed
<'hJ0eta''aX=E and alread1 de0elo,ed <'hJ0itaX=.
Ni''Jna as the -essation of Suffering
The +essation of suffering '1 destro1ing +ra0ingE the root
+auseE is the o'Ie+ti0e of Buddhist training *hi+h +ulminates
in realisation of Ni''JnaE the Su,reme Bliss. "n the
'rief introdu+tion of the Third No'le Truth found in the
first sermonE the total destru+tion of +ra0ing is em,hasi]ed
*ith four terms of similar im,ortE signif1ing the relation
'et*een +ra0ing and suffering. The uniLueness of the
Buddhist a,,roa+h lies in the fa+t of realising the trans+endental
truthE '1 ea+h indi0iduall1E *ith one2s o*n ,ersonal
effort. Hen+e reIe+ting the 0ie* of 0i+arious sal0ationE
it asserts that dhamma is Gto 'e realised indi0id
C5
uall1 '1 the *ise *ith their ,ersonal effort2 <,a++attaX
0edita''o 0iTTVhi=. As Buddhism does not maintain an1
.ind of +on+e,t in0ol0ing a theor1 of soul to 'e sa0ed or
almight1 +reator god *ho a+ts as sa0iour of suffering
humanit1E the +essation of suffering is to 'e a+hie0ed '1
,ra+tising the ,ath enun+iated '1 the Buddha.
uall1 '1 the *ise *ith their ,ersonal effort2 <,a++attaX
0edita''o 0iTTVhi=. As Buddhism does not maintain an1
.ind of +on+e,t in0ol0ing a theor1 of soul to 'e sa0ed or
almight1 +reator god *ho a+ts as sa0iour of suffering
humanit1E the +essation of suffering is to 'e a+hie0ed '1
,ra+tising the ,ath enun+iated '1 the Buddha.
ferent
*a1s. Originall1E in the +anoni+al referen+es it 'ears
an affinit1 to 'lo*ing off <ni''J1ati= and most +ertainl1
the im,li+ation is the 'lo*ing off of the three roots of e0il&
+ra0ingE ill *ill and delusion. <-om,are *ith Pni''anti
dhirJ 1athJ21aX ,adi,o2= Therefore it has 'een formed
from 00J to 'lo*E hen+e nir [ 00J means 'lo*ing out.
But later Pali et1mologists seem to ha0e ,referred to deri0e
the *ord from 00r to +o0er <nir [00r=E im,l1ing
the going out of fire of defilements due to +o0ering it u, or
'1 not feeding it *ith further fuel or '1 *ithdra*ing the
+ause of its ,rodu+tion.
The +ommentator Buddhaghosa ga0e the meaning
Gdisso+iation from +ra0ing2 to the *ord. His des+ri,ti0e
definition of the *ord 'rings out the nature of Ni''Jna
a++ording to Thera0ada ,oint of 0ie*. He sa1s&
P"t is +alled disillusionment of 0anit1 <mada=E on +om
ing to itE all .inds of 0anit1E su+h as the 0anit1 of
+on+eitE and 0anit1 of manhoodE are disillusionedE
undoneE done a*a1 *ith. And it is +alled elimin
ation of thirstE 'e+ause on +oming to itE all thirst for
C8
sense desires is eliminated and Luen+hed. But it is
+alled a'olition of relian+e 'e+ause on +oming to itE
relian+e on fi0e +ords of sense desire is a'olished. "t
is +alled the termination of the roundE 'e+ause on
+oming to itE the round of the three ,lanes of e/isten+e
is terminated. "t is +alled destru+tion of +ra0ingE
'e+ause on +oming to itE +ra0ing is entirel1 destro1edE
fades a*a1 and +eases. "t is +alled Ni''JnaE
'e+ause it has gone a*a1 from <ni..hanta=E
es+a,ed from <nissaKa=. "t is disso+iated from
+ra0ingE *hi+h has a+Luired the +ommon usage
name Gfastening2 <0Jna=. Be+ause '1 ensuring
su++essi0e 'e+omingE +ra0ing ser0es as a Ioining
togetherE a 'inding togetherE a la+ing togetherE of
the four .inds of generation <1oni=E fi0e destinies
<gati=E se0en stations of +ons+iousness <0iTTanaKKhiti=
@:
and nine a'odes of 'eings <sattJ0Jsa=.Q
Elu+idating the ethi+al ,erfe+tion denoted '1 the *ord
Ni''JnaE 0enera'le Nanamoli states in his English trans
@@
lation of the Visuddhimagga&
PThe original literal meaning *as ,ro'a'l1 Ge/tin+tion2
of fire '1 +easing to 'lo* on it *ith 'ello*s
<a smith2s fire for e/am,le=. "t seems to ha0e 'een
e/tended to e/tin+tion of fire '1 an1 meansE for
e/am,leE the going out of a lam,2s flame <ni''J1ati
9B. iiiE 4:@=. B1 analog1 it *as e/tended to the
@:. Vis. ,. 46>
@@. The PathE 3ootnote C4E ,. >86
C4
e/tin+tion of greed et+.E in the ArahantE *ith the
resultant e/tin+tion of the fi0e aggregates ,ro+ess
on the Arahant2s death <see "ti. >7=. Ni''Jna is
not the e/tin+tion of self or of a li0ing lasting
'eingE su+h a mista.en o,inion 'eing the
Annihilation Vie* <see e.g. B. "E 8:5E S. iiiE 856=Q.
e/tin+tion of greed et+.E in the ArahantE *ith the
resultant e/tin+tion of the fi0e aggregates ,ro+ess
on the Arahant2s death <see "ti. >7=. Ni''Jna is
not the e/tin+tion of self or of a li0ing lasting
'eingE su+h a mista.en o,inion 'eing the
Annihilation Vie* <see e.g. B. "E 8:5E S. iiiE 856=Q.
Ni''Jna as "ndefina'le in Terms of !ogi+ D
#easoning
Ni''Jna is an e/,erien+eE *hi+h +annot 'e gras,ed in
terms of logi+ and reasoning. Hen+e it is e/,li+itl1 stated
that it is 'e1ond the range of logi+ <a%ta..a%a0a+ara
Yata..J0a+ara=E *hi+h means that Ni''ani+ Bliss is not in
the field of logi+ or a logi+al +ategor1 that +an 'e gras,ed
*ith reason '1 em,lo1ing the tools of logi+. The e/,ressionE
G'e1ond the range of logi+2 delineates the ,la+e gi0en
'1 Buddhism to reason and logi+ in defining the highest
religious truth in Buddhism.
The truths in BuddhismE as Luoted a'o0e from the
first sermonE are 'ased on the e/,erien+e the Buddha
gained *hen He attained Enlightenment. The Buddha has
sho*n that some of the truths +annot 'e +ommuni+ated
'1 language a,,l1ing logi+al reasoning. The fa+t is o'0ious
for se0eral reasons.
During the time of the BuddhaE there *ere some tea+hers
*ho formulated and +ommuni+ated their o*n tea+hings
in terms of logi+. The1 *ere .no*n as rationalists and
C>
meta,h1si+ians. The1 *ere +on+erned *ith the logi+al
format of their theoriesE so that others should get +on0in+ed.
!ogi+ ,er se is +on+erned onl1 *ith the logi+al
+onsisten+1 of a theor1. -onseLuentl1E a theor1 ma1 'e
logi+all1 sound *ith regard to forms and ,remisesE 'ut it
ma1 'e fa+tuall1 *rong. One +an de0elo, +onsistent
theories ha0ing no +orres,onden+e *hatsoe0er *ith em,iri+al
or trans+endental truths. Thus an1 tea+her *ho is
+on0ersant *ith the a,,aratus of logi+ +an +ontri0e a
theor1 'asing his arguments on logi+E 'ut at the same time
misusing it to ser0e his ,ur,ose. Thus on logi+al ,roofE a
theorist ma1 argue that his theor1 alone is trueE *hereas
others are false.
So mu+h soE in the JlJma%suttaE the Buddha2s +harter
of free inLuir1E four ,ro,ositions ha0e 'een gi0en to
illustrate the inadeLua+1 of logi+ as a means of .no*ledge.
A++ording to the SuttaE a 0ie* is not to 'e a++e,ted
merel1 'e+ause of its&
i.
'asi+ logi+al format <ta..a%hetu=
ii.
merel1 on the 0ie* that seems rational <na1ahetu=
ii.
refle+ting on mere a,,earan+e <J.Jra,ari0ita..a=
i0.
agreement *ith a +onsidered 0ie*
<diKKhiniIIhJna..hanti=.
"n the BrahmaIJla%sutta t*o +ontem,orar1 theories named
as ,rodu+ts of rational thin.ing and meta,h1si+al s,e+ulation
<ta..a,ari1JhataX 0UmaXsJnu+aritaX= ha0e 'een
reIe+ted as unsatisfa+tor1. -ritisi]ing this t1,e of s,e+ulati0e
,hiloso,hersE the Suttani,ata sa1s& PThe1 sa1 the t*o
things& true and falseE '1 em,lo1ing logi+ on 0ie*s.Q
C:
<ta..aX +a diKKhisu ,a.a,,1it0J S sa++aX musJ2ti d0a1adhamma
Jhu S Sn. 77A=.
"n the Sanda.a%sutta the Buddhist attitude is +learl1
sho*n '1 disse+ting the format of logi+ together *ith its
out+ome. One ma1 arri0e at a +orre+t +on+lusion <1athJ=
either '1 a *ell%formulated argument <suta..ita= or '1 an
ill%formulated argument <duta..ita=. "n the same *a1 one
ma1 arri0e at an in+orre+t +on+lusion <aTTathJ= either
'1 a *ell%formulated argument or '1 an ill%formulated
@A
argument.
Therefore Buddhism is em,hati+ in asserting that the
logi+al reasoning is unsatisfa+tor1 as a means of .no*ledge.
This does not mean that Buddhist truths are illogi+al
and Buddhism is 0ehementl1 o,,osed to an1 .ind of
logi+al reasoning. Buddhism is a*are that reasoning +an
'e used in a ,ro,er *a1 to get one2s statements of truth
0erified. Ne0erthelessE it is against the 0ie* that logi+
alone is true as a 0alid means of .no*ledge. Buddhism
a++e,ts that logi+al reasoning has a limited 0alue. Be+ause
it is stated in the +anon that Gso far as an1thing +an 'e
as+ertained '1 reasoningE thou has as+ertained it2 <1J0a
@C
ta.aXW ,atta''aX anu,,attaX ta1aW=.
"n sa1ing that truths +annot 'e e/,ressed '1 logi+E
Buddhism maintains the insuffi+ien+1 of language to +on0e1
e/,erien+e 'e1ond em,iri+al. )ords '1 *hi+h language
is +onstitutedE ha0e 'een in0ented '1 man to des+ri'e
the fa+ts of ordinar1 e/,erien+e. The fa'le of the
@A. B. "E ,. @45
@C. S. "E ,. @A
C@
Tortoise and the 3ish illustrates the fa+t Luite +learl1.
Although the tortoise 'eing am,hi'ious tried his 'est to
e/,lain land to the fishE 'e+ause of the fa+t that its
e/,erien+e is +onfined onl1 to *aterE it *as not in a
,osition to understand *hat is land. Also in fa+tE Luite
oftenE a *ord ma1 gi0e rise to different ideas to different
,ersons in different +onte/ts. Another feature of *ords is
the1 +hange their meaning from time to time. Then *ords
ha0e to 'e +onsidered as not relia'le. !ogi+E *hi+h uses
*ords in the form of argumentsE +an suffer from these
defe+ts. Hen+e the Buddha2s em,hasis is on .no*ledge
'ased on e/,erien+e.
Tortoise and the 3ish illustrates the fa+t Luite +learl1.
Although the tortoise 'eing am,hi'ious tried his 'est to
e/,lain land to the fishE 'e+ause of the fa+t that its
e/,erien+e is +onfined onl1 to *aterE it *as not in a
,osition to understand *hat is land. Also in fa+tE Luite
oftenE a *ord ma1 gi0e rise to different ideas to different
,ersons in different +onte/ts. Another feature of *ords is
the1 +hange their meaning from time to time. Then *ords
ha0e to 'e +onsidered as not relia'le. !ogi+E *hi+h uses
*ords in the form of argumentsE +an suffer from these
defe+ts. Hen+e the Buddha2s em,hasis is on .no*ledge
'ased on e/,erien+e.
Be+ause of these defe+ts of language and logi+E a0oiding
*rong +on+e,tions that ma1 o++urE Ni''Jna is e/,lained
in negati0e terms. "n fa+tE the *ord GNi''Jna2 and
Gnirodha2 the t*o most +ommonl1 used *ords to denote
the Su,reme BlissE are negati0e in form. As e/,lained
earlierE GNi''Jna2 'eing the e/tin+tion of the three roots of
e0ilE Gnirodha2 is used to denote the a'sen+e of suffering.
Buddhaghosa defining the *ord sa1s&
PThe ,refi/ Gni2 denotes a'sen+eE and the *ord
Grodha E a ,rison <ni%addo a'hJ0aXE rodha%saddo
+a +ara.aX dU,eti=. No* the Third Truth is 0oid
of all destinies '1 re'irthE and so there is no +on
straint <rodha= of suffering here re+.oned as the
,rison of the round of re'irthW. Or alternati0el1E
it is +alled G+essation of suffering2 'e+ause it is a
CA
+ondition for the +essation of suffering +onsisting
@7
in non%arising.Q
Together *ith the e/,ression G'e1ond the s+o,e of logi+2
<ata..J0a+ara=E a host of other negati0e terms also ha0e
'een used in the +anon to denote Ni''Jna. "t is un'orn
<aIJta=E unoriginated <a'hVta=E unmade <a.ata=E un+onditioned
<asam.hata=E diffi+ult to 'e seen <duddasa=E diffi+ult
to 'e +om,rehended <duranu'odha= and freedom from
all 'onds <1oga..hema=. As it is an e/,erien+e 'e1ond all
+onditional ,henomena of em,iri+al *orldE it is diffi+ult to
'e e/,ressed in ordinar1 languageE *hi+h is onl1 an instrument
of +ommuni+ating our da1 to da1 mundane
e/,erien+e.
Ni''Jna in Positi0e or -on0entional Pers,e+ti0e
Positi0el1 s,ea.ing it is the highest ha,,iness <ni''JnaX
,aramaX su.haX=. "n +ontradi+tion to *orldl1 ha,,iness
it is the ,ermanent <ni++a=E eternal <dhu0a=E ha,,1 <su.ha=
and ,leasant <su'ha= state e/,erien+ed '1 destro1ing all
defilements. Therefore in +on0entional terminolog1E it is
the su,reme ha,,iness one +an thin. of.
"n a +on0ersation 'et*een Elder Sari,utta and Elder
Uda1iE the nature of this ha,,iness is elu+idated '1
Elder Sari,utta.
The Elder said&
PThis Ni''Jna isE friendE ha,,iness. This Ni''Jna isE
friendE ha,,iness.Q
@7. Vis. ,. :6@
CC
Then the Elder Uda1i as.ed&
Then the Elder Uda1i as.ed&
The Elder Sari,utta re,lied&
PThe a'sen+e of e/,erien+e through sensesE friendE
itself is ha,,iness.Q
Then the Elder ,ro+eeds on to e/,lain ho* the fi0e
strands of sense desire and the ha,,iness arising therefromE
is +alled sensuous ha,,iness and also ho* the ha,,iness
e/,erien+ed in ea+h Ihani+ state *hi+h is not sensuousE
'e+omes 'etter than the former oneE thus +lima/
@6
ing in Ni''Jna.
So,Jdisesa D Anu,Jdisesa Ni''Jna
Ni''ani+ Bliss is attained in this 0er1 life '1 destro1ing the
defilementsE *hi+h 'ind a 'eing to the +1+le of e/isten+e.
Buddhism ensures that its ideal stateE the ultimate goal
+an 'e attained in this life. "n res,e+t of realisation
Ni''Jna is t*ofoldE So,Jdisesa and Anu,Jdisesa.
"t is stated in the "ti0utta.a '1 the Buddha&
PHereinE O mon.sE a mon. is an ArahantE one *ho
has destro1ed the defilementsE *ho has li0ed the
lifeE done *hat *as to 'e doneE laid aside the
'urdenE *ho has attained his goalE *ho has
@6.
iX ,ana ettha J0uso su.haX 1adi ettha natthi 0eda1itaX2tiH
Etade0a .h0attha J0uso su.haX 1adi ettha natthi 0eda1itaX2tiQ
SA. "VE ,,. :8:9@
C7
destro1ed the fetters of e/isten+eE *hoE rightl1 un
derstandingE is deli0ered. His fi0e sense organs still
remainE and as he *as not de0oid of them he under
goes the ,leasant and un,leasant e/,erien+es.
That destru+tion of his atta+hmentE hatred and
delusion is +alled the Element of Ni''Jna *ith
su'stratum still remaining.Q
#eferring to the otherE it is stated that the attainment of
Ni''Jna of an ArahantE after his demise lea0ing his su'
A5
stratum 'ehindE is Anu,Jdisesa Ni''Jna.
Ni''Jna
in Positi0e Terms
PBon.sE there is a not%'ornE a not%'e+omeE a not%madeE non%
+om,ounded. Bon.sE if that un'ornE not%'e+omeE not%madeE
non%+om,ounded *ere notE there *ould 'e a,,arent no
es+a,e from this here that is 'ornE 'e+omeE madeE
+om,ounded.Q
UdanaE ,. 7598
M
A5. "ti0utta.a ,. >7
C6
#oad Ba, to Ni''Jna
The Buddha addressing the mon.s said&
PThere is a Biddle Path for the a'andoning of +ra0ing
and hatredE gi0ing 0isionE gi0ing .no*ledgeE *hi+h
leads to ,ea+eE to dire+t .no*ledgeE to enlightenmentE
to Ni''Jna. And *hat is that Biddle PathH "t is Iust this
No'le Eightfold Path.^
DhammadJ1Jda%suttaE B. "E ,. 8A
B!DB. ,. 855
75
7. 7.
The Biddle Path is to 'e follo*ed for the elimination of suffering.
The Path is +alled Biddle 'e+ause it lies 'et*een the
t*o e/treme ,aths of self%indulgen+e <.Jmasu.halli.anu1oga=
and self%mortifi+ation <atta.ilamathJnu%1oga=E *hi+h
had 'een ,ra+tised '1 the Buddha ,rior to His Enlightenment.
The futilit1 of the t*o ,aths of ,ra+ti+e for the
reali]ation of truth led the Buddha%as,irant to reason out
a ne* ,ath for the ,ur,ose of a+hie0ing the desired end.
The Biddle Path or 0ia media stands as the 3ourth Truth
of the 3our No'le Truths and it is the antidote to suffering.
Bet*een these t*o ,ra+ti+esE the more ,o,ular method
of ,ra+ti+e among the 'rahmins and other as+eti+s in "ndia
th
in the A +entur1 B.-. *as self%mortifi+ation amounting to
self%tortureE infli+ted '1 oneselfE on one2s o*n 'od1. The
,ra+ti+e 'eing 'ased on eternalisti+ 0ie* of life <sassata0Jda=E
,enan+e *as +onsidered essential to get the soul released
from the 'od1%,risonE ena'ling it to unite eternall1
*ith the uni0ersal soul. But the materialisti+ 0ie* <u++heda0Jda=
on the other handE ad0o+ating sensual gratifi+ation
at an1 +ost and '1 an1 meansE en+ouraged the ,ursuit of
sensual ,leasure. The materialists argued that soul is onl1
a ,s1+ho%,h1si+al unit 'orn of ,arents and does not sur0i0e
death. Hen+e one has to enIo1 life through *hate0er
means as long as one li0es. The Buddha from e/,erien+e
+hallenged the effi+a+1 of these t*o e/treme 0ie*s for
reali]ation and laid 'are their intrinsi+ in+om,ati'ilit1 as
*ell as in+onsisten+1.
78
The Path enun+iated '1 the Buddha is the ,res+ri,tion
for the ills of e/isten+e. "t is '1 this 3ourth Truth
that +ra0ing *hi+h 'inds one to +1+li+ e/isten+e and e0er
,resent in lifeE is to 'e destro1ed. "t is a set of ,ra+ti+esE
*hi+h has 'een ,ra+tised '1 the Buddhas and the dis+i,les
in the ,ast and redis+o0ered '1 the Buddha Gotama
A8
after a 0er1 long inter0al. )hen it is +alled G,ath2 meta,hori+all1E
it is to 'e tra0ersed '1 ,ros,e+ti0e dis+i,les
*ho *ish to ,ut an end to suffering. "t ensures ethi+al and
moral 'eha0iour of the ,ra+titioner and leads him to li'eration
from suffering. "t enhan+es the +ulture and de0elo,ment
of one2s three a0enues of a+tion& 'od1E s,ee+h and
mind for the 'etterment of oneself and other 'eingsR ultimatel1
leading one to ,erfe+tion.
The No'le Eightfold Path <ari1o aKKhangi.o maggo=
The No'le Eightfold PathE other*ise named as the Biddle
Path <maIIhimJ ,aKi,adJ=E +onsists of eight fa+tors. "t is to
'e noted that although it is +alled ,athE it is not to 'e
ta.en as a gradual ,ath ha0ing a series of ste,s. The
fa+tors of the Path are inter%related and to 'e ,ra+tised
simultaneousl1. Those fa+tors are mutuall1 in+lusi0e and
mutuall1 su,,orti0e. The Path isE of +ourseE des+ri'ed in
terms of three aggregates +onsisting of moralit1 <sUla=E +on+entration
<samJdhi= and *isdom <,aTTJ=E 'ut does not
mean that those three aggregates are in+luded in the No'le
Eightfold Path. "t is to 'e noted that the No'le Eightfold
Path is in+luded '1 the three aggregates of moralit1E
A8. . S. ""E ,. C:
74
+on+entration and *isdom. The Luestion of the No'le
Eightfold Path2s ,osition in relation to three aggregates
has 'een as.ed '1 VisJ.ha from nun DhammadinnJ&
+on+entration and *isdom. The Luestion of the No'le
Eightfold Path2s ,osition in relation to three aggregates
has 'een as.ed '1 VisJ.ha from nun DhammadinnJ&
The 'hi..huni re,lied&
PThe three aggregates are not in+luded '1 the
No'le Eightfold PathE friend VisJ.haE 'ut the
No'le Eightfold Path is in+luded '1 the three
A4
aggregates.Q
As to ho* it is in+luded in the three aggregates of ,ra+ti+e
is sho*n 'elo*.
The No'le Eightfold Path and Three Aggregates
8. #ight Understanding <sammJ diKKhi=
4. #ight Thought <sammJ san.a,,a=
>. #ight S,ee+h <sammJ 0J+J=
:. #ight A+tion <sammJ .ammanta=
@. #ight !i0elihood <sammJ JIi0a=
A. #ight Effort <sammJ 0J1Jma=
C. #ight Bindfulness <sammJ sati=
7. #ight -on+entration <sammJ samJdhi=
The three fa+torsE #ight S,ee+hE #ight A+tion and #ight
!i0elihood are in+luded in the aggregate of moralit1. The
last threeE #ight EffortE #ight Bindfulness and #ight -on
A4. B. "E ,,. >589>54
7>
+entration are in+luded in the aggregate of +on+entration.
The first t*o fa+torsE #ight Understanding and #ight
ThoughtE are in the aggregate of *isdom.
+entration are in+luded in the aggregate of +on+entration.
The first t*o fa+torsE #ight Understanding and #ight
ThoughtE are in the aggregate of *isdom.
0oted
to the e/,lanation of #ight Understanding. The
sutta *as deli0ered '1 Thera Sari,utta to a grou, of
mon.s *ho *anted to ha0e thorough understanding of
the su'Ie+t. Primaril1 there are t*oE e/ternal and internalE
fa+tors +ondu+i0e to #ight Understanding. The1 are&
8. Hearing from others <,aratoghosa= and
4. Thoughtful refle+tion <1onisomanasi.Jra=.
The hearing from others ma1 in+lude .no*ing from other
sour+es of information as *ell. )hen one +omes to .no*
the dhamma '1 an1 sour+e of informationE he is as.ed to
refle+t thoughtfull1 *hat he +ame to .no*. The e/er+ise of
thoughtful refle+tion leads one to understanding. The information
of dhamma one re+ei0es is the food for thought
*hi+h one has to su'Ie+t to +areful s+rutin1 and anal1sis. "t is
the intelle+tual gras, of *hat one has +ome to .no* through
an1 means of .no*ledge. "t amounts to the understanding
of the real nature of the ,henomenal e/isten+e.
"t is stated that *hen one understands that 'od1E sensationE
,er+e,tionE mental formations and +ons+iousness
7:
are im,ermanentE he is led to #ight Understanding. Then
he is +on0in+ed of the effi+a+1 of moral +ausation dealing
*ith a+tions of moral signifi+an+e and their results
<.ammassa.ata%TJna= together *ith the .no*ledge of
the +orre+t understanding of the 3our No'le Truths
<sa++Jnulomi.a%TJna=. The .no*ledge of this stage is +alled
G.no*ing a++ordingl12 <anu'odha=E 'e+ause the understanding
at this stage is still mundane #ight Understanding
<lo.i1a%sammJdiKKhi= and not 1et free from defilements. The
,enetrati0e .no*ledge of #ight Understanding a,,ears
onl1 *hen one realises one or the other of the four stages
of san+tifi+ation& Stream%*inningE On+e%returningE Non%
returning and Arahanthood. The .no*ledge of #ight Understanding
at those stages is +alled su,ra%mundane or trans+endental
#ight Understanding <lo.uttara%sammJditthi=.
The mundane #ight Understanding is de0elo,ed '1 ordinar1
*orldlings <,uthuIIana= 'ut the su,ra%mundane #ight
Understanding +omes under the ,ur0ie* of No'le ones
<ari1a,uggala=. This stage of understanding is at the highest
le0el and unsha.a'le.
#ight Thought is defined as ha0ing mainl1 three +onstituents&
renun+iation or gi0ing u, of sensual enIo1ment
<ne..hamma%san.a,,a=R de0elo,ing thoughts of lo0ing
.indness and good*ill *ithout an1 .ind of anger and
hatred <a01J,Jda%san.a,,a=R and ,ra+tising amit1 and +on+ordE
a'staining from 0iolen+e <a0ihimsJ%san.a,,a=.
The thoughts must 'e free from lust and +ra0ing *hi+h
han.er after ,leasures of the senses. Buddhism es+he*s
an1 .ind of 0iolen+e. Hen+e is the de0elo,ment of lo0ing
7@
.indness and non%0iolen+e to*ards all li0ing 'eings. This
sho*s that in addition to the ,ra+ti+e of some of the other
fa+tors of the PathE #ight Thought 'e+omes meaningful in
the +onte/t of so+iet1.
.indness and non%0iolen+e to*ards all li0ing 'eings. This
sho*s that in addition to the ,ra+ti+e of some of the other
fa+tors of the PathE #ight Thought 'e+omes meaningful in
the +onte/t of so+iet1.
0J+J=
*hi+h ,a0es the ,ath for dissension and disunit1.
Promoting so+ial harmon1E one must a'stain from using
harsh language *hile +ulti0ating +ourteous and gentle *ords
in +ommuni+ationR and should a0oid irres,onsi'leE 0ain
tal. su+h as gossi,ing and s,ea. onl1 *hat is meaningful
and +ondu+i0e to one2s and others2 *elfare.
#ight A+tion deals *ith a'stinen+e of three .inds of 'odil1
mis+ondu+t& ta.ing lifeE theft and misa,,ro,riationE and
se/ual mis+ondu+t. The mundane #ight A+tion ,rodu+es
*holesome *orldl1 results *hereas the ,ra+ti+e of trans+endental
#ight A+tionE a0oiding those mis'eha0iours +om,letel1
*ith ,ure mind intent u,on the PathE is +ontri'utor1
to deli0eran+e. #ight A+tion guarantees the fundamental
human rights of right to li0eE right to ,ossess and
right to maintain se/ual relations *ithin the +onfines of
legall1 ,ermitted 'oundar1.
)omen under the ,rote+tion of fatherE motherE
'rotherE sister or relati0esE married *omenE *omen under
the 'an of the .ingE engaged *omen and *omen *ho are
the tem,orar1 *i0es of others are mentioned as the
*omen to 'e a0oided in se/ual inter+ourse.
7A
#ight !i0elihood is to reIe+t *rong .inds of li0ing and
li0e '1 right means of li0elihood. )rong li0elihood means
gaining a li0ing '1 earning *ealth '1 de0ising *a1s and
means detrimental to sentient2 'eings. "n this +onne+tionE
usuall1 fi0e .inds of trade are mentioned in the te/t. The1
are& trading in arms <sattha0aniIIJ=E human 'eings <satta0aniIIJ=E
flesh <maXsa0aniIIJ=E into/i+ating drin.s <maIIa0aniIIJ=
and ,oisons <0isa0aniIIJ=.
#ight Effort is the 3our Great Efforts <+attaro samma,,adhJnJ=.
"t enIoins the ,utting forth effort +ons+iousl1
in four *a1s& to ,re0ent the arising of un*holesome
thoughts that ha0e not 1et arisenR to a'andon un*holesome
thoughts that ha0e alread1 arisenR to de0elo, *holesome
thoughts that ha0e not 1et arisenR and to maintain
*holesome thoughts that ha0e alread1 arisen '1 one *ho
,ra+tises the Path of Eman+i,ation.
#ight Bindfulness deals *ith the four .inds of +ontem,lation&
+ontem,lation of the 'od1 <.J1Jnu,assanJ=E of
sensation <0edanJnu,assanJ=E of mind <+ittJnu,assanJ=
and of mind%o'Ie+ts <dhammJnu,assanJ=. "t is said in the
Sati,aKKhJna%sutta Pthe dis+i,le d*ells in +ontem,lation of
the 'od1E of sensationE of mind and mind%o'Ie+tsE ardentE
+learl1 +ons+ious and attenti0eE ,utting a*a1 *orldl1
greed and griefQ. This refers to the setting u, of mindfulness
in four *a1s. The ,ra+ti+e as gi0en in the dis+ourse
leads to ,urit1E to the o0er+oming of sorro* and lamentationE
to the end of ,ain and griefE to the entering u,on
the +orre+t ,ath and the realisation of Ni''Jna.
7C
#ight -on+entration is the attainment of meditati0e
a'sor,tions <IhJna=. There are fi0e hindran+es that o'stru+t
the ,ath of deli0eran+e. Through meditati0e a'sor,tions
one +an o0er+ome the fi0e hindran+es& desire for
sensual ,leasure <.ama++handa=E ill *ill <01a,Jda=E sloth and
tor,or <thina%middha=E restlessness and *orr1 <uddha++a.u..u++a=
and s+e,ti+al dou't <0i+i.i++hJ=. )hen one
attains the first meditati0e a'sor,tionE these hindran+es
are destro1ed '1 the ,s1+hi+ fa+tors of the meditati0e
a'sor,tion <IhJnanga=.
Thus desire for sensual ,leasure is destro1ed '1 one%
,ointedness of the mind <e.aggatJ=E ill *ill '1 Io1 <,Uti=E
sloth and tor,or '1 initial a,,li+ation <0ita..a=E restlessness
and *orr1 '1 ha,,iness <su.ha= and s+e,ti+al dou't
'1 sustained a,,li+ation <0i+Jra=. "n the Anguttara%ni.a1a
the nature of fi0e hindran+es is illustrated *ith an alluring
simile. Desire for sensual ,leasure is li.e +oloured *aterR
ill *ill is +om,ared to 'oiling *aterR sloth and tor,or to
*ater +o0ered *ith moss and *eedsR restlessness and
*orr1 to *ater tossed and tur'ulent due to *indR and
A>
s+e,ti+al dou't to mudd1 *ater. ?ust as in an1 one of
these instan+es one +annot see one2s refle+tionE the mind
o0er*helmed '1 the hindran+es *ill not ,enetrate things
as the1 reall1 are.
The Biddle Path in #elation to So+ial )elfare
Buddhist ethi+s has 'een sadl1 misunderstood '1 man1 to
the e/tent of sa1ing that it is onl1 a set of a'stentions
A>. A. VE ,. 86>
77
*ithout an1 ,ositi0e +ulti0ation of ethi+al ,ra+ti+e. Here
*e ,ro,ose to e/amine this mis+on+e,tion in relation to
the Biddle Path taught in Buddhism and ho* it is rele0ant
to the *eal and *elfare of so+iet1.
*ithout an1 ,ositi0e +ulti0ation of ethi+al ,ra+ti+e. Here
*e ,ro,ose to e/amine this mis+on+e,tion in relation to
the Biddle Path taught in Buddhism and ho* it is rele0ant
to the *eal and *elfare of so+iet1.
Basi+all1E the three fa+tors of the ,athR #ight ThoughtE #ight
S,ee+h and #ight A+tionE *hi+h +ome under the aggregate
of moralit1 as e/,lained earlier ha0e a dire+t influen+e on
so+iet1. As one +an +learl1 seeE so+ial ethi+s in Buddhism is
,ra+ti+a'le onl1 in relation to so+iet1. These ethi+al ,ra+ti+es
'ind indi0idual and so+iet1 together. "n other *ordsE
ethi+al and moral 'eha0iour ,res+ri'ed in these fa+tors
'e+omes meaningful onl1 in the +onte/t of so+iet1. Also to
a +onsidera'le e/tentE so+ial +on+ern is im,li+it e0en in the
other t*o aggregatesE +on+entration and *isdomE of the
,ath of Buddhist ,ra+ti+e.
!et us ta.e #ight ThoughtE the se+ond fa+tor of the
No'le Eightfold Path. )hen ta.en as a *holeE it is gi0ing
u, the ,ursuit of sensual enIo1mentE de0elo,ing thoughts
of lo0ing .indness and good*ill *ithout an iota of resentmentE
anger or ill *ill *hile ,ra+tising amit1 and +on+ord
free from 0iolen+e and +ruelt1 *hi+h are instrumental in
A:
harming others. #ight Thought is a fa+tor to 'e de0elo,ed
and ,ut into ,ra+ti+e in relation to so+iet1 for the
good and ha,,iness of oneself and so+iet1.
Therefore the so+ial im,li+ation of this fa+tor is Luite
+lear from the fa+t that renun+iation of ,ersonal enIo1
A:. D. ""E ,. >84
76
mentE gi0ing u, of thoughts of ill *ill and a'stinen+e from
0iolen+e ha0e to 'e ,ra+tised *hile one li0es in so+iet1.
Hen+e *hen he de0elo,s and ,ra+tises the right .ind of
thoughts free from e0il thoughts harmful to other 'eingsE it
is needless to sa1 that so+iet1 is 'enefited '1 his moral
+ondu+t. Positi0el1E *hen he de0elo,s lo0eE good*ill and
amit1E his attitude to*ards fello* human 'eings falls into
,ro,er fo+us and he +ontri'utes in his ,ersonal +a,a+it1
to the +ourse of *elfare of so+iet1.
mentE gi0ing u, of thoughts of ill *ill and a'stinen+e from
0iolen+e ha0e to 'e ,ra+tised *hile one li0es in so+iet1.
Hen+e *hen he de0elo,s and ,ra+tises the right .ind of
thoughts free from e0il thoughts harmful to other 'eingsE it
is needless to sa1 that so+iet1 is 'enefited '1 his moral
+ondu+t. Positi0el1E *hen he de0elo,s lo0eE good*ill and
amit1E his attitude to*ards fello* human 'eings falls into
,ro,er fo+us and he +ontri'utes in his ,ersonal +a,a+it1
to the +ourse of *elfare of so+iet1.
+ri'ed
in man1 a dis+ourseE he *ho ,ra+tises #ight S,ee+h
gi0es u, false s,ee+h and refrains from false s,ee+hR he
s,ea.s the truth <sa++a0Jdi=E is relia'le <sa++asandho=E firm
<theto= and as he is trust*orth1 <,a++a1i.a= he does not
de+ei0e ,eo,le.
He gi0es u, 'a+.%'iting and a'stains from 'a+.'iting.
"f he has heard an1thing hereE he *ill not tell it else*here
in order to +ause dissension among the ,eo,le or if
he had heard something thereE he *ill not tell it to the
,eo,le here in order to +ause dissension among the ,eo,le.
Thus he 'e+omes either a +on+iliator of enemies <'hinnJnJX
0J sandhJtJ= or a su,,orter of the friendl1 <sahitJnaX
0J anu,,adJta=. He reIoi+es in unit1 <samaggJrJmo=E delights
in unit1 <samaggarato=E finds ha,,iness in unit1 <samagganandi=
and s,ea.s *ords that ,romote unit1 <samagga.aranaX
0a++aX 'hJsitJ hoti= among men.
He gi0es u, harsh s,ee+h and refrains from harsh
s,ee+h. He *ill s,ea. *ords that are gentle <nela=E ,leasant
to hear <.annasu.ha=E .ind <,emanU1a=E heart%stirring <hada1angama=E
,olite <,ori=E agreea'le to man1 ,eo,le <'ahuIa
65
na.anta=E ,leasing to man1 ,eo,le <'ahuIanamanJ,a=.
na.anta=E ,leasing to man1 ,eo,le <'ahuIanamanJ,a=.
du+i0e
to restrain <0ina1a0Jdi=E he s,ea.s *ords that are
*orth remem'ering <nidhJna0atiX 0J+aX=E *ell%grounded
<sJ,adesaX=E ,ur,oseful <,ari1anta0atiX= and ,rofita'le
A@
<atthasamhitaX=.
Here *hat is noti+ea'le isE 'oth the negati0e and ,ositi0e
as,e+ts of #ight S,ee+h are des+ri'ed in relation to
so+iet1E ensuring 'oth one2s o*n *elfare as *ell as the
*elfare of so+iet1.
As des+ri'ed earlierE the ,ra+ti+e of the other t*o fa+tors
of the ,athE #ight A+tion and #ight !i0elihoodE tooE
are 'enefi+ial in t*o *a1s. The ,ra+titioner 'e+omes morall1
good and instrumental in 'ringing a'out so+ial *ell
AA
'eing.
The Eightfold Path !eads to Ni''Jna
PThis Eightfold Path is the *a1 leading to the +essation of
+ons+iousness.Q
SE """E ,. A8
A@.
A. VE ,. 45@
AA.
Gnanarama P. Ven. S An A,,roa+h to Buddhist So+ial Philoso,h1.
,,. :9@
68
De,endent Origination as the Biddle Path
The Buddha elu+idates the right 0ie* to 0enera'le
a++a1ana&
PThis *orld a++a1anaE usuall1 rests on t*o
things& on e/isten+e and non%e/isten+e. HeE *ho
*ith right insight sees u,rising of the *orld as it
reall1 isE does not hold *ith the non%e/isten+e of
the *orld. But heE *ho *ith right insight sees
the ,assing a*a1 of the *orld as it reall1 isE
does not hold *ith the e/isten+e of the *orld.
Gras,ing after s1stemsE im,risoned '1 dogmas is
this *orldE a++a1anaE for the most ,art. And the
manE *ho does not go after that s1stem gras,ingE
that mental stand,ointE that dogmati+ 'iasE does
not gras, at itE does not ta.e u, his stand u,on
it. WGE0er1thing e/ists2 is one e/tremeE Gnothing
e/ists2 is the other e/treme. Not a,,roa+hing
either e/tremeE Tathagata tea+hes a do+trine '1
the middleE namel1R through ignoran+e +onditioned
are the .amma formations <and so on=.Q
S. ""E ,. 8C
64
6. 6. t
Origination <,aKi++asamu,,Jda=
The Buddhist theor1 of De,endent Origination is one of
the fundamental tea+hings of Buddhism. To 'egin *ithE
the Buddha after His EnlightenmentE as re+orded in the
Baha0agga%,aliE refle+ted on the +ausal genesis of ,henomena
'1 *a1 of t*el0e lin.s de,endent origination
from 'eginning to the end and end to the 'eginning.
3urthermoreE the three 0erses gi0en in the te/t as the
first utteran+e of the Buddha after the Enlightenment
also summarise the theor1 as most fundamental to
Enlightenment. "t is stated in the 0erses gi0en after the
,rogressi0e and retrogressi0e +ogitation on the t*el0e
lin.s of the +ausal genesisE *hen the meditati0e 'rahmana
dis+erns the +auses and the destru+tion of the
+ausesE all his dou'ts 'egin to 0anish and he shines as
the sun in the s.1 routing the for+es of E0il One. "t is also
im,ortant to note that in this +onne+tionE *hen AssaIiE
the fifth of the fi0e first +on0ertsE *as as.ed *hat the
tea+hing of the Buddha *asE +onfessing that he did not
.no* mu+h of the do+trineE he re0ealed the De,endent
Origination as the essen+e of the Buddha2s do+trine. The
stan]a he uttered has 'een +onsidered as a do+trinal
summar1 of Buddhism throughout the ages&
PThose things ,ro+eed from a +auseE of these the
Truth%finder has told the +auseE
And that *hi+h is their sto,,ingE the great re+luse
has su+h a do+trine.Q
6>
<$e dhammJ hetu,,a'ha0J tesaX hetu tathagato
Jha 1esaX +a 1o nirodho e0aX 0Jdi mahasamaFo=
<$e dhammJ hetu,,a'ha0J tesaX hetu tathagato
Jha 1esaX +a 1o nirodho e0aX 0Jdi mahasamaFo=
m
The theor1 is so fundamental to Buddhism it +an 'e +onsidered
as the +entral do+trine in Buddhist thought. "ts
relation to other ,rin+i,al do+trines taught in Buddhism is
too o'0ious to 'e ignored. The 3our No'le Truths ha0e
'een ela'orated on the 'asis of +onditional relati0it1&
sufferingE +ause of sufferingE +essation of suffering and
,ath leading to the +essation of suffering. "n the same *a1
the three +hara+teristi+s of e/isten+e ha0e 'een esta'lished
on +ausal interde,enden+1 of im,ermanen+eE suffering
and non%su'stantialit1. The Buddhist tea+hing of .amma
and re'irth is also e/,lained on the 'asis of moral +ausation
of +ause and effe+t. All ,henomenaE *hether the1 are
internal or e/ternalE are +ausall1 +onditioned <saX.hata=.
Hen+e the Buddha2s assertion&
PHe *ho sees the De,endent Origination sees the
dhammaE he *ho sees the dhamma sees the
De,endent Origination.Q
<1o ,aKi++asamu,,JdaX ,assati so dhammaX
,assati 1o dhammaX ,assati so ,aKi++asamu,,J
A7
daX ,assati.=
)hen the Buddha ,rea+hed the first sermonE the GTurning
of the )heel of !a*2E it is stated that the dhamma e1e
AC. Vin. "E ,. :8
A7. B. "E ,. 868
6:
*hi+h is s,otless and ,ureE referred to in the sutta as
P*hate0er is in the nature of arising <due to +auses and
+onditions= is in the nature of +easing to 'eQ <1aX .iX +i
samuda1adhammaX sa''aX taX nirodhadhammaX=E a,,eared
in ondaTTa. Here the s,otless and ,ure dhamma
e1e is e/,lained as the first stage of SainthoodE the
attainment of *hi+h is mar.ed *ith the understanding of
+ausal genesis of ,henomena.
"t is not a su'Ie+ti0e +ategor1 im,osed '1 the mind on
,henomena. "t is o'Ie+ti0e and it denotes the ,luralit1 of
+onditional relations or relati0e +oe/isten+e of +auses and
+onditions in genesis of ,henomena. "ts o'Ie+ti0e +hara+teristi+
is em,hasised *ith the terms o'Ie+ti0it1 <tathatJ=E
ne+essit1 <a0itathatJ=E in0aria'ilit1 <anaTTatJ=E and +on
A6
ditionalit1 <ida,,a++a1atJ=.
"ts o'Ie+ti0it1 of +ausal interde,enden+e is stressed
throughout as a fa+t. -ausal seLuen+e is an inde,endent
o++urren+e of ,henomena and it is free from an1 su'Ie+ti0e
inter0ention '1 the mind. "t is stated that *hether
Tathagatas arise or not this order <dhJtu=E namel1E the fi/ed
nature of ,henomena <dhammaKKhitatJ=E regular ,attern
of ,henomena <dhammani1JmatJ=E or +onditionalit1
<ida,,a++a1atJ=E e/ists in the *orld. This the Tathagata
dis+o0ers and +om,rehendsR ha0ing dis+o0ered and
+om,rehended itE He ,oints it outE tea+hes itE la1s it
do*nE esta'lishesE re0ealsE anal1sesE +larifies it and sa1s&
C5
P!oo.\Q
A6. S. ""E ,. 4A
C5. S. ""E ,,. 4@9A
6@
S1non1mous Terms Used in Pali D in English
The theor1 of De,endent Origination has 'een rendered
into English in numerous *a1s follo*ing the different terms
gi0en in Pali. A+ari1a Buddhaghosa in the Visuddhimagga
gi0es G,a++a1a2E Ghetu2E .Jrana2E GnidJna2E Gsam'ha0a2E
G,a'ha0a2 as s1non1mous terms. But he sa1s although the
C8
*ords are differentE the meaning is the same. "n EnglishE
ho*e0erE the theor1 is introdu+ed as "nterde,endent
Origination or De,endent OriginationR sometimes as
-ausal Genesis or -onditional GenesisR and as -ausalit1
or Theor1 of -auses and Effe+t. GTheor1 of -ausation2 ,resuma'l1
stands for Ghetu,hala%0Jda2 and -onditionalit1
or relati0it1 for Gida,,a++a1atJ2 The ,a++a1a theor1 de0elo,ed
in A'hidhamma is introdu+ed as the theor1 of +onditional
relations.
The -ausal #elati0it1 as a General #ule
De,endent Origination or +ausal relati0it1 is a feature +ommon
to 'oth ,h1si+al and ,s1+hi+al s,heres. Hen+e the
+orrelation of +ause and effe+t has 'een 'rought to light
'1 t*o 'asi+ formulaeE a'stra+t and +on+reteE *hi+h +an
'e readil1 a,,lied to e0er1 ,henomenon *hether internal
or e/ternal. The a'stra+t formula esta'lishes the lin. 'et*een
+ause and effe+t *ith a one%to%one +orrelation&
P)hene0er this is ,resentE this is <also= ,resent
)hene0er this is a'sentE this is <also= a'sentQ
C8. Vis. ""E ,. @>4
6A
<imasmiX sati idaX hoti
<imasmiX sati idaX hoti
imasmiX asati idaX na hoti=
The +on+rete formula gi0en in man1 ,la+es in the +anon is
s,e+ifi+ *ith regard to the +ausal genesisE interde,enden+e
and +essation and illustrates ho* the theor1 is
a,,li+a'le to e0er1 ,henomenon that arises and +eases to
'e in the *orld of e/,erien+e. "t is the *orld of +hange.
P3rom the arising of thisE this arises
3rom the +essation of thisE this +eases to 'eQ
<imassa u,,JdJ idaX u,,aIIati
C>
imassanirodhJ idaX niruIIhati=.
On the 'asis of the theor1E Buddhism re,udiates ,re%
Buddhist theories of a++identalismE determinismE eternalismE
materialismE fatalism as *ell as the theories of
+reation and soul ,ertaining to man and his destin1. "n
the same 0einE later Hindu theories are refuted '1 the
Buddhist theor1 of De,endent Origination. Su+h as
Sa.ti0Jda of PVr0a mimansJ *hi+h ,osits the 0ie* that
+ause is a .ind of for+e. Sat.Jrana0Jda or Vi0arta0Jda
of Vedanta u,holds the 0ie* that +ause is the manifestation
of Being. Sat.Jr1a0Jda of SJn.h1a em,hasises the
effe+t is +ontained in the +auseR and Asat.Jr1a0Jda or
_ram'ha0Jda of N1J1a%Vaisheshi.a ,rofesses the effe+t
as a ne* 'eginning and that it is not +ontained in the
+ause.
C4. Ud. ,. 4
C>. Ud. ,. 4R B. "E 4A>R S. ""E ,. C5
6C
The -hain of -ausation
The theor1 of +ausation or the formula of De,endent
Origination *ith t*el0e lin.s in ,rogressi0e order is an
a,,li+ation of the +ausal relati0it1 to suffering and re,eated
e/isten+e in the +1+le of 'irths and deaths. "n other
*ordsE it deals *ith a +ausal a++ount of the fa+tors that
o,erate 'ehind human suffering and the ,s1+hologi+al
reasonsE *hi+h +ause one to 'e 'orn again and again in
numerous s,heres of 'irths unfolding lin.s of ,re0ious lifeE
,resent life and the life immediatel1 after this life. )hat is
signifi+ant isE the +hain *hile reIe+ting a meta,h1si+al
+ausal agen+1 or a 3irst -auseE e/,lains the *hole ,ro+ess
of suffering and re,eated e/isten+e em,iri+all1 in terms of
+ausal interde,enden+e. "t runs thus&
894 a0iIIJ ,a++a1J saX.hJrJ
49> saX.hJra ,a++a1J 0iTTJFaX
>9: 0iTTJFa ,a++a1J nJmarV,aX
:9@ nJmarV,a ,a++a1J salJ1atanaX
@9A salJ1atana ,a++a1J ,hasso
A9C ,hassa ,a++a1J 0edanJ
C97 0edanJ ,a++a1J taFhJ
796 tanhJ ,a++a1J u,JdJnaX
6985 u,JdJna ,a++a1J 'ha0o
85988 'ha0a ,a++a1J IJti
88984 IJti ,a++a1J IarJ%maraFa%so.a
,aride0e%du..hadomanassa
u,J1JsJ
sam'ha0an2ti.
67
894 Through ignoran+e +onditioned are the ammaformations.
49> Through the amma%formations +onditioned is
-ons+iousness.
>9: Through -ons+iousness +onditioned are Bentalit1
and -or,orealit1.
:9@ Through Bentalit1 and -or,orealit1 +onditioned
are the Si/ Sense%'ases.
@9A Through Si/ Sense%'ases +onditioned is Sense
im,ression.
A9C Through Sense%im,ression +onditioned is 3eeling.
C97 Through 3eeling +onditioned is -ra0ing.
796 Through -ra0ing +onditioned is -linging.
6985 Through -linging +onditioned is #e'e+oming.
85988 Through #e'e+oming +onditioned is #e'irth.
88984 Through #e'irth +onditioned are De+a1E DeathE
Sorro*E !amentationE PainE Grief and Des,air.
Thus arises the *hole mass of suffering.
A++ording to the retrogressi0e orderE *ith the fading a*a1
of ignoran+eE amma%formations 'e+ome e/tinguished. And
through the e/tin+tion of amma%formationsE -ons+iousnessE
Bentalit1 and -or,orealit1E Si/ Sense%'asesE Sense%
im,ressionE 3eelingE -ra0ingE -lingingE #e'e+omingE and #e'irth
are e/tinguished res,e+ti0el1. Through the e/tin+tion
of #e'irthR De+a1E DeathE Sorro*E !amentationE PainE Grief
and Des,air +ease to 'e. Thus e/tinguishes the *hole mass
of suffering.
66
The 3a+t that "gnoran+e is not the 3irst -ause
"n e/,laining the +ausal interde,enden+e of suffering and
re'irthE the Buddha has em,lo1ed se0eral methods other
than the t*el0e%lin. formula ,o,ular in Buddhist +ir+les.
C:
As dis+ussed in the Visuddhimagga the se0enth to t*elfth
lin.s are highlighted in some instan+es *hile some other
o++asionsE the retrogressi0e order from eighth to first.
Besides theseE there is 1et another method of e/,lanation
'eginning from third to t*elfth is found in the San1uttani.a1a.
The theor1 of ,a++a1a found in the PaKKhJna is an
ela'oration of the theor1 of de,endent origination *ith
t*ent1%four +onditional relations. As 0indi+ated '1 different
methods of ,resentationE ignoran+e is not to 'e +onsidered
as the first +ause. "t has 'een e/,ressl1 stated that the
first 'eginning of ignoran+e is not .no*n and that there is
no ,arti+ular ,oint of time to sho* that ignoran+e has arisen
from that ,oint of timeE 'ut *hat is dis+erni'le is that ignor
C@
an+e is also su'Ie+t to the la* of +ausal +onditionalit1.
"ndu+ti0e "nferen+e D the Theor1 of -ausation
A++ording to the +anoni+al referen+es the Buddhist theor1
of +ausation is an out+ome of normal ,er+e,tion on
o'ser0a'le data and ,ro0ed to 'e true '1 ,aranormal
,er+e,tion. The relati0e interde,enden+e of ,henomena
as an o'ser0a'le fa+t has 'een e/,lained '1 the elder
Sari,utta in the Nala.ala,ani1a%sutta of the San1uttani.a1aE
*ith the simile of t*o shea0es of reeds .e,t ere+t
C:. Vis. -ha,. ZV""
C@. A. V. ,. 88>
855
*ith ea+h other2s su,,ort. )hen one is ta.en a*a1 the
CA
other +an no longer stand ere+t. HereinE elder Sari,utta
e/,lains the relati0e nature of +ausationE *here resultant
effe+t +eases to e/ist *hen the ,re+eding +ause +eases to
e/ist. "n other *ords the simile illustrates the fa+t that the
+hain is no more *hen relati0it1 is no more.
B1 not -om,rehending the De,endent OriginationW
)hen on+e the Buddha *as sta1ing among the urusE the
0enera'le Ananda a,,roa+hed him and said&
P"t is *onderfu8E !ordR that *hile De,endent Origination is so
dee, and loo.s so dee,E to me it seems ,erfe+tl1 +lear.Q
PDo not s,ea. li.e thatE Ananda. 3or this De,endent
Origination is dee, and loo.s dee, too. "t is not from
a*a.ening to this DhammaE AnandaE from not ,enetrating itE
that this generationE 'e+ome tangled li.e a 'all of threadE
+o0ered as *ith 'lightE t*isted u, li.e grass%ro,eE +annot
o0er,ass the sorro*ful stateE the 'ad 'ournE the a'1ssE the
+ir+ling on +1+li+ e/isten+e.Q
BahJnidJna%sutta D.E ""E @@
CA. S. ""E ,. 884 ff.
M
858
The Smallest Unit of the Uni0erse
The Smallest Unit of the Uni0erse
ni.J
lo.adhJtuE i.e. the Thousandfold Binor *orld
s1stem. As far as these suns and moons re0ol0eE shining
and shedding their light in s,a+eE so far e/tends
the thousandfold uni0erse. "n it are thousands of sunsE
thousands of moonsEW thousands of ?am'udU,asE
thousands of A,arago1JnasEW su'tle material *orlds
<rV,alo.a= or the *orlds of higher merits or gods as
'eing asso+iated *ith the material *orlds or gala/ies.
A.E "E ,. 44C
854
85. 85.
As des+ri'ed in the +anoni+al te/ts Buddhas a,,ear in the
*orld in order to ,rea+h *hat is suffering and the +essation
of suffering. "n illustration of the fa+t of suffering in
the +1+le of 'irths and deaths '1 'eing su'Ie+ted to
re,eated e/isten+eE in+identall1E a'odes *here the 'eings
are 'orn are e/,lained *ith +onsidera'le detail.
SaXsJra or the +1+le of 'irths and deathsE although
some ha0e *rongl1 ta.en to mean a'odes or ,lanes
*here the 'eings are 'ornE it does not mean ,lanes of
e/isten+eE it is the nature of 'eing 'orn in these a'odes
re,eatedl1. These a'odes of 'eings ha0e 'een des+ri'ed
'1 some )estern s+holars under the generi+ title Buddhist
+osmolog1. A++ording to Buddhist des+ri,tion there are
thirt1%one a'odes in allE *here 'eings are 'orn in their
*anderings in saXsJra.
A'odes of Beings
3our a'odes of unha,,iness in the sensual s,here
<.Jmadugati=&
8.
Purgator1 <Nira1a=
)here 'eings are 'orn 'e+ause of their e0il .amma.
These are not to 'e understood as hells *here 'eings
are su'Ie+ted to suffering eternall1. But are more or
less li.e ,urgatoriesE the ,la+es of ,unishment and
torture *here one2s e0il .amma is atoned. Be+ause of
85>
the terri'le ordeals one is su'Ie+ted to in these
,urgatories the1 are ,artl1 +om,ared to HadesE the
a'ode of the dead in Gree. m1tholog1. U,on the
e/haustion of the e0il .amma of the 'eing he is 'orn
in another a'ode. There are eight maIor ,urgatories&
SaTIi0aE JlasuttaE SanghJtaE #oru0aE BahJroru0aE
Ta,anaE PatJ,a and A0U+i. Among them the last
named is the most fearful one. Altogether one
hundred and thirt1%si/ ,urgatories are mentioned in
the te/ts in+luding the su'di0isions of the maIor ones.
the terri'le ordeals one is su'Ie+ted to in these
,urgatories the1 are ,artl1 +om,ared to HadesE the
a'ode of the dead in Gree. m1tholog1. U,on the
e/haustion of the e0il .amma of the 'eing he is 'orn
in another a'ode. There are eight maIor ,urgatories&
SaTIi0aE JlasuttaE SanghJtaE #oru0aE BahJroru0aE
Ta,anaE PatJ,a and A0U+i. Among them the last
named is the most fearful one. Altogether one
hundred and thirt1%si/ ,urgatories are mentioned in
the te/ts in+luding the su'di0isions of the maIor ones.
.
Animal .ingdom <Tira++hJna%1oni=
)here 'eings are 'orn as animals 'e+ause of their e0il
deeds. But u,on the e/haustion of e0il .ammaE the1
are 'orn in some other a'odes. This is not a ,arti+ular
,lane or a'ode as su+hE 'ut it is the 0er1 *orld of ours
*here the animals of different .inds li0e.
>.
)orld of De,arted Ones <Peta%1oni=
There is no ,arti+ular ,lane for them. The1 li0e
e0er1*here on this earth undergoing the effe+ts of
e0il .amma the1 ha0e done in ,re0ious e/isten+e.
Sometimes the *ord G,eta2 is rendered as Gghost2 or
Gs,irit2. There are four .inds of ,etas as des+ri'ed in
the Bilinda,aTha& VantJsi.a *ho feed on 0omitE
hu,,i,Jsino *ho are al*a1s hungr1 and thirst1E
NiIIhJmatanhi.J *ho are +onsumed '1 +ra0ingE and
ParadattV,aIU0U *ho li0e on the gifts of others. The
Peta0atthu des+ri'es 0i0idl1 the suffering the1
undergo *ith deformed ,h1si+al 'odies due to e0il
deeds the1 had done in their ,re0ious li0es. The last
85:
named ,etas are a'le to enIo1 the merits transferred
to them '1 the li0ing friends and relati0es and ,ass on
to 'etter a'odes of ha,,iness. Among different .inds
of ,etasE .um'handa and ,isJ+a are also mentioned.
named ,etas are a'le to enIo1 the merits transferred
to them '1 the li0ing friends and relati0es and ,ass on
to 'etter a'odes of ha,,iness. Among different .inds
of ,etasE .um'handa and ,isJ+a are also mentioned.
.
Demon *orld <asura%1oni=
This is the a'ode or the ,lane of asura demons. The1
are also des+ri'ed as unha,,1 'eings destined to
undergo +onseLuen+es of their e0il deeds. Another
.ind of asura *ho has some di0ine ,o*ers is
mentioned in the te/ts as the enem1 of gods.
Se0en A'odes of Ha,,iness in the Sensual s,here
<.Jmasugati=
8.
The Human )orld <manussalo.a=
The human *orld is said to 'e the 'est of the *orlds
to 'e 'orn in. Being a human one is a'le to fulfil the
,erfe+tions to 'e a Buddha.
4.
The hea0en of the 3our Guardian Deities
<+atummahJrJIi.a=
This is the ,lane of the four guardian deities +alled
u0era or Vessa0anaE VirVlhaE VirV,a..ha and
DhataraKKha. The1 ha0e their o*n follo*ers. Their
glor1 and magnanimit1 is des+ri'ed in the _KJnJKi1asutta
of the Digha%ni.a1a. DhataraKKha 'eing the head
of ganda''asE another .ind of semi%di0ine 'eingsE
rules o0er the eastern dire+tion. VirVlhaE the head of
.um'han`as is the guardian of the South. The head
of nJgasE VirV,a..haE is the guardian of the )est and
u0era or Vessa0anaE head of 1a..hasE North.
85@
>.
The Hea0en of the Thirt1%three Gods <tJ0atiXsa=
The +hief of this hea0en is famous Sa..a *ho is
al*a1s out to hel, the 0irtuous fallen into trou'le.
Sa..a is said to ha0e 'een 'orn there *ith his thirt1%
t*o +om,anions as a result of so+ial ser0i+e the1
0olunteered to do in a ,re0ious 'irth.
:.
The Hea0en of the $Jma De0as <1Jma=
The gods of this hea0en li0e in di0ine lu/ur1 e/,erien+ing
no ,ains.
@.
The Hea0en of the Tusita De0as <tusita=
This is also a ha,,1 ,la+e. "t is the hea0en of delight.
The 3uture%BuddhaE the Buddha Bette11a is in this
hea0en a*aiting the right o,,ortunit1 to 'e 'orn in
the human *orld.
A.
The Hea0en of the NimmJnarati gods <nimmJnarati=
The gods of this hea0en delight in mansions +reated
'1 themsel0es.
C.
The Hea0en of the Paranimmita0asa0atti gods
<,aranimmita0asa0atti=
The gods of this hea0en delight in the mansions
+reated '1 other gods.
The four *oeful s,heresE human *orld and si/ hea0enl1
s,heres are +olle+ti0el1 .no*n as ele0en sensual s,heres
<.Jmalo.a=.
The S,heres of 3orm <rV,alo.a=
8.
The S,here of Brahma2s retinue <'rahma,JrisaIIa=
85A
4.
The S,here of Brahma2s ministers <'rahma,urohita=
>.
The S,here of the Great Brahmas <mahJ'rahma=
:.
The S,here of Binor !ustre <,arittJ'ha=
@.
The S,here of "nfinite !ustre <a,,amJnJ'ha=
A.
The S,here of the #adiant Brahmas <J'hassara=
C.
The S,here of the Brahmas of Binor Aura
<,arittasu'ha=
7.
The S,here of the Brahmas of "nfinite Aura
<a,,amJnasu'ha=
6.
The S,here of the Brahmas of Stead1 Aura
<su'ha.inha=
85.
The S,here of the Brahmas of Great #e*ard
<0eha,,hala=
88.
The S,here of the Bindless Beings <asaTTasatta=
84.
The Dura'le S,here <a0iha=
8>.
The Serene S,here <ata,,a=
8:.
The Beautiful S,here <sudassa=
8@.
The -lear%Sighted S,here <sudassi=
8A.
The Highest S,here <a.aniKKha=
8 9 > are first IhJna s,heres.
: 9 A are se+ond IhJna s,heres
C 9 6 are third IhJna s,heres
85 9 8A are fourth IhJna s,heres
84 9 8A are named Pure a'odes <suddhJ0asa=
3ormless S,heres <arV,alo.a=
8.
The S,here of "nfinite S,a+e <J.JsJnaT+J1atana=
4.
The S,here of "nfinite -ons+iousness
<0iTTJnaT+J1atana=
>.
The S,here of Nothingness <J.iT+aTTJ1atana=
85C
:. :. %
Per+e,tion <n2e0a saTTJnJsaTTJ1atana=
)orld S1stems
3rom the Buddhist ,oint of 0ie*E the uni0erse is +onstituted
of three *orld s1stems. But it is to 'e noted that there is
no s,e+ifi+ *ord for uni0erse in Buddhism. The *ord Glo.a2
denotes 'oth G*orld2 and Guni0erse2. The *ordsE Glo.adhJtu2
and G+a..a0Jla2 stand for *orld s1stems. A++ording to
Buddhism there are innumera'le *orld s1stems in the uni0erse.
Therefore in this +onte/tE as Prof. .N. ?a1atille.e
maintainedE the *ord Glo.a2 means the G*orld of s,a+e2.
The smallest unit of the uni0erse is termed GThousand%fold
Binor )orld%S1stem2 <sahassi +Vlani.J lo.a%dhJtu=. This is
ho* it is e/,lained& PAs far as these suns and moons re0ol0eE
shining and shedding their light in s,a+eE so far e/tends
the thousand%fold uni0erse. "n it are thousands of
sunsE thousands of moons thousands of ?um'udi,asE thousands
of A,arago1JnasE thousands of Uttara.urusE thousands
CC
of Pu''a0idehasW. The des+ri,tionE ho*e0erE illustrates
the fa+t that in this Thousand%fold )orld S1stemE although
it is the smallest unitE there are innumera'le ,lanets in this
s1stem *hi+h ha0e 'een inha'ited '1 'eings of some form
or other.
Then *e are told of another *orld s1stem *hi+h is named
as GT*i+e%a%thousand Biddling )orld S1stem2 <d0isahassi
maIIhimi.J lo.a dhJtu=.
"n the Buddhist te/ts *e +ome a+ross further des
CC. A. "E ,. 44CR A. "VE ,. @6
857
+ri,tions on GHundred Thousand%fold )orld S1stems2 <sata
C7
sahassi lo.adhJtu=.
!oo.ing at the Uni0erse in a Different )a1
The Buddha addressing #ohitassa De0a,utta said&
PNeither do " sa1E friendR that '1 not ha0ing got to the end of
the uni0erse is the end of suffering to 'e a++om,lished. "t is
in this fathom long 'od1E friendE *ith its im,ressions and
ideas thatE " de+lareE lies the uni0erseE the +ause of the
uni0erseE the +essation of the uni0erse and the +ourse of
a+tion that leads to the +essation of the uni0erse.Q
A. ""E ,. A4
3reedom of "n0estigation
)hen U,ali the ?ain householder e/,ressed his strong
desire to 'e a Buddhist follo*erE the Buddha reLuests him&
P"n0estigate thoroughl1E householder. "t is goodE for
su+h *ell .no*n ,eo,le li.e 1ou to in0estigate
thoroughl1.Q
U,ali%suttaE BE "E ,. >C6
B!DB.E ,. :7:
C7. B. """E ,. 858
856
88. 88. 'ilit1
in Buddhist Pers,e+ti0e
3reedomE 3ree )ill and #es,onsi'ilit1 are +on+e,ts dis+ussed
essentiall1 in modern )estern ,hiloso,h1. "n Iustif1ing
the ,hiloso,hi+al a,,roa+h of religious tea+hingsE thereforeE
these themes in ,hiloso,h1 are a,,lied and dis+ussed often
in relation to *orld religionsE *ith su'tle arguments and
ela'orate des+ri,tionsE *hi+h ne+essitate a +lear understanding
of the +on+e,ts as inter,reted in )estern ,hiloso,h1.
Philoso,hi+al E/,osition of the Terms
3reedom +an 'e defined in numerous *a1sR ,o*er or +ondition
of a+ting *ithout +om,ulsionE li'ert1E rightsE inde,enden+eE
e/+e,tionE immunit1E unrestri+ted useE ,ri0ilegeE
,oliti+al rights and the li.e. "ndi0idualism and so+ialism ma1
differ from ea+h other in defining its +ontents. Ha0ing
+lose affinit1 *ith the *ord li'ert1E the term freedom is
a,,lied in ,oliti+al s,here to 'ring out numerous im,li+ations
,ertinent to humans and institutions. The English
,hiloso,her ?ohn !o+.e <8@>498C5:= 'eing an em,iri+ist
among other ,hiloso,hers and theologiansE held the 0ie*
that an indi0idual is ,ossessed of some natural rights of
freedom to de0elo, one2s o*n ,otentialities. Philoso,hi+all1
s,ea.ing the +on+e,t has negati0e and ,ositi0e denotations.
Negati0el1E a++ording to Thomas Ho''es <8@779
8AC6=E the English ,hiloso,herE freedom is the a'sen+e of
+onstraints and it is the silen+e of the la*. But ,ositi0el1E
freedom is a +hallenge that is onl1 met '1 ,ersonal trans
885
formation and it is defined as a +ondition of li'eration
from so+ial and +ultural for+es that are re+ogni]ed as im,ediments
to full realisation. So mu+h soE Hegel <8CC5987>8=
the German ,hiloso,herE asserted that freedom is to 'e
a+hie0ed '1 so+ial transformation.
As dis+ussed in ,hiloso,h1 the +on+e,t of 3ree )ill is
also am'iguous and inter,retati0e in the same *a1. The
,ro'lem is the e/tent of freedom of *ill that *e e/,erien+e
in our e0er1da1 +ons+iousness of oursel0es as agents
of a+tions. Ho* far are *e freeH "s there a limitation to free
*illH As a Gso+ial animal2 has not man 'een 'ound '1
so+ial normsH Has not human nature itself im,osed some
+onstraints to man2s a+tionsH Ho* far are our a+tions
freeH Or are the1 +onditioned or determinedH
As ,s1+hologists sa1 ,arental trainingE ad0ertisingE mass
mediaE G'rain*ashing2E sim,l1 +ir+umstan+e and en0ironment
,la1 ,rominent roles in determining the a+tions of
an indi0idualE he 'eing a 0i+tim of +ir+umstan+es and his en0ironment
he is not ,ersonall1 res,onsi'le for his a+tions.
He has 'een +onditioned to a+t in that ,arti+ular *a1.
-ertainl1E in Buddhism tooE fi0e la*s that influen+e
the *orld and indi0idual ha0e 'een dis+ussed +o0ering a
*ider range of +om,le/ ,henomena found in the *orld&
,h1si+alE 'iologi+alE ,s1+hologi+alE natural and .ammi+.
But it does not mean that there is no free *ill. "t is argued
'1 theologians li.e St. Augustine <>@:9:>5= that as God
himself is sole +ausal agent in the entire uni0erseE thereforeE
an indi0idual2s a+tions are ,redetermined '1 God2s
,rior de+ision and a+.no*ledgement. The +ontradi+tor1
nature of these theisti+ and deterministi+ arguments has
888
'een sho*n '1 Guna,ala Dharmasiri in his PA Buddhist
-ritiLue of the -hristian -on+e,t of GodQ.
'een sho*n '1 Guna,ala Dharmasiri in his PA Buddhist
-ritiLue of the -hristian -on+e,t of GodQ.
gist
and ,hiloso,herE arguing on the dilemma of determinism
'rought for*ard t*o arguments to refute determinism.
The feeling of remorse after ,erforming an a+tion and the
e/,ression of regret for not doing it other*ise '1 some
indi0idualsE ha0e no meaning had the1 not the ,ossi'ilit1
of +hoosing an alternati0e a+tion. This 0indi+ates the fa+t
that there is free *ill sin+e an o,tional +ourse of a+tion
+ould ha0e 'een ,er,etrated '1 them. AgainE he argued
that attri'ution of res,onsi'ilit1 and meting out ,unishment
to an offender is meaningless if he has 'een ,redetermined
to do that a+tE 'e+ause no'od1 +ondemns or
,unishes the determined material o'Ie+ts ta.ing them to
'e free agents. "f *e ,unish offenders 'e+ause of +onditional
fa+tors influen+ing usE ,unishment has no moral signifi+an+e
sin+e it 'e+omes meaningful onl1 in the +onte/t
of free *ill and res,onsi'ilit1. The ,ro'lems of freedomE
free *ill and res,onsi'ilit1 entail a long and e/hausti0e
dis+ussion of the su'Ie+ts in0ol0ing intri+ate ,hiloso,hi+alE
religious and so+ial arguments as dis+ussed '1 ,hiloso,hersE
theologians and so+iologists.
#es,onsi'ilit1 is so+iall1 as *ell as ,ersonall1 ,er+ei0ed
as a++ounta'ilit1. Hen+e one2s failure to dis+harge a
res,onsi'ilit1 renders one lia'le to 'e ,unished and +ensured.
Presuma'l1 in so+ial ethi+sE the e/tent of res,onsi'ilit1
is enlarged to em'ra+e a *ider +ir+le other than
oneself. Boral res,onsi'ilit1 of an1 a+tion is of religious
signifi+an+eE *hi+h is mu+h em,hasised in Buddhism.
884
Buddhism on 3reedomE 3ree )ill D #es,onsi'ilit1
These +on+e,ts are not dis+ussed in Buddhism in eLual
or identi+al Pali terms. But it is to 'e understood that
the1 are found distin+tl1 in a +oherent manner '1 different
terms in numerous dis+ourses in the +anoni+al te/ts.
Ban1 are the ,hiloso,hi+al arguments addu+ed to 'oth
0alidate and in0alidate these +on+e,ts in relation to *orld
religions. As modern ,hiloso,h1 +o0ers a *ider range in
its dis+ussions of these relati0e +on+e,tsE it is ad0isa'le to
+onfine our definitions of the terms ,arti+ularl1 to the s,here
of Buddhist tea+hing. Then it is not diffi+ult to find out the
Buddhist attitude to the +on+e,ts of freedomE free *ill
and res,onsi'ilit1 through the anal1sis of the related
themes of the do+trine.
E0identl1E it is onl1 *hen freedom is ,resentE then +an
*e s,ea. of free *ill and res,onsi'ilit1. But o'0iousl1
the1 ha0e 'een inter,reted to u,hold an1 monotheisti+ or
natural deterministi+ theor1 ,ertaining to religious 'eliefs.
Also on the other handE these +on+e,ts su,,l1 a sound
'asis to refute the monotheisti+ and deterministi+ theories.
Arguments to ,ro0e or dis,ro0e their ,osition *ithin a
gi0en religious +onte/t ha0e 0irtuall1 rendered the terms
more or less meaningless.
Hen+e in order to a0oid am'iguit1 of their a,,li+ation
it is ,lausi'le for us to define them in Buddhist ,ers,e+ti0e
for the +lear understanding of the Buddhist stand,oint. "n
BuddhismE ho*e0erE these +on+e,ts 'e+ome meaningful
in the +onte/t of self%,erfe+tion and self realisation of the
highest good en0isaged in Buddhism. As Buddhism ,ro
88>
,ounds an ethi+al theor1 of its o*nE together *ith ,ositi0e
re+ommendations to 'e adhered toE for the 'etterment of
indi0idual and so+iet1E these +on+e,ts are to 'e dis+ussed
*ithin that frame of referen+e. Hen+eE freedom is to 'e
understood as freedom to +hoose an1 moral or immoral
a+tion *hether good or e0ilE free *ill as ,ur,osi0e *illingE
and res,onsi'ilit1 as one2s res,onsi'ilit1 for the retri'uti0e
effe+t of that a+tion.
,ounds an ethi+al theor1 of its o*nE together *ith ,ositi0e
re+ommendations to 'e adhered toE for the 'etterment of
indi0idual and so+iet1E these +on+e,ts are to 'e dis+ussed
*ithin that frame of referen+e. Hen+eE freedom is to 'e
understood as freedom to +hoose an1 moral or immoral
a+tion *hether good or e0ilE free *ill as ,ur,osi0e *illingE
and res,onsi'ilit1 as one2s res,onsi'ilit1 for the retri'uti0e
effe+t of that a+tion.
C6
mind and not to 'e under the s*a1 of the mind 'ut to
75
,ut the mind under one2s s*a1. Bind is the forerunner
78
and thoughts arise in the mindE 'ut if the mind is 'ereft
of the a'ilit1 of +ontrolling itE the indi0idual is to 'e e0er in
the +1+le of e/isten+e 'eing 'ound '1 the +ausal ne/us.
Then e0entuall1E Ni''JnaE the goal ,ro,ounded as 'e1ond
+ausal interde,enden+e *ould 'e meaningless.
Buddhist ethi+sE 'oth indi0idual and so+ialE 'e+ome
meaningful and e/,ressi0e onl1 *hen freedom and free
*ill are guaranteed for the a+hie0ement of the ultimate
goalE *hi+h lies 'e1ond +ausal +onditioning of em,iri+al
,henomena. As there is no in0isi'leE su,ernatural agent
*ielding his ,o*er o0er human destin1EQ Buddhism as+ri'es
C6.
P-etasJ +ittaX a''inigganhita''aX a'hisantJ,eta''aXQ9B. "E
,,. 84598
75.
P-ittaX 0asaX 0attatiE na +ittassa 0asena 0attatiQ 9B. "E ,. 48:
78.
Pmano,u''aXgamJ dhammJQ S D',. 8
88:
the res,onsi'ilit1 of moulding one2s o*n destin1 to the
indi0idual himself in no un+ertain terms. 3or it is said in
the Dhamma,ada&
the res,onsi'ilit1 of moulding one2s o*n destin1 to the
indi0idual himself in no un+ertain terms. 3or it is said in
the Dhamma,ada&
<AttJ hi attano nJtho S .o hi nJtho ,aro si1J
74
attanJ20a sudantena S nJthaX la'hati dulla'haX=
Therefore reIe+ting the idea of a sa0iour and the sa0ed Buddhism
a++e,ts freedom in res,e+t of indi0idual2s moral 'eha0iour
ma.ing free *ill or freedom of +hoi+e and the +orres,onding
res,onsi'ilit1 as essential +onstituents of the
,ath of realisation. "n the same 0einE Buddhism em,hasises
the fa+ts of free *ill and moral res,onsi'ilit1 stating that
e0il done '1 oneself *ould grind him Iust as a diamond
grinds a hard gem&
PB1 oneself alone is e0il doneR it is self%'ornE it is self%
+aused. The e0il grinds the un*ise as a diamond
grinds a hard gem.Q
<AttanJ20a .ataX ,J,aX attaIaX attasam'ha0aX
A'himanthati dummedhaX S 0aIiraX 02asmama1aX
7>
maFiX=
$et there is another stan]a in the Dhamma,ada *here the
,ersonal res,onsi'ilit1 is highlighted in res,e+t of moral
a+tion *ith the total reIe+tion of an e/ternal agen+1 for
74. Dh,. 8A5
7>. Dh,. 8A8
88@
one2s ,urifi+ation to arri0e at the final goal.
PB1 oneselfE indeedE is e0il doneR '1 oneself is one
defiled. B1 oneself is e0il left undoneR '1 oneselfE
indeedE is one ,urified. Purit1 and im,urit1
de,end on oneself. No one ,urifies another.Q
<AttanJ20a .ataX ,J,aX S attanJ saX.ilissati
attanJ a.ataX ,J,aX S attanJ20a 0isuIIhati
suddhi asuddhi ,a++attaX S nJTTo aTTaX
7:
0isodha1e=
3or the most ,artE the Buddhist tea+hing under dis+ussion
is +ontrasted more e/,li+itl1 in delineating the *eltan
th
s+hauung of Ba..hali Gosala *ho li0ed in the A -entur1
B.-. in "ndia.
He is stated to ha0e denied freedomE free *ill and
res,onsi'ilit1 *ith asserti0e terms su+h as Gnatthi atta.Jro2
<nothing is done '1 oneself=E Gnatthi ,ara.Jro2 <nothing is
done '1 others=E Gnatthi ,urisa.Jro2 <nothing is done '1
indi0idual=E Gnatthi 'alo2 <no ,o*er=E Gnatthi 0iri1aX2 <no
energ1=E Gnatthi ,urisathJmo2 <no ,ersonal strength=E Gnatthi
7@
,urisa,ara..amo2 <no ,ersonal endea0our=. He is said
to ha0e ,ro,ounded a.iri1a0JdaE the theor1 that denies
the retri'ution of moral a+tion there'1 reIe+ting the ,er
7A
sonal res,onsi'ilit1 of an1 a+tion.
On the other hand Buddhism ,rea+hes .iri1a0Jda ,rofessing
moral res,onsi'ilit1 of a+tions. "n the A,aFFa.a
7:. Dh,. 8A@
7@. D. "E ,. @>
7A. A. "E ,. 47A
88A
sutta of the BaIIhima%ni.a1aE .iri1a0Jda is introdu+ed as a
dire+tl1 o,,osite theor1 <uIu0i,a++ani.a0Jda= to a.iri1a0Jda.
The dis+ourse e/,lains it further to +on0in+e the fa+t
that the a++e,tan+e of the retri'uti0e effi+a+1 of moral
a+tion is right understanding <sammJ diKKhi=E +herishing su+h
thoughts is right thought <sammJ san.a,,a= and s,ea.ing
in a++ordan+e *ith the 0ie* is right s,ee+h <sammJ 0J+J=.
There is an interesting e,isode in the Anguttarani.a1aE
*here a 'rahmin *ho 0isited the Buddha den1ing
free *ill on the ,art of oneself <atta.Jra= and others <,ara.Jra=.
The Buddha then as.ed him ho* +ould he sa1 so
*hen he himself resol0ed to a,,roa+h the Buddha and go
a*a1 after*ards from Him. The Buddha in this +onne+tion
e/,lained to him si/ fa+tors that +ontri'ute to free
*illE *hi+h +an 'e +onsidered as an em,iri+al illustration
of the fa+t of free *ill on the ,art of human 'eings *ithout
an1 s,e+ifi+ referen+e to moral signifi+an+e of ,ur,osi0e
*illing&
<a= The element of initiati0e <Jram'ha%dhJtu=
<'= The element of origination <ni..ama%dhJtu=
<+= The element of endea0our <,ara..ama%dhJtu=
<d= The element of steadiness <thJma%dhJtu=
<e= The element of immo'ilit1 <thiti%dhJtu=
<f= The element of 0olitional effort <u,a..ama%dhJtu=
The Buddha e/,lained to him that these stages of *illing
are ,resent in a+tions +ommitted *ith free *ill and in su'seLuent
res,onsi'ilit1 of an a+tion.
7C. A. """E ,. >>C
88C
3ree )ill D Determinism
PDo+trines of free *illE ,ositi0e a,,eals and moral e/hortations to
man ,ro0e a'surdl1 futile in the fa+e of an1 .ind of determinism.Q
Guna,ala Dharmasiri
A Buddhist -ritiLue of the -hristian -on+e,t of GodE ,. 848
M
"n A,,re+iation of the Ps1+hologi+al
Dimension in Buddhism
Ps1+hologist )illiam ?ames *as im,ressed *ith the ,s1+hologi+al
so,histi+ation of Buddhism and ,redi+ted that it
*ould 'e a maIor influen+e on )estern ,s1+holog1. )hile
le+turing at Har0ard in the earl1 8655sE ?ames suddenl1
sto,,ed *hen he re+ognised a 0isiting Buddhist mon. from
Sri !an.a in his audien+e.
PTa.e m1 +hairEQ he is re,orted to ha0e said.
P$ou are 'etter eLui,,ed to le+ture on ,s1+holog1 than ". This
is the ,s1+holog1 e0er1'od1 *ill 'e stud1ing t*ent1%fi0e
1ears from no*.Q
As Bar. E,stein ,oints outE ?ames *as one of the first to
a,,re+iate the ,s1+hologi+al dimension of Buddhist thought.
This in+ident is Luoted '1 Bar. E,stein in his
PThoughts *ithout a Thin.erQE ,. 8E from #i+. 3ields2
PHo* the S*ans -ame to the !a.e&
A Narrati0e Histor1 of Buddhism in Ameri+aQE ,. 8>@.
887
84. 84.
Bind and its 'eha0iour loom large in the Buddhist anal1sis
of the indi0idual. -1+li+ e/isten+e *hi+h +auses him to
suffer no* here and no* thereE until he gains release from
itE is des+ri'ed in relation to the indi0idual2s mind and its
im,ro,er fun+tion due to defiling un*holesome thoughts.
Until the 'onds '1 *hi+h he is 'ound to the +1+le of 'irths
and deaths are torn a,art through the ,urifi+ation of his
mindE he *ill e0er 'e in the +1+le 'eing su'Ie+ted to suffering
in numerous states of 'irths. Hen+eE in the Buddhist
s+heme of moralit1 leading to Su,reme BlissE mind ,la1s a
,rominent role and the entire tea+hing of the Buddha +an
'e termed as a s1stem of ,s1+hoanal1sis. Be+ause of the
tenden+1 of anal1sing the mind and its fun+tions in minute
details Buddhism2s ,s1+hologi+al and ethi+al nature is
more real than a,,arent.
)hat is BindH
"n the fundamental anal1sis of the indi0idual into mind
and form <nJmarV,a=E mind <nJma= refers to mind and
other mental fa+tors. The +lassifi+ation of the indi0idual
into fi0e fa+tors as form <rV,a=E sensation <0edanJ=E ,er+e,tion
<saTTJ=E mental formations <saX.hJra= and +ons+iousness
<0iTTJFa= is some*hat e/hausti0e and there the
+ons+iousness is mind *hile sensationE ,er+e,tion and
mental formations are mental fa+tors related to the fun+tions
of the mind. There is 1et another +lassifi+ation *here
mental fun+tions are +lassified in a++ordan+e *ith the
886
sense fa+ulties. "n this +lassifi+ation of the indi0idual into
t*el0e fa+ultiesE e1e <+a..hu=E ear <sota=E nose <ghJna=E tongue
<Ii0hJ=E 'od1 <.J1a= and mind <mana=E there are si/
.inds of +ons+iousness '1 *a1 of their relationshi, to sense
fa+ulties. Hen+e mind 'e+omes si/fold thus ma.ing the
+lassifi+ation t*el0efold together *ith e1e +ons+iousnessE ear
+ons+iousnessE nose +ons+iousnessE tongue +ons+iousnessE
'od1 +ons+iousness and mind +ons+iousness.
The Nature D 3un+tion of the Bind
Ver1 man1 fun+tions of the mind are re+orded in the +anon
re0ealing its nature and fun+tion in different +onte/ts. The
mind2s a+ti0e and ,assi0e +hara+teristi+s are 'rought to
light in these referen+es of the +anon&
77
M
"t gi0es ,leasureE ,ro,itiates and +on0in+es <JrJdheti=.
M
"t stret+hes forthE holds outE ta.es u,E e/ertsE strains and
76
0igorousl1 a,,lies in relation to its o'Ie+ts <,aggaFhJti=
M
"t dis,osesE +olle+tsE 'rings togetherE hea,s u,E gathersE
arrangesE fo+uses and +on+entrates in numerous *a1s
65
<u,asaXharati=.
68
M
"t 'endsE dire+ts and a,,lies <namati=.
M
"t s,rings for*ardE Ium,s ontoE ta.es to and reIoi+es in its
64
o'Ie+t <,a..handatiE ,asidatiE santiKKhati=.
77. S. ""E ,. 85C
76. S. VE ,. 6
65. S. VE ,,. 48>948A
68. S. "E,. 8>C
64. S. "E,. 67
845
6>
M "t +alms do*n and Luietens <,assam'hati=.
M "t agitatesE distur'sE +rushesE harasses and u,sets an
6:
indi0idual <matheti=.
6@
M "t sha.esE unsettlesE *a0ers and is in dou't <0i.am,ate=.
6A
M "t holds 'a+.E o'stru+tsE restrainsE for'ids <ni0Jreti=.
6C
M "t +an stri.eE .illE destro1 and 'eat do*n <,ahaTTati1=.
67
M "t as,iresE longs forE ,ra1s for and intends <,anidahati=.
M "t +lings to and gets 'ound u, *ith its o'Ie+ts <saIIatiE
66
ga1hatiE 'aIIati=.
855
M "t defilesE +orru,ts and tarnishes <01JsiT+ati=.
M "t is dra*n toE feels atta+hed toE is in+lined to*ards and
858
indulges in its o'Ie+t <adhimu++ati=.
A++ording to the foregoing definitions of the multifa+eted
nature and fun+tion of the mindE it is Luite +lear that
Buddhism re+ognises three fun+tions of it&
8. affe+ti0e
4. +onati0e
>. +ogniti0e
The affe+ti0e as,e+t of the mind refers to the fun+tion of
6>. S. VE ,. >>
6:. S. "VE ,. 485
6@. S. "VE ,. C8
6A. S. "E ,. C
6C. S. "VE ,. C>
67. S. "E ,. 8>>
66. S. ""E ,. 867
855. S. "VE ,. 8C7
858. S. VE ,,. :569:85
848
feeling that mind engages in. The +onati0e fun+tion of the
mind is a+tingE *illingE stri0ing and desiring and the +ogniti0e
as,e+t deals *ith the fun+tions of .no*ingE 'elie0ingE
reasoning and ,er+ei0ing. As these fun+tions of the
mind are not se,ara'le and dete+ta'le indi0iduall1E due
to simultaneous a+tion and intera+tionE the mental ,ro+ess
'e+omes +om,li+atedE in0ol0ed and +om,le/.
The *ords ,o,ularl1 used for mind are G+itta2E Gmana2E
G0iTTJFa2E Gmanasa2 and Ghada1a2. Out of theseE in the Pali
+anoni+al te/tsE the first three are often used to denote the
mind. G-itta2 is from 0+it 9 to thin.E Gmana2 as *ell as Gmanasa2
is from 0man 9 to thin. and G0iTTJFa2 is from 0TJ
9 to .no*. GHada1a2 is heartR as the heart is +onsidered the
seat of the mindE +ons+iousness or mind is also understood
'1 the *ord Ghada1a2. Ho*e0erE the three termsE G+itta2E
854
Gmana2 and G0iTTJFa2 are des+ri'ed as s1non1mous.
Bind2s fun+tions of feelingE ,er+ei0ingE +onation and +ognition
are laid 'are in man1 instan+es. "t in+ludes all sensor1E
,er+e,ti0eE rational and su'Ie+ti0e as,e+ts of mind.
"n earl1 BuddhismE all the as,e+ts of mind are dis+ussed in
,s1+hologi+alE moral and naturalisti+ ,ers,e+ti0e. There is
an attem,t in Pali to 'ring out different fun+tions of it *ith
a num'er of 0er's +oined from 0TJ 9 to .no*. Thus to
denote the fun+tion of .no*ing man1 0er'al forms ha0e
'een used&
?JnJti .no*s
ViIJnJti .no*s *ith dis+rimination
SanIJnJti re+ogni]es
854. S. "". ,. 6:
844
PaIJnJti .no*s *ith *isdom
PariIJnJti .no*s +om,rehensi0el1
A'hiIJnJti .no*s *ith e/tra%sensor1 ,er+e,tion
AIJnJti learns or gras,s
PaKiIJnJti admits or a,,ro0es
PaIJnJti .no*s *ith *isdom
PariIJnJti .no*s +om,rehensi0el1
A'hiIJnJti .no*s *ith e/tra%sensor1 ,er+e,tion
AIJnJti learns or gras,s
PaKiIJnJti admits or a,,ro0es
Buddhism does not +ontri'ute to the 0ie* that mind +an
e/ist *ithout ,h1si+al su,,ort. "t Glies in the 'od1 +a0e2
<guhJsa1aX=. "llustrating the natureE fun+tion and the im,ortan+e
of restraining the mindE the Dhamma,ada also
states&
P3aring farE *andering aloneE 'odilessE l1ing in
<'od1= +a0eE is mind. Those *ho su'due it are
85>
freed from the 'ond of BJra.Q
The *hole of the -itta%0agga of the Dhamma,ada is de0oted
to the e/,lanation of the natureE fun+tion and the
signifi+ant ,la+e it o++u,ies in indi0idualit1. PBind is
85:
fli+.eringE fi+.leE diffi+ult to guard and +ontrolQ. P!i.e a
fish that is dra*n from its *ater1 a'ode and thro*n u,on
85@
landE e0en so does this mind flutterQ. PBind is hard to
85A
+he+.E s*iftE flits *here0er it listethQ. PBind is 0er1 hard
85C
to ,er+ei0eE e/tremel1 su'tleQ. PBind is the forerunner
85>. Dh,. >C
85:. Dh,. >>
85@. Dh,. >:
85A. Dh,. >@
85C. Dh,. >A
84>
of <all e0il and good= mental states. Bind is +hiefR mind
857
made are the1Q.
Bind is -onditional D #elati0e
"n the U,anishadsE mind has 'een inter,reted to mean
soul and +alled GnirJsra1a 0iITJna2. Generall1 in )estern
thoughtE tooE mind is ta.en to mean soul. But it is to 'e em,hasised
that a++ording to BuddhismE it is neither a soul
nor a soul su'stan+e. Buddhist ,s1+holog1 found in the dis+ourses
of the Buddha and the anal1sis found in the later
A'hidhamma treatises is a ,s1+holog1 *ithout a G,s1+he2.
The fa+t of its +onditional nature is stressed throughout
the Buddhist s+ri,tures.
There is a s,e+ifi+ instan+e in the BahJtaFhJsan.ha1asutta
*here the Buddha refuted the 0ie* that the same
+ons+iousness *anders from life to life e/,erien+ing the
results of good and 'ad a+tions that one ,erformed. )hen
the 0enera'le SJti *ho held this 0ie* *as as.ed '1 the
Buddha to e/,lain his 0ie* of +ons+iousness and the relationshi,
'et*een the +ons+iousness and one2s a+tionsE
he re,lied&
PVenera'le sirE it is that *hi+h s,ea.sE feels and
e/,erien+es here and there the result of good and
'ad a+tions.Q
Then the Buddha said&
PBisguided manE to *hom ha0e 1ou e0er .no*n
me to tea+h the dhamma in that *a1H Bisguided
857. Dh,. 8E 4.
84:
manE man1 dis+ourses ha0e " not stated +ons+iousness
to 'e de,endentl1 arisenE sin+e *ithout a
+ondition there is no origination of +ons+iousnessH
But 1ouE misguided manE ha0e misre,resented us
'1 1our *rong gras, and inIured 1ourself and
stored u, mu+h demeritR for this *ill lead to 1our
harm and suffering for a long time.Q
After*ards *hen the Buddha Luestioned the mon.s to .no*
*hether the1 ha0e +orre+tl1 gras,ed the nature of +ausal
interde,enden+e of +ons+iousnessE the mon.s re,lied&
P"n man1 dis+ourses the Blessed one has stated
+ons+iousness to 'e de,endentl1 arisenE sin+e
*ithout a +ondition there is no origination of
856
+ons+iousness.Q
The -lassifi+ation of Bind in the A'hidhamma
Sin+e mind o++u,ies the ,re%eminent ,la+e in the Buddhist
+ourse of training of +ulturing the mindE in A'hidhammaE
mind has 'een +lassified into eight1%nine
0arieties in a++ordan+e *ith the ,lanes of e/isten+e&
".
3ift1%four .inds of -ons+iousness ,ertaining to the
sensuous s,here <.JmJ0a+ara=.
"".
3ifteen .inds of -ons+iousness ,ertaining to the
s,here of forms <rV,J0a+ara=.
""".
T*el0e .inds of -ons+iousness ,ertaining to the
formless s,here <arV,J0a+ara=.
856. B. "E ,. 4@7.
84@
"V.
Eight .inds of Su,ra%Bundane -ons+iousness
<lo.uttara=.
A'hidhamma ,refers to use the term G+itta2 for mind or +ons+iousnessE
*hi+h usuall1 deals *ith the su'Ie+ti0e as,e+t
of mind. This +lassifi+ation 'rings to light that the ,ur,ose
'ehind the +lassifi+ation is ,urel1 moral. "t is in +onformit1
*ith the Buddhist theor1 of thirt1%one ,lanes of e/isten+eE
*hi+h is sometimes introdu+ed '1 some )estern s+holars
as Buddhist +osmolog1. There is 1et another im,ortan+e
of the +lassifi+ationR it 'rings into fo+us the Buddhist tea+hing
on .ammaE re'irthE meditati0e a'sor,tions and the
realisation of Ni''Jna as the Su,reme Bliss.
Nature of the Bind
PNui0eringE *a0eringE
hard to guardE
to hold in +he+.&
the mind.
The sage ma.es it straightS
li.e a flet+herE
the shaft of an arro*.Q
Dhamma,adaE >>
Translated '1 Thanissaro Bhi..hu
M
84A
Uni0ersals D Parti+ulars
Border guard sto,,ed the horseman at the 'order and told
him that horses *ere not allo*ed in.
Horseman& PHorses refer to the uni0ersalE rightH The
Ghorseness of all the horses2HQ
Guard. P$eh.Q
Horseman& PNo* m1 animal is a *hite horseE *hi+h is a
,arti+ular horse.Q
Guard& PO'0iousl1.Q
Horseman& PSo *hen this sa1s Ghorse2E it means the
uni0ersalE 1esHQ
Guard& P"2ll grant 1ou that.Q
Horseman& P$ou *ould agree that the uni0ersal and the
,arti+ular are not the sameE *ouldn2t 1ouHQ
Guard& P" am for+ed to agree *ith 1ou there.Q
SoE the horseman rode a+ross the 'order on his horse.
ung%Sun !ung
)hite Horse Dis+ourse
An+ient Philoso,h1 for Beginners ,. 845
84C
8>. 8>.
The ,la+e that authorit1 and logi+ o++u,1 in Buddhism +an
'e understood '1 re0ie*ing instan+es *here the1 are dis+ussed
indi0iduall1 as *ell as in relation to other Buddhist
+on+e,ts in the +anoni+al te/ts. E0identl1E these t*o a,,aratus
of .no*ing and arri0ing at the truth ,arti+ularl1 o++u,1
a signifi+ant ,la+e in s+ri,tural dialogues in +onne+tion
*ith the Luest for +orre+t ,hiloso,h1 of life and the
feasi'ilit1 of religious life ad0o+ated therein. "ndeedE authorit1
in this +onte/t is not an1 .ind of tem,oral authorit1
,ossessing ,o*er or right to e/ert +ontrol or +ommandE
'ut in a religious and ,hiloso,hi+al senseE it is the de,enda'le
and relia'le religious authorit1 and the sour+e of religious
and ,hiloso,hi+al informationE on *hi+h one should
rel1. !ogi+ 'eing the s+ien+e of reasoning '1 formal methods
fo+using its attention to de+larati0e senten+esE *hi+h
are used for the ma.ing of assertionsE +laims to find truth.
Here *e ha0e to +onfine oursel0es to finding its 0alidit1 as
a tool to arri0e at religious truths. Therefore *hen ta.en
together the ,la+e of 'oth authorit1 and logi+ o++u,1 in
Buddhism as 0alid means of .no*ledge +ome under the
,ur0ie* of the ,resent dis+ussion.
"n ,re%Buddhist "ndiaE the ,ro'lem of authorit1 *as +onne+ted
*ith traditionalists *ho *ere named as Ganussa0i.J2
*hile logi+ *as often related to meta,h1si+ians or rationalists
.no*n as Gta..U 0imaXsi2. As 'oth of these grou,s
*ere outside the ,ale of BuddhismE in the dis+ourses their
0ie*s are often dis+ussed side '1 side together *ith other
unorthodo/ 0ie*s. Here the Buddha distinguishes a third
847
grou, of re+luses and 'rahminE *ho ha0ing dire+tl1 .no*n
the dhamma for themsel0es among things not heard 'eforeE
+laim the fundamentals of hol1 life after ha0ing rea+hed
the +onsummation and ,erfe+tion of dire+t .no*ledge.
The Buddha identifies himself *ith this grou, of re+luses
885
and 'rahmins.
The JlJma%Sutta on Authorit1 D !ogi+
The Traditionalists too. the Vedas as authoritati0e 'e+ause
of the 'elief that Vedas had 'een re0ealed to the
seers of old. As the Buddha ,oints out those Brahmin seers
namel1& AKK.aE VJma.aE VJmade0aE VessJmittaE $amataggiE
AngirasaE BhJrad0JIaE VJseKKhaE assa,a and Bhagu
*ere the +reatorsE the human +om,osers of the h1mnsE
*hom the 'rahmins 'elie0ed to ha0e 'een di0inel1 in
888
s,ired. So the Vedas *ere +onsidered re0ealed and hen+e
authenti+ <suti=. Thus originates the +on+e,t of re0elation
<anussa0a=. )ith some other +orres,onding assum,tions
re0elation 'e+omes si/fold&
8.
#e0elation <anussa0a=
4.
Authorit1 of tradition <,aram,arJ=
>.
Authorit1 of hearsa1 <iti.ira=
:.
Authorit1 of sa+red te/ts <,iKa.asam,adJ=
@.
Authorit1 as+ri'ed on the +onsideration of the
+om,eten+e of a ,erson <'ha''arV,atJ=
A.
Authorit1 attri'uted to a re+luse +onsidering that
he is one2s o*n tea+her <samaFo no garu=
885. B. ""E ,. 488
888. B. ""E ,. 8A6
846
Sin+e all these si/ ,remises ha0e 'een a++e,ted asE authenti+
'1 *a1 of re+ogni]ing the sa+red ,osition as+ri'ed to
themE the1 are +olle+ti0el1 +alled authorit1. !ogi+ ,resuma'l1
ta.es its stand on reasoning as a means of religious
and ,hiloso,hi+al .no*ledgeE *hi+h relies on&
8.
Basi+ logi+al format of a theor1 <ta..a hetu=
4.
Vie* that seems rational <na1a hetu=
>.
#efle+tion on mere a,,earan+e <J.Jra,ari0ita..a=
:.
Agreement *ith or a,,ro0al of a +onsidered 0ie*
<diKKhi niIhJna..hanti=
All these ten ,remises are dis+ussed in the famous JlJma
suttaE and the sutta further states that the1 are to 'e s+rutini]ed
*ith referen+e to greedE hatred and delusionE the three
884
roots of e0il.
The Buddhist -riti+ism of Authorit1 D !ogi+
Buddhism e/,ounds that 'oth of these +riteria are inadeLuate
as means of .no*ledge 'e+ause together *ith +orres,onding
issues of these maIor ,remises the1 are am'iguous
in their a,,li+ation. As sho*n '1 the Buddha in
His re,l1 to a,ati.a in the -an.i%sutta&
8.
3aith <saddhJ=
4.
A,,ro0al or in+lination <ru+i=
>.
#e0elation <anussa0a=
:.
#efle+tion on mere a,,earan+e <J.Jra,ari0ita..a=
@.
Agreement *ith or a,,ro0al of a +onsidered 0ie*
<diKKhi niIIhJna..hanti= ma1 either 'e em,t1 <rittaX=E
884. A. ""E ,. 868.
8>5
0oid <tu++haX= and false <musJ= or fa+tual <'VtaX=E
true <ta++haX= and not other*ise <anaTTathJ=
0oid <tu++haX= and false <musJ= or fa+tual <'VtaX=E
true <ta++haX= and not other*ise <anaTTathJ=
88>
in Buddhism. "n the A,aFFa.a%sutta the Buddha Luestions
the 'rahmins of SJlJ *ho 0isited the BuddhaE *hether
there is an1 tea+her agreea'le to them in *hom the1 ha0e
88:
a+Luired faith su,,orted '1 reason.
The foregoing fi0e ,remises ha0e 'een dis+ussed in
se0eral ,la+es to sho* their intrinsi+ in+om,ati'ilit1 as *ell
as insuffi+ien+1 in arri0ing at the truth. One in friendl1 dis+ussion
among the elders BusilaE Sa0iKKhaE NJrada and
AnandaR the elder Sa0iKKha as.ed Busila *hether he
<Busila= has the .no*ledge a,art from these fi0e ,remises
that de+a1%and%death is +onditioned '1 'irth. Then he
re,lied that he sa* and he .ne* that de+a1%and%death is
88>. B. "E ,. >45
88:. B. "E ,. :58
8>8
+onditioned '1 'irth. And then the lin.s of the de,endent
origination *ere tra+ed in re0erse order u, to ignoran+e to
sho* that he sa* and .ne* them *ithout an1 assistan+e
88@
from those fi0e ,remises *hatsoe0er. There is another
instan+e *hen the BuddhaE addressing the mon.sE ,osed
the Luestion&
P"s thereE mon.sE an1 method other than these fi0e
assum,tionsE '1 follo*ing *hi+hE a mon. affirms
insight thus& ended is 'irthE li0ed is the no'le lifeE
done is the tas.E for life in these +onditions there is
no hereafterHQ
Then on the reLuest of mon.sE the Buddha e/,lained ho*
one should 'e a*are of one2s o*n 0isualE auditor1E olfa+tor1E
gustator1 and ta+tile sensations and e0aluate them in
terms of three roots of e0ilR greedE hatred and ignoran+e
and re+ogni]e the non%e/isten+e of those Lualities in oneself.
The Buddha em,hasi]es the fa+t that it is the method of
seeing things a,art from the aforementioned fi0e ,remises.
"t is nothing 'ut seeing things *ith e1e of *isdom leading
88A
to insight.
)ith referen+e to the intrinsi+ am'iguit1 of these fi0e
,remisesE the -an.i%sutta ela'orates further that a ,remise
ma1 'e&
8.
)ell a++e,ted '1 faith or not *ell a++e,ted '1 faith
<susaddahitaXOdusaddahitaX=.
4.
)ell a,,ro0ed of or not *ell a,,ro0ed of
<suru+itaXOduru+itaX=.
88@. S. ""E ,. 8@ ff
88A. S. "VE ,. 8>7
8>4
>.
Transmitted *ell '1 oral tradition or not transmitted
*ell '1 oral tradition <s0anussutaXO
du0anussutaX=.
:.
#easoned out *ell or not reasoned out *ell
<su,ari0ita..aXOdu,ari0ita..aX=.
@.
A++e,ted '1 reasoning *ell or not a++e,ted '1
88C
reasoning *ell <suniIIhJ1itaXOduniIIha11itaX=.
The same argument is seen in the Sanda.a%sutta refuting
'oth authorit1 and logi+E 'ut in a different *a1.
8.
)hat is *ell heard ma1 'e true or ma1 'e false
<sussutaX 1athJOsussutaX aTTathJ=.
4.
)hat is not *ell heard ma1 'e true or ma1 'e false
<dussutaX 1athJOdussutaX aTTathJ=.
>.
)hat is *ell reasoned out ma1 'e true or ma1 'e
false <suta..itaX 1at'JOsuta..itaX aTTathJ=.
:.
)hat is not *ell reasoned out ma1 'e true or ma1
887
'e false <duta..itaX 1athJOduta..itam aTTathJ=.
As Buddhism does not ad0o+ate the theor1 of an omni,otent
+reator GodE the ,ro'lem of 'elief in re0elation has no
,la+e in Buddhism. Hen+e it has no ,la+e for an1 authorit1
traditionall1 a++e,ted '1 the 'rahmins and the re+luses
in +ontem,orar1 "ndia. Ne0erthelessE logi+ seems to ha0e
'een a++e,ted '1 Buddhism in a limited senseE not as a
means of .no*ledge for arri0ing at the truthE 'ut as a tool
for ,resenting a 0ie* +oherentl1E seLuentiall1 and +onsistentl1
for 'etter understanding. Defe+ts of logi+al reason
88C. B. ""E ,. 8C8
887. B. "E ,. @45 ff
8>>
ing also ha0e 'een sho*n in the +anon. An e/am,le of the
3alla+1 of "gnorantio Elin+hi is found in the BahJsihanadasutta
in regard to Suna..hatta2s a++usation against the
Buddha. Here the arguer tries to ,ro0e that something is
the +ase 'ut instead he ,ro0es something else. He a++used
the Buddha sa1ing that the Buddha ,rea+hes the Dhamma
hammered out '1 reasoningE follo*ing His o*n line of
inLuir1 as it o++urred to Him and *hen He tea+hes the
dhamma to an1oneE it leads one to the +om,lete destru+tion
of suffering *hen one ,ra+tises it.
)hen the Buddha +ame to .no* thisE the Buddha said&
PSuna..hatta is angr1 and his *ords are s,o.en *ith
anger. Thin.ing to dis+redit the Tathagata he a+tuall1
,raises Him '1 sa1ing that *hen He tea+hes the
dhamma to an1one it leads one to the +om,lete
destru+tion of suffering *hen one ,ra+tises it.Q
Suna..hatta *as under the im,ression that ,s1+hi+ ,o*ers
886
are more su,erior to the destru+tion of suffering. The
e/am,les of the 3alla+1 of Begging the NuestionE 3alla+1
of Arguing from Authorit1E 3alla+1 of -om,osition and
the li.e ha0e 'een re+orded in the +anon to sho* the in+om,ati'ilit1
of the arguments.
As stated in the -ula01Vha%sutta in the Suttani,ataE
de0ising s,e+ulation in res,e+t of their 0ie*sE all the religious
dis,utants s,ea. of t*o things due to mista.en ,er
845
+e,tion S truth and falsehood. Therefore a mon. should
886. B. "E ,. A79A6
845. Sn. 77A
8>:
+ut off in+lination to dou't <ta..Jsa1a= and remorse
848
<.u..u++a=. Hema.a said 'efore the Buddha&
P"f an1 ,erson e/,lained to me ,re0iousl1 'efore
hearing Gotama2s tea+hing GThus it *as. Thus it
*ill 'e.2 all that *as hearsa1E all that in+reased m1
844
s,e+ulation.Q Therefore a sage <muni= lea0ing
84>
s,e+ulation 'ehind is not +ounted in an1 +ategor1.Q
!ogi+ D Authorit1
Z sa1s& PThe Vedas are re0ealed te/tsE therefore the1 are
authoritati0e.Q
$ sa1s& PHo* do 1ou sa1 thatHQ
Z sa1s& P"t is said in the VedasE therefore the1 are to 'e
ta.en as authorit1.Q
$ sa1s& PButE m1 friendE ho* do 1ou ,ro0e thatHQ
Z sa1s& The1 ha0e 'een +om,osed '1 the Vedi+ seers
*ho had 'een di0inel1 ins,ired.Q
M
848. Sn. 6C4
844. Sn. 8576
84>. ta..aX ,ahJ1a na u,eti san.haX S Sn. 456
8>@
E0il amma is 'illed D de'ited
E0il amma is 'illed D de'ited
E
the fool is o'li0ious.
The dullard
is tormented
'1 his o*n deedsE
as if 'urned '1 fire.Q
Dhamma,adaE >A
Translated '1 Thanissaro Bhi..hu
8>A
8:. 8:.
Ethi+s is a normati0e s+ien+e determining normsE ideals
and standards for man2s 'eha0iour. "t e/amines ho* man
ought to 'eha0e and la1s ,rin+i,les for that 'eha0iour.
)hile the 0ie*s of indi0idual ,hiloso,hers on the su'Ie+t
+an 'e found in different ,hiloso,hi+al s1stemsE religious
tea+hing on the su'Ie+t as e/,ounded '1 the founders of
the religionsE +ommented and su,,lemented '1 su'seLuent
+ommentatorsE are found in the religions of the *orld.
Different Vie*s on Ethi+al ?udgement
As an ethi+al Iudgement deals *ith the ,ro'lem of good
and e0ilE a su'Ie+ti0ist ma1 sa1 that goodness or e0ilness
of an a+tion de,ends u,on one2s feelings and intentions.
An o'Ie+ti0ist on the other hand ma1 maintain that it
+orres,onds +losel1 to the 0ie*s of +ommon sense on
moral matters. Deontologi+all1 the rightness or *rongness
of an a+t de,ends neither u,on the moti0e from *hi+h the
a+t *as done nor u,on its +onseLuen+eE 'ut solel1 u,on
*hat .ind of a+t it *asR *hi+h is often des+ri'ed as dut1
ethi+s. Here *hat is right is +onsidered a dut1 as o,,osed
to ethi+al s1stems ad0o+ating the idea of a+hie0ing some
good state of affairs.
A relati0ist ma1 hold the 0ie* that moral Iudgement is
relati0eE 0ar1ing from time to time and so+iet1 to so+iet1E
therefore ethi+s and moralit1 are relati0e ,henomena.
A++ording to utilitarianism an a+tion is right insofar as it
tends to ,rodu+e greatest ha,,iness for the greatest num'er.
8>C
The Buddhist Vie*
The Buddhist Vie*
ala=E
un*holesome <a.usala= or indeterminate <a01J.ata=.
)holesome and un*holesome a+tions are ethi+all1 signifi+ant
*hile indeterminate a+tions are .ammi+all1 neutral.
The first t*o .inds in res,e+t of .ammi+ retri'ution are
.no*n as meritorious <,uTTa= and demeritorious <,J,a=
res,e+ti0el1. Unli.e theisti+ religionsE in BuddhismE the moral
0alues of these a+tions are Iudged ,urel1 on em,iri+al
grounds lea0ing aside an1 .ind of su,ernatural inter0ention
*hatsoe0er.
Be+ause of the assum,tion that moral +ode e/,resses
God2s *illE the 0iolation of the +ode is diso'edien+e to the
authorit1 of GodE hen+e immoralit1 is diso'edien+e.
Philoso,hers ha0e argued that this su,,osition +an 'e
a++e,ted onl1 if it +an 'e sho*n that God is ethi+all1 good.
-an that 'e ,ro0edH The1 sa1 it +annot 'e ,ro0ed 'e+ause
of the e0ils found in the *orld& floodsE droughtsR
+1+lonesE ,estilen+eE e,idemi+sE +ruelt1E diseasesE ,remature
deaths and so on.
Buddhism is ethi+al and moral from 'eginning to the
end. Value of moral life is stressed throughout and the
retri'uti0e effe+t of an a+tion that manifests itself in this
life and the su'seLuent li0es are illustrated *ithout the
mediation of an1 su,ernatural agent. 3ree *ill and res,onsi'ilit1
are as+ri'ed to the indi0idual himself ma.ing
the indi0idual inde,endent in moulding his o*n Gdestin12.
Ban 'eing the lord of himselfE o++u,ies a uniLue ,osition
in the Buddhist s1stem of ethi+s. Sin+e Buddhism is s,e+
8>7
ifi+ *ith regard to moral 0alue of an a+tionE moti0e and
intention of an a+tion are e0aluated *ith referen+e to
righteous or unrighteous means ado,ted in ,erforming an
a+tion. Boreo0erE the 'enefit that ,arti+ular a+tion +an
0ou+hsafe to the ,erformer and the others are also ta.en
into +onsideration together *ith its out+ome as the ultimate
good of that ,arti+ular a+tion.
Primaril1E an a+tion +an 'e moti0ated '1 either the
un*holesome roots of e0il& greed <lo'ha=E mali+e <dosa=
and delusion <moha= or '1 the *holesome roots of good&
non%greed <alo'ha=E non%mali+e <adosa= and non%delusion
<amoha=. The .ammi+ ,otentialit1 lies in the fa+t of moti0ation
that dri0es the ,erson to a+t in that ,arti+ular
manner. Sin+e a+hie0ing the end '1 an1 means does not
Iustif1 that ,arti+ular means a++ording to BuddhismE to
+lassif1 an a+tion as *holesomeE righteous means ha0e to
'e ado,ted in ,erforming that a+tion. Assuredl1 the a+tion
must 'e dire+ted to*ards one2s o*n good and that of
others. 3or this ,ur,oseE se0eral +riteria ha0e 'een ,res+ri'ed
in the Buddhist s+ri,tures. The three ,rin+i,al referen+es
<Jdhi,ate11a= enun+iated in the Anguttara%ni.a1a is
signifi+ant in this +onne+tion.
Three Prin+i,al #eferen+es
8. #eferen+e to one2s o*n +ons+ien+e <attJdhi,ate11a=.
"t is stated that one must e0aluate the a+tion that one
is going to ,erform *ith referen+e to one2s o*n +on
s+ien+e. A++ording to some of the modern ,hiloso
,hersE diffi+ulties ma1 +ro, u, *hen one a,,eals to
8>6
+ons+ien+eE 'e+ause +ons+ien+e ma1 'e sometimes
o0er*helmed '1 ,reIudi+e and also one2s +ons+ien+e
ma1 'e in+om,ati'le *ith the real state of affairs. On
grounds of +ons+ien+e one ma1 Iustif1 the .illing of an
enem1 'ut another ma1 not. One modern ethi+al
,hiloso,herE Bisho, ButlerE argued that one should
therefore refer to one2s +ons+ien+e in de+iding *hat
God *ishes. The Buddhist stand,oint is different. The
a+tion is to 'e Iudged in terms of the three roots of
e0il. "f one ,erforms an e0il a+tionE one2s +ons+ien+e
*ill u,'raid him <attJ2,i attJnaX u,a0ade11a=. "f the
+ons+ien+e is not +a,a'le enough to Iudge the a+tionE
one is ad0ised to go to the ne/t +riterion.
+ons+ien+eE 'e+ause +ons+ien+e ma1 'e sometimes
o0er*helmed '1 ,reIudi+e and also one2s +ons+ien+e
ma1 'e in+om,ati'le *ith the real state of affairs. On
grounds of +ons+ien+e one ma1 Iustif1 the .illing of an
enem1 'ut another ma1 not. One modern ethi+al
,hiloso,herE Bisho, ButlerE argued that one should
therefore refer to one2s +ons+ien+e in de+iding *hat
God *ishes. The Buddhist stand,oint is different. The
a+tion is to 'e Iudged in terms of the three roots of
e0il. "f one ,erforms an e0il a+tionE one2s +ons+ien+e
*ill u,'raid him <attJ2,i attJnaX u,a0ade11a=. "f the
+ons+ien+e is not +a,a'le enough to Iudge the a+tionE
one is ad0ised to go to the ne/t +riterion.
#eferen+e to +on0entions in the *orld <lo.Jdhi,ate11a=.
Herein the +on0entions in the *orld ha0e to 'e ta.en
as a +riterion for Iudging an a+tion. A++ording to
some of the modern ,hiloso,hers +on0entions ma1
differ from so+iet1 to so+iet1 and from time to time.
3or instan+eE nati0es of 3iIi "slands are morall1
o'liged to 'ur1 their aged relati0es ali0e. Pigmies
offer their *i0es to their guests to s,end the night *ith
them. Therefore the1 argue that 'e+ause of these
+om,li+ationsE so+ial +on0entions +annot 'e utili]ed
su++essfull1 to e0aluate an a+tion. "n e0aluating the
moral 0alue of an a+tionE the di0ersit1 of +on0entions
does not hinder a Buddhist. "n addition to the three
roots of e0ilE one has to ,onder o0er the o,inions of
the ,eo,leE s,e+iall1 the *a1 '1 *hi+h the *ise *ould
8:5
loo. at the a+tion. "f it is e0ilE one reali]es that *hen
the *ise +ome to .no* itE the1 *ould +ensure him
<anu0i++a 0iTTV garahe11uX=.
loo. at the a+tion. "f it is e0ilE one reali]es that *hen
the *ise +ome to .no* itE the1 *ould +ensure him
<anu0i++a 0iTTV garahe11uX=.
#eferen+e to the Do+trine <dhammJdhi,ate11a=.
"f one fails in e0aluating the moral 0alue of an a+tion
*ith referen+e to the a'o0e t*o +riteriaE the third +riterionE
the do+trineE +omes to one2s aid. P)hat *ould
'e the +onseLuen+e of this a+tion a++ording to the
do+trine that " follo*HQ Sin+e there is no different
inter,retations as found in some of the theo%+entri+
religions Iustif1ing the slaughtering of those *ho hold
heterodo/ 0ie*sE a ,ra+tising Buddhist is e/,e+ted to
a'stain from the e0ils of harming others. The fi0e
,re+e,tsE the 'asi+ tenets of a BuddhistE are one2s
+riteria. The dhamma <do+trine= ,ro0ides him the
dire+t guideline to e0aluate the a+tion. Then one
reali]es that if one ,erforms an un*holesome a+tion
against *hat the dhamma has ordainedE the result
*ould 'e 'itter and one *ill ha0e to 'e 'orn in a
*oeful stateE a state of do*nfallE a ,urgator1 <,aram
84:
maraFa a,J1aX duggatiX 0ini,JtaX ,JKi.an.hJ=.
Another +riterion is gi0en in the Velud0Jra sutta of the
San1utta%ni.a1a. "t fo+uses the attention on e0aluating an
a+tion o'Ie+ti0el1 *ith referen+e to others2 feeling. The dis+ourse
in Luestion des+ri'es the ,ro+ess of this e0aluation
at length.
84:. A. "E ,. 8:C
8:8
-om,aring one2s feeling *ith others2 <attV,anJ1i.a dhamma
,ari1J1a=.
The dis+ourse ad0ises the Ar1an dis+i,le to refle+t
thus& P" am fond of m1 lifeE not *anting to dieE fond of
,leasure and a0erse to ,ain. Su,,ose someone
should ro' me of m1 lifeE it *ould not 'e a thing
,leasing or delightful to me. "f "E in m1 turnE should
ro' someone of his lifeE one fond of his lifeE not
*anting to dieE one fond of ,leasure and a0erse to
,ainE it *ould not 'e a thing ,leasing or delightful to
him. 3or a state that is not ,leasing or delightful to
meE ho* +ould " infli+t u,on anotherHQ
As a result of su+h refle+tionE he himself a'stains
from .illing li0ing 'eings and he en+ourages others to
do li.e*iseE and s,ea.s in ,raise of su+h a'stinen+e.
Then again the Ar1an dis+i,le refle+ts thus& P"f someone
should ta.e *ith thie0ish intent *hat " ha0e not
gi0en to himE it *ould not 'e a thing ,leasing or delightful
to me. "f "E in m1 turnE should ta.e from another
*ith thie0ish intent *hat he has not gi0en meE it
*ould not 'e a thing ,leasing or delightful to him. 3or
a state that is not ,leasing or delightful to meE ho*
+ould " infli+t u,on anotherHQ
As a result of su+h refle+tionE he himself a'stains
from ta.ing *hat is not gi0en and he en+ourages
others to do li.e*iseE and s,ea.s in ,raise of su+h
a'stinen+e.
)ith referen+e to other e0ils also he refle+ts in the
same *a1. Se/ual mis+ondu+tE l1ingE slanderingE harsh
s,ee+h and fri0olous tal. are mentioned in the dis
8:4
+ourse in +onne+tion *ith the +om,aring of one2s
feeling *ith that of others. The sutta thus em,lo1ing an
o'Ie+ti0e +riterion Iustifies the fa+t that one should not
+ourse in +onne+tion *ith the +om,aring of one2s
feeling *ith that of others. The sutta thus em,lo1ing an
o'Ie+ti0e +riterion Iustifies the fa+t that one should not
do to others *hat others should not do unto one.
A Uni0ersal -riterion of Ethi+al ?udgement
The Am'alaKKhi.JrJhulo0Jda%sutta of the BaIIhima%ni.a1a
,ro0ides us *ith a moral +riterion of uni0ersal a,,li+ation.
The Buddha addressing the 0enera'le #ahula sa1s that if an1
a+tion is not 'enefi+ial to oneselfE not 'enefi+ial to othersE
and not 'enefi+ial to 'oth oneself and othersE that is an un*holesome
a+tion that should 'e a0oided. <atta'1J'adhJ1a
,ara'1J'adhJ1a u'ha1a'1J'ad'J1a saX0atte11aW a.usalaX=.
On the other handE if an a+tion is 'enefi+ial to oneselfE
'enefi+ial to others and 'enefi+ial to 'oth oneself and
othersE that is a *holesome a+tion that is to 'e ,ra+tised.
The Buddha further ad0ises him to refle+t on the ,ros
and +ons of an a+tion 'efore it is ,erformed. The +riterion
gi0en in the dis+ourse is three fa+eted and a,,li+a'le to all
humans des,ite the differen+es of +asteE +reedE ra+e or
84A
+olour.
"n additionE the Buddhist ,ra+ti+es su+h as 3our Di0ine
A'odes <+atu 'rahma0ihJra=& !o0ing indnessE -om,assionE
S1m,atheti+ ?o1 and ELuanimit1 and 3our )a1s of
Sho*ing 3a0our <+atu sangaha%0atthu=& !i'eralit1E indl1
S,ee+hE Benefi+ial A+tion and "m,artialit1 'e +an +onsidered
as guidelines for ethi+al a+tions of moral 0alue.
84@. S. VE ,. >5C5.
84A. B. "E ,,. :8:9:8A
8:>
One2s A+tions should 'e Birrored 'efore
Performan+e
The Buddha admonishes 1oung #ahula&
P)hat do 1ou thin.E #ahulaE *hat is the ,ur,ose of a mirrorHQ
P3or the ,ur,ose of refle+tionE 0enera'le sir.Q
PSo tooE #ahulaE an a+tion *ith the 'od1 should 'e done after
re,eated refle+tionR an a+tion '1 s,ee+h should 'e done
after re,eated refle+tionR an a+tion '1 mind should 'e done
after re,eated refle+tion.Q
Am'alaKKhi.JrJhulo0Jda%suttaE B. "E :8A
B!DBE ,. @4:
M
#ealit1 is One
PThere are not indeed man1 eternal truths in the *orldE
e/+e,t '1 reason of mista.en ,er+e,tion. De0ising
so,histr1 in res,e+t of their 0ie*sE the1 sa1 that there
are t*o thingsE truth and falsehood.Q
Suttani,ataE 77A
8::
8@. 8@.
The Pali *ord for truth is Gsa++a2. "n the Buddha2s first sermonE
Dhamma+a..a,,a0attana%suttaE a 'rief a++ount of the
four truths named the 3our No'le Truths <+attJri ari1asa++Jni=
is gi0en. The1 are +alled GNo'le2 'e+ause the1 are
uniLue in a religious sense and also the1 unfold the religious
o'Ie+ti0e of the tea+hing of the Buddha '1 anal1sing
the ,resent suffering and unsatisfa+tor1 human e/,erien+e
and ,res+ri'e a religious mode of 'eha0iour to get
out of suffering and dissatisfa+tion fore0er. The1 are +alled
GTruths2 'e+ause the1 are fa+tual statements. The +orres,onden+e
to fa+tsE +oheren+e and +onsisten+1 or +om,ati'ilit1
*ith real state of affairsE and 0erifia'ilit1 are +hara+teristi+s
of truths.
"n the te/tsE these +hara+teristi+s are introdu+ed *ith the
*ords su+h as Gfa+tual2 <'hVta=E Ga thing as it reall1 is2 <1athJ'hVta=E
G+orre+t2 <ta++ha=E Grelia'le2 <theta=E Gtrust*orth12 <,a++a1i.a=E
and Gnot other*ise2 <anaTTathJ=. "n a religious sense
the1 are 'enefi+ial <atthasaXhita= as the1 deal *ith the ha,,iness
of all. A ,erson *ho s,ea.s the truth is Ga ,erson *ho
does not de+ei0e the *orld2 <a0isaX0Jda.o lo.assa=. As gi0en
in the dis+ourseE the 3our No'le Truths are&
8. Suffering
4. -ause of Suffering
>. -essation of Suffering
:. Path leading to the -essation of Suffering
The fa+tual and no'le +hara+teristi+s of the 3our No'le
8:@
Truths +an 'e seen *hen the1 are ,ut into statements or
,ro,ositions ha0ing su'Ie+t and ,redi+ate as follo*s&
Truths +an 'e seen *hen the1 are ,ut into statements or
,ro,ositions ha0ing su'Ie+t and ,redi+ate as follo*s&
.
!ife is suffering.
4.
Suffering originates from desire.
>.
There is +essation of suffering.
:.
There is the Path leading to the +essation of
suffering.
The first ,ro,osition 'rings the ,resent ,redi+ament of
humans to light sin+e it e/hausts the totalit1 of human e/,erien+e
*ith its des+ri,tionE *hi+h is a truth that +annot
'e denied. The ne/t three truths are 'ased on the fa+t of
the first and anal1se the +auseE the alle0iation of suffering
and the measures to 'e ado,ted for the alle0iation of it.
As these four truths together fulfil the religious ,ur,ose of
Buddha2s tea+hingE the1 are +alled 3our No'le TruthsE the
truths ,ar e/+ellen+e.
The fa+t that Buddhis has a +orre+t ,hiloso,h1 of life
and a +orre+t mode 'eha0iour 'ased on that ,hiloso,h1
leading to reali]ation is illustrated '1 the formulation of
these 3our No'le Truths *hi+h *ere ,ro,ounded at the
0er1 outset of Buddha2s +areer.
Of +ourse there are other truths on the em,iri+al le0el.
Some of them are rele0ant to the religious mode of 'eha0iour
,res+ri'ed in Buddhism and some are indeed not.
The Buddha *as 0er1 ,ertinent in regard to all of those different
.inds of truths. ThereforeE in the A'ha1arJIa.umJrasutta
of the BaIIhima%ni.a1aE the Buddha anal1ses them in
res,e+t of their intrinsi+ +hara+teristi+s and sho*s the ,ro+edure
He ado,ts in ,ro+laiming them.
8:A
The -lassifi+ation of Pro,ositions A++ording to
Truth Value
The -lassifi+ation of Pro,ositions A++ording to
Truth Value
ing
to *hi+h a ,ro,osition ma1 'e&
8.
UntrueE in+orre+tE not 'enefi+ialE and *hi+h is also
un,leasant and disagreea'le to others.
4.
TrueE +orre+tE not 'enefi+ialE and *hi+h is also
un,leasant and disagreea'le to others.
>. TrueE +orre+tE 'enefi+ialE and *hi+h is also
un,leasant and disagreea'le to others.
:.
UntrueE in+orre+tE not 'enefi+ialE and ,leasant and
agreea'le to others.
@.
TrueE +orre+tE 'ut not 'enefi+ialE and ,leasant and
agreea'le to others.
A.
TrueE +orre+t and 'enefi+ial and also ,leasant and
agreea'le to others.
The Buddha ,ronoun+es onl1 the third and the si/th of these
,ro,ositions .no*ing the right time <.JlaTTV=. 3urther it
illustrates the fa+t that He ,ro+laims onl1 the ,ro,ositions
*hi+h are true and 'enefi+ial <atthasaXhita= *hether the1
are agreea'le or not agreea'leE ,leasant or un,leasant to
them.
The Theor1 of -orres,onden+e
The theor1 of +orres,onden+e of truth looms large in the
8:C
A,aFFa.a%sutta of the BaIIhima%ni.a1a in +onne+tion *ith
the arguments addu+ed to e/,lain the in+ontro0erti'le
do+trine <a,aFFa.a dhamma=. A ,ra+ti+al argument gi0en
in the sutta ,ro0es the signifi+an+e of the Buddhist ,ro,osition
of ,ra+tising good +on0in+ingl1 on e/,eriential
+onsiderations&
PSin+e there a+tuall1 is another *orldE one *ho
holds this 0ie* Gthere is another *orld2 has right
0ie*. Sin+e there a+tuall1 is another *orldE one
*ho ma.es the statement Gthere is another *orld2
has right s,ee+h. Sin+e there a+tuall1 is another
*orldE one *ho sa1s Gthere is another *orld2 is not
o,,osed to those arahants *ho .no* the other
*orld. Sin+e there a+tuall1 is another *orldE one
*ho +on0in+es another Gthere is another *orld2
+on0in+es him to a++e,t true dhammaR 'e+ause he
+on0in+es another to a++e,t true dhammaE he does
not ,raise himself and dis,arage othersW. A'out
this a *ise man +onsiders thus S if there is another
*orldE then on the dissolution of the 'od1E after
deathE this good ,erson *ill rea,,ear in a ha,,1
destinationE e0en in the hea0enl1 *orld. No*
*hether or not the *ord of those good re+luses
and 'rahmins is trueE let me assume that there is
no other *orld. Still this good ,erson is here and
no* ,raised '1 the *ise as a 0irtuous ,ersonE one
*ith right 0ie* *ho holds the do+trine of affirmation.
And on the other handE if there is another
*orldE then this good ,erson has made a lu+.1
8:7
thro* on 'oth +ounts. Sin+e he is ,raised '1 the
*ise here and no*E and sin+e on the dissolution of
the 'od1E after deathE he *ill rea,,ear in a ha,,1
destinationE e0en in the hea0enl1 *orld. He has
rightl1 a++e,ted and underta.en this in+ontro0erti'le
tea+hing in su+h a *a1 that it e/tends to 'oth
84C
sides and e/+ludes the un*holesome alternati0eQ.
The Theor1 of -oheren+e D -onsisten+1
-oheren+e and +onsisten+1 are also +onsidered as essential
fa+tors for Iudging the 0alidit1 of an assertion. " has
'een sho*n that s,e+iall1 in dis+ussions andE arguments one
should maintain +oheren+e and +onsisten+1 throughout in
order to maintain the 0alidit1E and relia'ilit1 of his assertion.
Thus in the -Vlasa++a.a%sutta of the BaIIhimani.a1a
the Buddha .ee,s on reminding Sa++a.a the
defe+ts of his +ontri'ution in the dis+ussion&
PPa1 attention Sa++a.aE ,a1 attention to ho* 1ou
re,l1\ )hat 1ou said 'efore does not agree *ith
*hat 1ou said after*ardsE nor does *hat 1ou said
847
after*ards agree *ith *hat 1ou said 'eforeQ.
The Theor1 of Verifi+ation
Verifia'ilit1 is also another +hara+teristi+ of the do+trine.
!ogi+al Positi0ists held the 0ie* that sin+e the meaning of
84C. B. "E :5>9:
847. B. "E 4>4
8:6
a statement is its 0erifia'ilit1E a statement de0oid of 0erifi+ation
of its +ogniti0e meaning of truth or falsit1 is meaningless.
The truths e/,ounded in the form of do+trine in Buddhism
are 0erifia'le '1 ,er+e,tion and e/trasensor1 ,er+e,tion
and it is stated in the Anguttara%ni.a1a that the
do+trine and dis+i,line shine *hen laid 'are and not *hen
+o0ered. "t is free from meta,h1si+al or theologi+al or di0ine
se+rets of an1 .ind. Unli.e U,anishads it *as not taught
to a sele+ted fe*E 'ut meant for all and o,en to all. 3or
the good it is un+o0ered li.e the light <sataX +a 0i0aKo hoti
846
Jlo.o ,assataX i0a=.
"n the often Luoted formula *here the +hara+teristi+s
of the dhamma are gi0enE it is mentioned that the dhamma
has the Lualities of& G1ielding results here and no*2 <sandiKKhi.o=E
Gimmediate results2 <a.Jli.a=E Gin0iting others to
+ome and see2 <ehi ,assi.a=E and Gshould 'e reali]ed '1 the
*ise ea+h for himself.
E0identl1E these e,itheti+ +lauses are meaningful onl1
in the +onte/t of 0erifia'ilit1 of the dhamma. "n a dis+ourse
addressed to elder U,a0JnaE it is stated that the
+ons+iousness of the sensation of the sensual o'Ie+ts and
the ,assion therein ma.e one +on0in+ed of the a'o0e 0eri
8>5
fia'le Lualities of the dhamma. The Buddha is ,raised
as an e1e*itness of dhamma that dis,els the dangers
8>8
<sa..hi dhammaX ,arissa1a 0ina1aX=.
846. Sn. CA>
8>5. S. "V. ,. :5
8>8. Sn. 648
8@5
The Theor1 of Dou'le Truth
The Theor1 of Dou'le Truth
ni+al
e/,osition of the dhamma. This distin+tion seems to
ha0e de0elo,ed on the earlier di0ision of ,ro,ositions
ha0ing Gdire+t2 or Gdra*n out2 meaning <nUtattha= and Gindire+t2
or Gto 'e dra*n out2 meaning <ne11attha=. The former
is an e/,li+it statement *ith definite meaning su+h as a
statement dealing *ith im,ermanen+eE suffering and non%
su'stantialit1E *hi+h is to 'e ta.en as it is. The latter is a
statement of +ommon understanding 'ased on the +on0entions
in the *orld su+h as Gone indi0idualE t*o indi0iduals2
et+. "n fa+tE in the ultimate sense indi0idual is nothing
'ut +onglomeration of fi0e aggregates.
"t is stressed that if one *ere to o0erloo. the different
signifi+an+e of these statements and inter,ret the former
to mean that there is something here in this *orld *hi+h is
,ermanentE ha,,1 and su'stantialE and the latterE going
'e1ond the +on0entions in the *orldE Gto mean a ,ermanent
entit1 as indi0idual +an 'e found in the *orldE one
*ould 'e totall1 *rong sin+e the1 are misre,resentations
8>4
of the Buddha.
!ater *ith the de0elo,ment of a'hidhammaE in order
to fa+ilitate the te+hni+alities in0ol0ed in its e/,ositionE t*o
truths *ere e0ol0ed on the distin+tion outlined in the
Gdire+t2 and Gindire+t2 di0ision of the dhamma. These t*o
forms of truth are +alled -on0entional Truth <Sammuti
sa++a= and Ultimate Truth <Paramattha sa++a=.
8>4. A. ""E ,. A5
8@8
The first refers to the general turn of s,ee+hE the
+ommon use of the languageE *hi+h is dis+ursi0e and
mar.ed *ith ,ara'lesE similes and ane+dotes. The se+ond
is im,ersonalE te+hni+al and a'stra+tE and des+ri'es the
ultimate +ategories +alled dhammas& -ons+iousnessE
Bental -on+omitantsE Batter and Ni''Jna and the interrelationshi,
of the first three +ategories in minute detail.
"t is stated that 'oth .inds of truth are true and 0alid
+orres,onding to the s,here the1 deal *ith. 3or it is said
in the Anguttara%ni.J1aKKha.athJ&
P-ommon language is true as it is +on0ention%'asedE
and so are the *ords of ultimate truth also true as the1
re0eal the real nature of dhammas.Q
<saX.eta0a+anaX sa++aX
lo.asammuti.JraFaX
,aramattha0a+anaX sa++aX
8>>
dhammJnaX tathala..haFam=
#ealit1 D Truth
Ni''Jna is the realit1 ,ro,ounded in Buddhism. "t is the
uniLue ultimate truth des+ri'ed in Buddhism. Ne0erthelessE
in the earl1 Pali +anoni+al te/tsE realit1 is also introdu+ed
'1 the *ord Gsa++a2E the truth.
The Suttani,Jta sa1s&
PThere is onl1 one truthR there is no se+ondE a'out
*hi+h men might dis,ute. The1 s,ea. of different
8>>. AA. "". ,. 887
8@4
truthsE therefore the re+luses do not ,ro+laim the
truthsE therefore the re+luses do not ,ro+laim the
one truth.
Ho*e0erE the stan]a in Luestion is inter,retati0e. #ealit1E
is the Su,reme BlissE Ni''Jna.
Ho* the Truth%see.er should 'e
Nan%inE a ?a0anese master during the BeiIi era <87A798684=
re+ei0ed a uni0ersit1 ,rofessor *ho +ame to inLuire a'out
aen. Nan%in ser0ed tea. He ,oured his 0isitor2s +u, full and
then .e,t on ,ouring. The Professor *at+hed the tea
o0erflo* until he no longer +ould restrain himself.
P"t is o0er full. No more *ill go in\Q
P!i.e this +u,EQ Nan%in saidE P1ou are full of 1our o,inions and
s,e+ulationE ho* +an " sho* 1ou aen unless 1ou first em,t1
1our +u,HQ
Sure.ha V. !ima1e
aen <Buddhism= and B1sti+ismE ,. @8
M
8>:. Sn. 77:
8@>
Em,iri+ism *ith a Differen+e
Em,iri+ism *ith a Differen+e
e0erE
to modif1 the use of the term some*hat to mean
not onl1 that all our .no*ledge is deri0ed from sense%
e/,erien+e 'ut from e/trasensor1 e/,erien+e as *ell. P
. N. ?a1atille.e
Earl1 Buddhist Theor1 of no*ledgeE ,,E :A>9:
8@:
8A. 8A.
As Buddhism is em,iri+ist in its a,,roa+h to human ,ro'lems
and their resolutionE it is +onsidered a uniLue feature
,arti+ular to Buddha2s tea+hing. Ban1 s+holarsE 'oth Eastern
and )esternE ha0e e/,ressed their +on+ern and ,ersonal
0ie*s *ith referen+e to this +hara+teristi+ s,e+ial to
Buddhism among other *orld religions.
Em,iri+ism in )estern Philoso,h1
"n modern )estern ,hiloso,h1E em,iri+ism as+ri'es a ,redominant
,la+e to sense e/,erien+e. Dou'ts a'out the
rationalisti+ theor1 of .no*ledge is said to ha0e led to the
sear+h for a theor1 ami+a'le to +ommon human 'eha0iour
that *e e/,erien+e in our da1 to da1 life. )hen
England *as e/,erien+ing ra,id de0elo,ment in industrial
and +ommer+ial a+ti0itiesE the rationalisti+ a,,roa+hes of
,hiloso,hers su+h as Plato and Des+artesE *ho held that
true .no*ledge is alread1 *ithin us in the form of innate
ideas *ith *hi+h *e are 'orn and not a+Luired through
our sensesE *ere +hallenged '1 a ne* generation of
th
,hiloso,hers. Hen+e in the 8C +entur1 the1 'egan to formulate
a s1stem of ,hiloso,h1 ta.ing sense e/,erien+e as
the sour+e and 'asis of *hat *e .no*. Sin+e the theor1 in
Luestion is +onsistent *ith human e/,erien+e and attem,ts
to understand .no*ledge in terms of sense e/,erien+eE it
is +alled em,iri+ism.
3ran+is Ba+on <8@A898A4A= and ?ohn !o+.e <8A>49
8C5:= after himE not 'eing ,rofessional ,hiloso,hersE 'ut
8@@
'eing ,ra+ti+al men of affairsE *ho had no interest in
a'stra+t ,hiloso,hi+al ,ro'lems dis+ussed '1 different
,hiloso,hers o0er the +enturiesE argued on the 'asis of
sense e/,erien+e and introdu+ed the ne* em,iri+ist *a1
of thin.ing to )estern ,hiloso,h1. The1 em,hasised the
fa+t that there is no .no*ledge other than the e/,eriential.
Therefore em,iri+ism is +onsidered as a theor1 of
.no*ledge *hi+h gi0es ,redominan+e to e/,erien+e and
*hat is em,iri+all1 o'ser0ed. The later ,hiloso,hers ha0e
+ontri'uted their o*n inter,retations to em,iri+ist thought
thus ma.ing the s1stem a full1 de0elo,ed one.
The Em,iri+ist Tenden+1 in Buddhism
The Buddha asserted that an1one *ho follo*s the ,ath
,res+ri'ed '1 Him +an realise truth '1 himself *ithout the
hel, of an1 e/ternal agen+1 *hatsoe0er. Therefore the inherent
+hara+teristi+s of the tea+hing of the Buddha delineated
in the formula Luoted oftenE fi0e im,ortant terms
ha0e 'een used amounting to the em,iri+ist a,,roa+h
,ertaining to the fundamental nature of the do+trine&
a.
"t is ad0antageous and 0isi'le in this 0er1 life
<sandiKKhi.a=.
'.
"t 1ields immediate results and is timeless <a.Jli.a=.
+.
As it is o,en to all and free from an1 se+re+1 it +an
'e e/amined <ehi,assi.a=.
d.
"t +an 'e entered u,on and it leads to the goal of
Ni''Jna <o,anai.a=.
e.
"t is to 'e realised '1 the *ise indi0iduall1
<,a++attaX 0edita'ho 0iTTVhi=.
8@A
E0identl1E the ,re%eminent ,la+e gi0en to o'ser0ationE e/amination
and e/,erimentation in Buddhism has dra*n
the attention of ,hiloso,hers and s+holars on religion.
#adha.rishnan referring to the Buddha and Buddhism remar.ed
in his G"ndian Philoso,h12&
PHis method is that of ,s1+hologi+al anal1sis. He
endea0oured to rid Himself of all illegitimate
s,e+ulationE 'uild from the ra* material of
e/,erien+eE and assist the s,iritual gro*th of
suffering humanit1 '1 an honest and un'iased
e/,ression of the results of His thought and
e/,erien+e. A++ording to HimE if a man sees things
as the1 reall1 areE he *ill +ease to ,ursue shado*s
and +lea0e to the great realit1 of goodness.Q
And further stressing the ,ride of ,la+e a++orded to e/,erien+e
in BuddhismE he sa1s&
P!a1ing aside meta,h1si+al s,e+ulationsE He tra+es
out the reign of la* and order in the *orld of
e/,erien+e. UnderstandingE a++ording to HimE is to
'e limited to the field of e/,erien+eE the la*s *hi+h
8>@
it +an e/,lore.Q
The em,iri+ist a,,roa+h is the Gs+ientifi+ attitude2 in the
language of modern s+ien+e 'ased on em,iri+al in0estigation.
A. . )arder *ho *rote G"ndian Buddhism2 is +on0in+ed
of the em,iri+ist a,,roa+h found in the dis+ourses
and sa1s that the general method of dis+ussion is that of
8>@. "P. ". ,. >A5
8@C
an em,iri+al and rational inLuir1 'asing em,hasis on the
8>A
em,iri+al as,e+t. )arder therefore states&
PThe do+trine is not s,e+ulati0e 'ut em,iri+ist. The
Buddha em,hati+all1 reIe+ted all s,e+ulati0e
o,inions <drsKi= and ,ro,ounded no su+h o,inion
HimselfE onl1 an em,iri+ist a++ount of +onditioned
8>C
origination and the *a1 to end unha,,iness.Q
Buddhism ad0o+ates 'oth sense ,er+e,tion and e/trasensor1
,er+e,tion as 0alid means of .no*ledge. E/trasensor1
,er+e,tion is a result of the meditati0e a'sor,tion re+ommended
in the Buddhist ,ath to realisation. Therefore . N.
?a1atille.e e/,laining the +hara+teristi+s of the theor1 of
de,endent origination ,arti+ular to Buddhism maintains
that it is 'ased on indu+ti0e inferen+es and that those inferen+es
are made on the data of ,er+e,tionE normal and
,aranormal. He further states that *hat is +onsidered to
+onstitute .no*ledge are dire+t inferen+es made on the
'asis of su+h ,er+e,tions and all the .no*ledge that the
Buddha and His dis+i,les +laim to ha0e in G.no*ing and
seeing2E e/+e,t for the .no*ledge of Nir0anaE a,,ears to
8>7
'e of this nature.
PThe Buddhist theor1 is therefore em,iri+al sin+e it
s,o.e onl1 of o'ser0a'le +auses *ithout an1 meta,h1si+al
,re%su,,ositions of an1 su'strata 'ehind
them. "t +losel1 resem'les the #egularit1 theor1
8>A. "B. ,. 466.
8>C. "B. ,. >CC
8>7. EBT. ,. :@C
8@7
e/+e,t for the fa+t that it s,ea.s of the em,iri+al
ne+essit1 <a0itathatJE 0. su,raE CA7= of the +ausal
seLuen+e or +on+omitan+e and does not seem to
hold that all indu+ti0e inferen+es are merel1
e/+e,t for the fa+t that it s,ea.s of the em,iri+al
ne+essit1 <a0itathatJE 0. su,raE CA7= of the +ausal
seLuen+e or +on+omitan+e and does not seem to
hold that all indu+ti0e inferen+es are merel1
,ro'a'le <0. su,raE C@7=.Q
Buddhism is not 'ased on an1 .ind of meta,h1si+al
theor1 or on an authorit1 founded on re0elation or on an
indire+t ,roof related to a ,riori reasoning in the sense of
logi+. A++ording to BuddhismE all these are unsatisfa+tor1
as means of .no*ledge. But it is ,rea+hed as a 0erifia'le
h1,othesisE *hi+h +an 'e in0estigated and em,iri+all1
realised indi0iduall1 '1 the *ise. All the e0ents from the
time of *itnessing the four signsE *hi+h ,rom,ted ,rin+e
Siddhattha to renoun+e the household lifeE until he attained
the su,reme EnlightenmentE are grounded on ,ersonal e/,erien+e.
He realised that. 'irthE diseaseE de+a1E deathE
frustrationE disa,,ointment and des,air that e0er1 indi0idual
has to e/,erien+e in his dail1 life amount to suffering.
As the ,ea+e of mind *as distur'ed '1 the tragi+ situation
that human.ind has to e/,erien+eE ,rin+e Siddhattha *as
tem,ted to loo. for a ,ana+ea. The figure of the re+luse
that he en+ountered as the fourth sign ,rom,ted him to
renoun+e the *orld in sear+h of truthE and he s,ent the
su'seLuent si/ 1ears *ith se0eral tea+hers in0estigating and
e/,erimenting the *a1s and means of arri0ing at the
truth. "n the te/ts t*o of these tea+hers are s,e+iall1 mentionedE
Alara alama and Udda.a #ama,uttaE under *hom
he managed to attain u, to the third immaterial a'sor,
8>6. EBT. ,. :@>
8@6
tion +alled the Base of Nothingness and the fourth immaterial
a'sor,tion .no*n as the Base of Neither Per+e,tion
Nor Non%Per+e,tion res,e+ti0el1. As he *as not satisfied
*ith the meditati0e e/,erien+e that he +ould a+hie0e
under these tea+hers he 'egan to ,ra+tise a +ourse of
a+tion follo*ed '1 self%mortif1ing as+eti+s of his da1. "n
the Ari1a,ari1esana%suttaE the BahJsa++a.a%sutta and the
BahJsihanJda sutta of the BaIIhima%ni.a1a the ,ersonal
e/,erien+e He gained '1 ,ra+tising these austere as+eti+ism
and the *a1s of ,ra+tising them are re+orded *ith
some details.
As stated in the BahJsihanJda%suttaE in order to arri0e
at a state free from grief <aso.a=E free from death <amata=
and free from defilement <asaX.iliKKha= he 'egan to ,ra+tise
,enan+e of self%mortifi+ation ,re0alent among the
as+eti+sE _Ii0i.as and ?ains. Among these different t1,es of
as+eti+ismE he follo*ed the ,ra+ti+es +alled Gta,assi2 amounting
to austere as+eti+ismE Glu.ha2 that gi0es u, asso+iation
*ith humans and G,a0i0itta2 ad0o+ating +om,lete isolation.
3or si/ 1ears as a see.er after truthE *ith the thought that
e0en a small li0ing thing ma1 not 'e +rushed *ith the feetE
he de0elo,ed +om,assion and non%0iolen+e e/tending e0en
8:5
to*ards a dro, of *ater. "n four 'odil1 ,ostures of sittingE
*al.ingE standing and l1ing do*n he *as attenti0e
and +om,assionate. He ,erformed sa+rifi+e *ith the ho,e
of a+hie0ing ,urit1 through sa+rifi+e <1aTTena suddhi= and
*ith the aim of a+Luiring ,urit1 from food he o'ser0ed
fastingE 'ut these e/,erien+es did not 1ield an1 su'stantial
8:5. B. ". P. C7
8A5
result *hatsoe0er. E0en 'efore his training under the
tea+hers he *as re,resented as ,ra+tising se0eral t1,es of
1oga ,ra+ti+es *hi+h *ere in 0ogue among the as+eti+
grou,s in "ndia at the timeE 'ut *ithout an1 su++essful
result. These ,ra+tises are listed in the BahJsa++a.a%sutta
of the BaIIhima%ni.a1a.
result *hatsoe0er. E0en 'efore his training under the
tea+hers he *as re,resented as ,ra+tising se0eral t1,es of
1oga ,ra+ti+es *hi+h *ere in 0ogue among the as+eti+
grou,s in "ndia at the timeE 'ut *ithout an1 su++essful
result. These ,ra+tises are listed in the BahJsa++a.a%sutta
of the BaIIhima%ni.a1a.
+eti+ism
under Alara alama as *ell as Udda.a #ama,uttaE
it is stated that sin+e the1 li0ed G.no*ing2 <IJnaX=
and Gseeing2 <,assaX= the states that the1 ,rofessedE He also
,ut forth His energ1 to e/,erien+e those states of a'sor,tion.
That sho*s the fa+t that those states *ere not merel1
theoreti+al 'ut e/,eriential and to 'e a+hie0ed '1 ,ra+ti+e.
The dis+ourse further re+ords the austere as+eti+ ,ra+ti+es
He engaged in e0en after going a*a1 from the tea+hers.
The as+eti+ Gotama +len+hed his teeth *ith his tongue
,ressed against his ,alate in order to su'dueE dominate
and restrain the mind. Then ,ers,iration dri,,ed from his
arm,its. Then he ,ra+tised non%'reathing meditation and
sto,,ed 'reathing in and out through the mouth or nose
resulting in the loud noise of *ind es+a,ing through his
auditor1 ,assages. )hen he +ontinued the ,ra+ti+e he felt
as if a strong man *ere to +lea0e his head *ith a shar,%
edged s*ord. As if a strong man *ere to +lam, a tur'an
on his head *ith a tight leather stra, and a s.illed +attle%
'ut+her or his a,,renti+e *ere to +ut through the stoma+h
*ith a shar, 'ut+her2s .nife. There a,,eared a 'ad heada+he
and a fier+e heat all o0er his 'od1 Iust as setting fire
to a *ea.er man ha0ing ta.en hold of him '1 t*o strong
men. His e/,erien+e on non%'reathing meditation and
8A8
other austere as+eti+ ,ra+ti+es ha0e 'een 0i0idl1 des+ri'ed
in the dis+ourses. "t *as on e/amination and e/,erimentation
that the Buddha ,ro+laimed the futilit1 of those as+eti+
,ra+ti+es.
The Buddhist tea+hing of sufferingE three +hara+teristi+s
of e/isten+e and de,endent origination are em,iri+all1
'ased. "t is 0indi+ated '1 the rele0ant dis+ourses *here
these do+trinal themes are dis+ussed. Therefore it is Luite
+lear that Buddhism is neither a .ind of meta,h1si+al
s,e+ulation nor a re0elationE 'ut a tea+hing 'ased on em,iri+al
fa+ts and that it is to 'e e/,erien+ed.
M
#ationalism in a Different -onte/t
PAlthough there is little e0iden+e that an1 of the 'asi+
do+trines of Buddhism are deri0ed '1 reasonE *e
sometimes meet *ith the Buddha re+ommending his
do+trines on rational grounds. This is ,arti+ularl1
e0ident *here his sermons are addressed to the 0iTTV
or the eliteE *ho seem to re,resent o,en minded
rationalist.Q
. N. ?a1atille.e
Earl1 Buddhist Theor1 of no*ledgeE ,. :5@
8A4
8C. 8C.
The s+holars *ho *rote on the Buddha and Buddhism ha0e
often referred to the Buddha as a rationalist and Buddhism
as rationalisti+. The1 ha0e +ome to this +on+lusion
on different grounds. To 'egin *ithE let us see *hat #adha.rishnan
has to sa1 in this regard. -ertainl1E he 'egins
'1 sa1ing that P*e +annot +onsider Buddha a rationalistQ
and +ontinues&
P#ationalism is defined as Gthe mental ha'it of using
reason for the destru+tion of religious 'eliefs2.
Buddha did not set out *ith the intention of rea+hing
negati0e results. Being a disinterested see.er
after truthE He did not start *ith an1 ,reIudi+e. $et
He is a rationalistE sin+e He *ished to stud1 realit1
or e/,erien+e *ithout an1 referen+e to su,ernatural
re0elation. "n this matter Buddha is at one
*ith modern s+ientistsE *ho are of o,inion that the
idea of su,ernatural interferen+e should not 'e
introdu+ed into the logi+al inter,retation of natural
,henomena. Buddha had so firm a gri, of the
+onne+tedness of things that He *ould not tolerate
mira+ulous interferen+e of the +osmi+ order or
8:8
magi+al distur'an+es of material life.Q
)hile des+ri'ing Buddhism and the ,arti+ular nature of
the Buddha2s rationalisti+ a,,roa+hE he sa1s further that
the Buddha relied on reason and e/,erien+e and that He
*ished to lead men '1 mere for+e of logi+ to His 0ie* to
8:8. "Ph. "E ,. >@6
8A>
esta'lish a Preligion *ithin the 'ounds of ,ure reasonQ.
esta'lish a Preligion *ithin the 'ounds of ,ure reasonQ.
alisti+
'e+ause it reIe+ts su,ernatural re0elation of an1 sort
and also 'e+ause of the ,re%eminent ,la+e gi0en to logi+
and ,ure reasoning in it. Trul1E the first ,art of his assertion
is in agreement *ith *hat *e .no* from the +anonE 'ut
the se+ond ,art that the Buddha tried to esta'lish a religion
on the for+e of logi+ in the 'ounds of ,ure reasonE is to 'e
ta.en *ith a ,in+h of salt. Be+auseE Suna..hatta2s o'ser0ation
that the Buddha had no distin+ti0e .no*ledge and
0ision more than that of other men and that He ,rea+hed a
do+trine *hi+h *as a ,rodu+t of reasoning and s,e+ula
8:4
tion and self%e0identE *as totall1 denied '1 the Buddha.
A++ording to the Buddha2s 0ie*E logi+al reasoning ma1 'e
true or falseE Iust as that *hi+h is said to 'e re0ealed and
handed do*n orall1 from generation to generation.
To some of the s+holarsE *ho *rote on BuddhismE the
Buddha *as an out and out rationalist 'e+ause of the fa+t
that He reIe+ted dogmatism. Trul1 Buddhism is o,,osed to
dogmatism of e0er1 .ind. Bhatta+har1a in his PBasi+ -on+e,tion
of BuddhismQ Luotes the famous JlJma%sutta in
su,,ort of his 0ie* that the Buddha *as not a dogmatist
8:>
'ut a rationalist. Although the sutta in LuestionE *hile
reIe+ting logi+al reasoning as a 0alid means of .no*ledgeE
re+ommends free inLuir1E he seems to ha0e ta.en rationalism
in a general sense to mean freedom of thought.
To name Buddhism as rationalisti+ Poussin has ta.en
a different stan+e in his P)a1 to Nir0anaQ. A++ording to
8:4. B. "E ,. A7
8:>. Bhatta+har1a V. S The Basi+ -on+e,tion of BuddhismE ,. 6ff.
8A:
himE Buddhism is rationalisti+ sin+e the Buddha *as non%
m1sti+al and su++eeded in e/,laining the +osmos and
human destin1 *ithout re+ourse to an1 .ind of meta,h1si+al
agent. This s+holar seems to ha0e +onIe+tured
that Buddhism is rationalisti+ 'e+ause there is no ,la+e for
su,ernaturalism and m1sti+ism in it.
#ationalism in )estern Philoso,h1
Although these s+holars ha0e 0ie*ed Buddhism as rationalisti+
on different groundsE it is 0er1 diffi+ult to ,ass Iudgement
on its rationalisti+ outloo. *ithout ta.ing the use of
the term in modern ,hiloso,h1 into +onsideration. AlsoE
sin+e these s+holars are not +onsistent in their use of the
termE it is ne+essar1 to find out its ,hiloso,hi+al +onnotation
in modern )estern ,hiloso,h1. A++ording to *hi+hE ,aradigm
of .no*ledge is the non%sensor1 intelle+tual intuition
that God *ould ha0e into the *or.ing of all things. "n other
*ordsE the +riterion of truth is not sensor1 'ut intelle+tualE
dedu+ti0e and related to mathemati+s. The +ontinental ,hiloso,hers
su+h as PlatoE Des+artesE !ei'ni] and S,ino]a are
usuall1 named as rationalists. The1 asserted that '1 em,lo1ing
+ertain ,ro+edures of reason alone one +ould arri0e at
.no*ledgeE *hi+h *ould not +hange under an1 +ir+umstan+e.
The1 further maintained that su+h .no*ledge +ould
not 'e found through sense e/,erien+e 'ut ha0e to see. for
it onl1 in the realm of the mind.
#ationalism Versus Em,iri+ism
Often in dis+ussions on )estern ,hiloso,h1E the theor1 of
rationalism is +ontrasted *ith em,iri+ismE *hi+h has gi0en
8A@
,ride of ,la+e to sense e/,erien+e. And also it is a histori+al
fa+t that em,iri+ism e0ol0ed in the *est against rationalismE
*hi+h had ta.en hold as a s1stem of ,hiloso,h1.
"n this +onne+tion it is ,lausi'le for us to see *hether the
Buddha in an1 sense +onsidered +ertain ,remises as 'eing
self%e0identl1 true and 'ased His tea+hing on those ,remises
to name Him as a rationalist. The Buddha did not attem,t
to e0ol0e a s1stem of dedu+ti0e meta,h1si+s 'ased
on a/ioms or ,remisesE *hi+h are self%e0ident and true as
,rodu+ts of reasoning. Buddhism is em,iri+ist sin+e it is indu+ti0e
and de0oid of a ,riori reasoning. Sin+e Buddhism
ad0o+ates an em,iri+al a,,roa+h in see.ing .no*ledgeE it
is not rationalisti+ in the ,hiloso,hi+al sense of the term.
Ne0erthelessE as these s+holars ha0e doneE ta.ing the
role that ,la1s '1 reason in sear+h of truthE the term rationalism
+an 'e used more 'roadl1 for an1 anti%+leri+al and
anti%authoritarian s1stemE 'e+ause Buddhism addresses to
one2s reason. "n general usage Greason2 is intelle+t or
intelle+tual a+umen and the due e/er+ise of the fa+ult1 of
thought. Therefore in that general senseE Buddhism is
rationalisti+ and its a,,roa+h is rational. Not 'eing dogmati+E
it addresses to one2s reason for +riti+al e/amination
of fa+ts. "t is to 'e reali]ed '1 thoughtful refle+tion *ith the
e/er+ise of refle+ti0e reasoning.
The Buddhist theor1 of .no*ledge 'egins *ith re+ei0ing
information from the e/ternal *orld and su'Ie+ting that
into thoughtful refle+tion <1oniso manasi.Jra=. !iterall1 it
means Grefle+ting '1 *a1 of origin2. This leads one to right
understanding *hile unthoughtful refle+tion leads one to
*rong understanding. Thoughtful refle+tion tends to modif1
8AA
one2s 'eha0iour and attitudes together *ith one2s lifest1le.
Therefore se0eral ste,s of this intelle+tual e/er+ise ha0e 'een
des+ri'ed in the dis+ourses in+luding the iKJgiri%sutta of the
BaIIhima%ni.a1a. "t is a rational e0aluation of sense data
leading one to destro1 one2s ignoran+e and a+hie0e *isdom.
Sin+e Buddhism +onsiders ignoran+e as one of the fundamental
fa+tors for man2s sufferingE the ,ath en0isaged in
Buddhism leads to understanding and *isdom. One *ho
thoughtfull1 refle+ts u,on the sense data in+luding *hat he
has heard 'e+omes +on0in+ed and de0elo,s +onfiden+e to
.no* the Dhamma and ,ro+eeds on as follo*ing&
".
Be+ause of +onfiden+e he dra*s +lose.
"".
Dra*ing +lose he sits do*n near'1.
""".
Sitting do*n near'1 he lends his ear.
"V.
!ending his ear he listens to the do+trine.
V.
Ha0ing heard the do+trine he remem'ers it.
V".
He then tests the meaning of things he has 'orn
in mind.
V"".
)hile testing the meaning the1 are a,,ro0ed of.
V""".
There 'eing a,,ro0al of the thingsE desire is 'orn.
"Z.
)ith desire 'orn he ma.es an effort.
Z.
Ha0ing made an effort he *eighs it u,.
Z".
Ha0ing *eighed it u, he stri0es.
Z"".
3inall1 'eing self%resolute he realises *ith his
,erson the Highest Truth.
No*E in this +onne+tion the Buddha has ,ointed out four
e/,ositions ,ertaining to a dis+i,le *ho has follo*ed the
instru+tion faithfull1 and li0es a++ording to it. He 'egins to
realise&
8AC
".
PThe Tea+her is the !ordR a dis+i,le am "R the !ord
.no*sE " do not .no*.Q
"".
He +om,rehends that the Tea+her2s instru+tion is a
furthering in gro*th and a gi0ing of strength.
""". He ,uts his shoulder to the *heel and thin.s&
PGladl1 *ould " 'e redu+ed to s.in and sine*s and
'ones and let m1 'od12s flesh and 'lood dr1 u, if
there +omes to 'e a 0orte/ of energ1 so that *hi+h
is not 1et *on might 'e *on '1 human strengthE
'1 human energ1E '1 human stri0ing.Q
"V. One of the t*o fruits is to 'e e/,e+ted '1 the
dis+i,le *ho adheres to the Tea+her2s instru+tion
and li0es in unison *ith it. Profound .no*ledge
here and no*E and if there is an1 'asis for re'irth
remainingE the state of non%return.
"t is to 'e noted that one is ad0ised to re,ose one2s +onfiden+e
in the Buddha or in the do+trine onl1 after thoughtful
refle+tion. Buddhism en+ourages one to e/er+ise one2s
refle+ti0e reasoning a'ilit1 for free inLuir1E freedom of
e/,ressionE autonom1 of moral IudgementE right to dissentE
free *ill and for ,ersonal res,onsi'ilit1. As there is
no e/ternal agen+1 to atone the e0il effe+ts of one2s
a+tionsE one has to 'e res,onsi'le for one2s o*n a+tions.
"n the VimaXsa.a%sutta of the BaIIhima%ni.a1aE the
BuddhaE addressing the mon.sE outlines this method of
reasoning thus&
PA mon.E O mon.sE *ho is an inLuirerE not .no*ing
ho* to guage another2s mindE should in0estigate
the Tathagata *ith res,e+t to t*o .inds of statesE
8A7
states +ogni]a'le through the e1e and through the
ear thus& GAre there found in the Tathagata or not
an1 defiled states +ogni]a'le through the e1e or
through the earH2 )hen he in0estigates HimE he
+omes to .no*& GNo defiled states +ogni]a'le
through the e1e or through the ear are found in the
Tathagata.2Q
states +ogni]a'le through the e1e and through the
ear thus& GAre there found in the Tathagata or not
an1 defiled states +ogni]a'le through the e1e or
through the earH2 )hen he in0estigates HimE he
+omes to .no*& GNo defiled states +ogni]a'le
through the e1e or through the ear are found in the
Tathagata.2Q
gation
furtherE *inds u, *ith the follo*ing +on+lusion as
its out+ome&
PO mon.sE *hen an1one2s faith has 'een ,lantedE
rooted and esta'lished in the Tathagata through
these reasonsE terms and ,hrasesE his faith is said
to 'e su,,orted '1 reasonE rooted in 0ision
<J.Jra0atisaddhJ dassana mVli.J=E firmE it is
in0in+i'le '1 an1 re+luse or 'rahmin or god or
Bara or Brahma or '1 an1one in the *orld. That
is ho*E mon.sE there is an in0estigation of the
Tathagata in a++ordan+e *ith the DhammaE and
that is ho* the Tathagata is *ell in0estigated in
8::
a++ordan+e *ith the Dhamma.Q
ThereforeE sin+e ,re%eminent ,la+e is gi0en to rational
understanding and e0aluation of data *ith thoughtful
refle+tionE rationalism found in Buddhism is distin+tl1
different either from rationalism in )estern ,hiloso,h1 or
from logi+al reasoning ,re0alent among an+ient "ndian
materialists.
8::. B. "E ,. >87ff.
8A6
Ho* +ould there 'e Vi+arious Sal0ationH
PThese greed1 liars ,ro,agate de+eitE
And fools 'elie0e the fi+tions the1 re,eat&
He *ho has e1es +an see the si+.ening sight&
)h1 does not Brahma set his +reatures rightH
"f his *ide ,o*er no limits +an restrainE
)h1 is his hand so rarel1 s,read to 'lessH
)h1 are his +reatures all +ondemned to ,ainH
)h1 does he not to all gi0e ha,,inessH
)h1 do fraudE liesE and ignoran+e ,re0ailH
)h1 trium,hs falsehoodE S truth and Iusti+e failHQ
BhVridatta ?ata.a
?. VolE No. @:>
Tr. -o*ell
8C5
87. 87.
A++ording to BuddhismE among all the terrestrial and +elestial
'eingsE man o++u,ies the most desira'le ,osition. HereinE
'1 the *ord Gman2 the entire human.ind should 'e understood.
"t is stated that to 'e 'orn as a human is a rare
e0ent e0en as the 'irth of a BuddhaE the a0aila'ilit1 of the
good Dhamma and one2s o,,ortunit1 to listen to it. This
,oint is illustrated in the BJla,an`ita%sutta of the BaIIhimani.a1a
*ith the simile of the 'lind turtle and the 1o.e. The
Buddha addressing the mon.s sa1s&
PSu,,ose a man thro*s into the sea a 1o.e *ith one
hole in itE and the east *ind +arries it to the *estE
and the *est *ind +arried it the eastE and the north
*ind +arries it to the southE and the south *ind
+arried it to the north. Su,,ose there *ere a 'lind
turtle that +ame u, on+e at the end of ea+h +entur1.
)hat do 1ou thin.E O mon.sH )ould that 'lind
turtle ,ut its ne+. into that 1o.e *ith one hole in itHQ
)hen the mon.s re,l1&
P"t mightE SirE sometime or other at the end of a long
,eriod.Q
The Buddha +ontinues&
PO mon.sE the 'lind turtle *ould ta.e less time to
,ut its ne+. into that 1o.e *ith a single hole in it
than a foolE on+e gone to ,erditionE *ould ta.e to
regain the human stateE " sa1. )h1 is thatH
8C8
Be+ause there is no ,ra+tising of the Dhamma
thereE no ,ra+tising of *hat is righteousE no doing
of *hat is *holesomeE no ,erforman+e of merit.
There mutual de0ouring ,re0ailsE and the slaughter
of the *ea..Q <B. """E ,. 8A6=.
Be+ause there is no ,ra+tising of the Dhamma
thereE no ,ra+tising of *hat is righteousE no doing
of *hat is *holesomeE no ,erforman+e of merit.
There mutual de0ouring ,re0ailsE and the slaughter
of the *ea..Q <B. """E ,. 8A6=.
dergo
in his *andering in the +1+li+ e/isten+e of 'irth and
death. Se+ondl1E in orderE to in+ul+ate an a*areness of urgen+1
in the mind of the ,eo,le to ,ra+tise DhammaE 'e
righteous and to ,erform *holesome a+tions leading to realisation.
Sim,l1E one should 'e good and do good during his
lifetime ma.ing the 'est out of li0ing a human life in order to
get rid of suffering and realise the su,reme Bliss.
)ho is BanH
The Pali *ords for man are Gmanussa2 and GmJTa0a2E *hi+h
a++ording to ,o,ular et1molog1 are defined to mean Poffs,ring
of manuQE the first m1thi+al man on earthE *ho a++ording
to Hindu m1thsE the earliest man to 'e 'orn. This
definitionE ho*e0erE is found in Pali +ommentaries and Pali
grammati+al *or.s. <e.g. Pmanuno a,a++J2ti manussJE ,orJFJ
8:@
,ana 'haFantiQ. Pmanuno a,a++J ,uttJ mJFa0JQ9
#u,asiddhi=. Side '1 side *ith these definitionsE there is an
attem,t among the Pali s+holiasts to gi0e an ethi+al t*ist to
the *ord in +onformit1 *ith the Buddhist ethi+s '1 deri0ing
the *ord from Gmana2 the mindE *hi+h originated from
8:@. h,A. ,. 84>
8C4
0man 9 to thin.. Hen+eE *e find in the VimJna%0atthu +ommentar1
as *ell as in the Suttani,Jta +ommentar1 the definition
Pmanassa ussannatJ1a manussJQE P'e+ause of the fullness
of the mind the1 are +alled menQ. The1E ho*e0erE as+ri'e
the definition to PoranasE the an+ients and sa1 further
that the1 are the ,eo,le inha'iting ?am'udi,aE A,arago1JnaE
Uttara.uru and Pu''a0idehaE thus e/hausting the en
8:A
tire ,lanet earth a++ording to an+ient "ndian geogra,h1.
E0identl1E the *ord is "ndo%Euro,ean in origin and +onne+ted
*ith the Gothi+ Gmanna2 and English Gman2 and tra+ea'le
'a+. to Vedi+ Gmanus1a2. Ho*e0erE the latter Pali definition
+oin+ides in meaning *ith the *ord Homo Sa,iens2
the name gi0en to modern man '1 anthro,ologists. Another
,o,ular *ord used to denote man in Pali is Gnara2E
*hi+h might ha0e originated among the earl1 "ndo%
Euro,ean ,eo,le to denote mas+ulinit1 of man. <-om,are
*ith !atin Gneriosus2 meaning Gmas+ular2=.
Be+ause of the 'eha0ioural ,attern of manE three .inds
of man are distinguished from man ,ro,er on ethi+al +onsiderations&
man doomed to ,urgator1 <manussa%nera1i.a=E
man li0ing as s,irits <manussa%,eta= and man li0ing as ani
8:C
mals <manussa%tira++hJna=.
A UniLue Position is As+ri'ed to Ban in Buddhism
Ban o++u,ies a uniLue ,osition among all the li0ing thingsE
for he has the a'ilit1 to *or. out his o*n sal0ation. He is
+onsidered the highest in the hierar+h1 of 'eings 'e+ause of
the ,o*er that he +an *ield for the *elfare of himself and
8:A. Vimana0atthu Afha.athaE ,. 87
8:C. "'idE ,. 4>
8C>
others. He is not +onsidered as a ,enitent sinner *ho should
,ra1 for 0i+arious hel, for his o*n sal0ation. "t is em,hasised
that the +o0eted ,osition human 'eings o++u,1 among all
the 'eings +annot 'e +hallenged '1 an1 god or Bara or
BrahmaE the +reator%god of Hinduism. Ban is gi0en full
autonom1 of Iudgement *ith regard to alternati0e ethi+al
+ondu+t there'1 ena'ling him to model his o*n destin1.
Onl1 a man +an 'e+ome a Buddha or Bodhisatta. The
realisation of the Buddhist ideal +annot 'e a++om,lished '1
a 'eing 'orn as a god of the fine material s,hereE mu+h lessE
of 'eings *ho ha0e 'een 'orn in the s,irit *orldE ghost
*orldE ,urgator1 and animal .ingdom. Ban has the ,o*er
of de0elo,ing his 'rains to its full +a,a+it1 together *ith ,enetrati0e
*isdom <,aKisam'hidJ= to attain the highest goal in
Buddhism. The Buddhist +on+e,t of man is a de0iation from
the theisti+ +on+e,t of man in an1 *orld religion. Ban has
e0ol0ed to 'e *hat he isE o0er a long ,eriod of 'illions of
1earsE the s+ientists *ould sa1. Buddhism does not go to the
e/tent of s,ea.ing on the origin of man or the other s,e+ies
and satisf1 the daft +uriosit1 of ,eo,le '1 +on+o+ting stories
of +reationE 'ut man has 'een gi0en the ,ride of ,la+e and
res,onsi'ilit1 for his o*n sal0ation. Hamlet in the Sha.es,earean
,la1 e/+laimed&
P)hat a ,ie+e of *or. is manH Ho* no'le in
reason\ Ho* infinite in fa+ult1\ "n formE and
mo0ingE ho* e/,ress and admira'le\ "n a+tionE
ho* li.e an angel\ "n a,,rehensionE ho* li.e a god\
The 'eaut1 of the *orld\ The ,aragon of animals\
And 1et *hat is this Luintessen+e of dustHQ
8C:
Ban has all the e/+ellen+eE gra+e and dignit1 as Sha.es,eare
e/,ressed his *onder through Hamlet. But it is a
,it1 that Pfe* are there amongst men *ho go 'e1ond the
+1+le of 'irth and death. The rest of man.ind is onl1 run
8:7
a'out on the 'an..Q
Ban D So+iet1
Ban is 'orn into so+iet1E 'rought u, in so+iet1 and he
+ontinues to li0e in so+iet1 until his death. An as+eti+E tooE
lea0es 'ehind all his en+um'ran+es of household life and
de,arts to forestE +arries *ith him the e/,erien+e he
a+Luired *hen he *as li0ing in so+iet1. Ban 'eing a so+ial
animalE he a+Luires his human nature or humane Lualities
from li0ing in so+iet1 and maintains relations through
+ommuni+ation *ith the other mem'ers *ho +onstitute
so+iet1. No man on earth +an de0elo, his ,ersonalit1 *ithout
the hel, of an1 .ind of human so+iet1. The im,a+t
so+iet1 ma.es on an indi0idual is so strong that it should
'e +onsidered as the most fundamental and im,ortant
fa+tor *hi+h 'uilds the +hara+ter of an indi0idual. A +hild
from his 'irth is under so+ial influen+eE 'e+ause he learns
from othersE firstl1 from ,arents and then from tea+hers
and others. Unli.e among other s,e+iesE human +hild
needs mother2s +are and ,rote+tion for se0eral 1ears. He
li0es *ith others. )hen he is gro*n u, to 'e a manE he
de0elo,s +ommuni+ation *ith others *ea0ing a net*or.
of relationshi, *ith others. He is +aught u, in the *e' of
o'ligations and +ommitments to his fello* 'eings +alled
8:7. Dh,. 7@
8C@
so+iet1. There is no so+iet1 *ithout humans and no
humans *ithout so+iet1. This interde,enden+e of so+iet1
and man is ,ersisting not onl1 for the sa.e of mutual
sur0i0al 'ut also for the fulfilment of higher ideals related
to 'oth man and so+iet1. So+iet1 e/isted long 'efore *e
are 'orn into it and it *ill +ontinue to e/ist e0en long after
*e are dead and gone.
so+iet1. There is no so+iet1 *ithout humans and no
humans *ithout so+iet1. This interde,enden+e of so+iet1
and man is ,ersisting not onl1 for the sa.e of mutual
sur0i0al 'ut also for the fulfilment of higher ideals related
to 'oth man and so+iet1. So+iet1 e/isted long 'efore *e
are 'orn into it and it *ill +ontinue to e/ist e0en long after
*e are dead and gone.
stru+ting
him on 0aluesE rightsE dutiesE manners and 'eha0ioural
,atterns and man1 more and dire+ts him to li0e
a meaningful and ,ur,oseful life. On the other handE man
also +ontri'utes his share to so+iet1 as an a+ti0e mem'er
of it '1 *a1 of +ontinuing his so+ial heritage or resha,ing
it ideologi+all1.
BuddhismE Ban D So+iet1
The inter%relationshi, of man and so+iet1 is a++e,ted in
Buddhism. Hen+e so+ial ethi+s in Buddhism is for the *elfare
of 'oth man and so+iet1. The 3i0e Pre+e,ts <,aT+asila=E the
3our Su'lime A'odes <+attJro 'ra'ma0ihJrJ=E the 3our )a1s
of Sho*ing 3a0our <-attJri saXgaha 0atthVni= and the Ten
)holesome Deeds <dasa.usala= often dis+ussed in the +anoni+al
te/ts 0indi+ate Buddhism2s so+ial +on+ern ta.ing the
indi0idual as an integral ,art of it. Therefore Buddhist
ethi+s 'e+ome meaningful onl1 in the +onte/t of so+iet1.
Su'lime A'odes are& !o0ing indnessE -om,assionE
Altruisti+ or S1m,atheti+ ?o1 and ELuanimit1. Needless to
sa1 these mental attitudes are to 'e de0elo,ed in relation to
8CA
others in so+iet1. "n the same *a1 the 3our )a1s of Sho*ing
3a0ourE namel1 '1 li'eralit1E .indl1 s,ee+hE 'enefi+ial
a+tions and im,artialit1 are to 'e ,ra+tised for the sa.e of
others. The 3i0e Pre+e,tsE tooE ensure one2s so+ial ,osition
as a +onstituent ,art of so+iet1. )ith referen+e to Ten )holesome
DeedsE the first fourE ,re+e,ts are dis+ussed in the
8:6
SJle11a.a%sutta of the BaIIhima%ni.a1a in detail. The Ten
)holesome Deeds are dis+ussed in relation to one2s +ondu+t
of 'od1E *ord and mind.
Herein the Buddha sa1s&
PAnd ho*E householdersE are the three .inds of
'odil1 +ondu+t not in a++ordan+e *ith the
DhammaE unrighteous +ondu+tH Here someone
.ills li0ing 'eingsR he is murderousE 'lood1%handedE
gi0en to 'lo*s and 0iolen+eE mer+iless to li0ing
'eings. He ta.es *hat is not gi0enR he ta.es '1 *a1
of theft the *ealth and ,ro,ert1 of others in the
0illage or forest. He mis+ondu+ts himself in sensual
,leasuresR he has inter+ourse *ith *omen *ho are
,rote+ted '1 their mother and fatherE 'rotherE
sisterE or relati0esE *ho ha0e a hus'andE *ho are
,rote+ted '1 la*E and e0en *ith those *ho are
garlanded in to.en of 'etrothal. That is ho* there
are three .inds of 'odil1 +ondu+t not in a++ordan+e
*ith the DhammaE unrighteous +ondu+t.Q
PAnd ho*E householdersE are there four .inds of
0er'al +ondu+t not in a++ordan+e *ith the
8:6. B. "E ,. 47A
8CC
DhammaE unrighteous +ondu+tH Here someone
s,ea.s falsehood. )hen summoned to a +ourtE or
to a meetingE or to his relati0es2 ,resen+eE and
Luestioned as a *itness thus& GSo good manE tell
*hat 1ou .no*.2 Not .no*ingE he sa1sE G" .no*2E or
.no*ingE he sa1sE G" do not .no*2E not seeingE he
sa1s G" see2E or seeingE he sa1sE G" do not see2R in full
a*areness he s,ea.s falsehood for his o*n endsE or
for another2s endsE or for some trifling *orldl1 end.Q
DhammaE unrighteous +ondu+tH Here someone
s,ea.s falsehood. )hen summoned to a +ourtE or
to a meetingE or to his relati0es2 ,resen+eE and
Luestioned as a *itness thus& GSo good manE tell
*hat 1ou .no*.2 Not .no*ingE he sa1sE G" .no*2E or
.no*ingE he sa1sE G" do not .no*2E not seeingE he
sa1s G" see2E or seeingE he sa1sE G" do not see2R in full
a*areness he s,ea.s falsehood for his o*n endsE or
for another2s endsE or for some trifling *orldl1 end.Q
The Dignit1 of Ban
P$our o*n self is
1our o*n mainsta1E
for *ho else +ould 1our mainsta1 'eH
)ith 1ou 1ourself *ell%trained
1ou o'tain the mainsta1
hard to o'tain.Q
Dhamma,adaE 8A5
Translated '1 Thanissaro Bhi..hu
8C7
Onl1 )hat is Pragmati+
On+e the E/alted One *hile sta1ing at osam'i in Siaesa,J
Gro0e gathered u, a fe* Siaesa,J lea0es in his hand and
said to the mon.s&
P)hat *ould 1ou thin.E mon.sE *hi+h are the more
numerousE Iust this mere handful of Siaesa,J lea0es
" ha0e here in m1 handE or those in the gro0e
o0erheadHQ
PVer1 fe* in num'erE !ordE are the lea0es in the
handful gathered u, '1 the E/alted oneR mu+h are in
num'er those o0erhead.Q
P?ust soE mon.sE mu+h more in num'er are those things
that " ha0e found outE 'ut not re0ealedR 0er1 fe* are
the things " ha0e re0ealed. And *h1E mon.sE " ha0e not
re0ealed themH Be+ause the1 are not +on+erned *ith
,rofitE the1 are not rudiments of the hol1 lifeE the1 +ondu+e
not to re0ulsionE to dis,assionE to +essationE to
tranLuillit1E to full +om,rehensionE to the ,erfe+t *isdomE
to Ni''Jna. That is *h1 " ha0e not re0ealed them.Q
S. VE >C5
8C6
86. 86.
Buddhism is re+ognised as a ,ragmati+ religion 'ased on
a ,ragmati+ ,hiloso,h1. Undou'tedl1E the em,hasis that
Buddhism la1s on ,ra+ti+e ,rom,ted the s+holars *ho
*rote on Buddhism to introdu+e Buddhism as a ,ragmati+
religion and ,hiloso,h1. BuddhismE e0en in its earlier formE
'eing a religion maintaining a *orld0ie* of its o*nE re+ommends
a ,ro,er moral +ondu+t for ,ra+ti+e and realisation
of the goal it ad0o+ates. Sin+e it ,ro+laims a s+heme of
+ondu+t to 'e ,ra+tised for the 'etterment of one2s life here
and hereafterE and for the attainment of the su,reme BlissE
it +an 'e a,tl1 named as a religion of ,ra+ti+e. Assuredl1E
Buddhism is ,ragmati+ as it is to 'e ,ra+tised deli'eratel1.
it is also utilitarian as it is +on+erned onl1 a'out *hat is
useful for the attainment of the goal it enun+iates.
S+holars on Buddhist A,,roa+h
Brs. #h1s Da0ids has used 'oth e,ithets *ith referen+e to
the Buddha and Buddhism. A++ording to herE the Buddha
+an 'e +alled a utilitarian in the sense of 'eing a ,ragmatist
for *hom truth is *hat G*or.s2. She further remar.s in
elu+idation of her 0ie*&
PUtilitarian might 'e urged *ith some *eight.
G#ationalisti+2 surel1 not. "n the 0er1 sutta +hosen
to illustrate the latterE the JlJma dis+ourseE rat
ional grounds for testing the gos,el are onl1 +ited
to 'e ,ut asideW. The test to 'e used is G)hat
875
8@5
effe+t *ill this tea+hing ,rodu+e on m1 lifeH2Q
Poussin used the *ord G,ragmatiLue2 *hile referring to Bud
8@8
dhism. Hiri1annaE in his GOutlines of "ndian Philoso,h12E
naming Buddhism as ,ragmati+ sa1s further&
P"t is ,ragmati+. The Buddha taught onl1 *hat is
ne+essar1 for o0er+oming e0il *hose ,re0alen+e isE
a++ording to HimE the +hief +hara+teristi+ of lifeQ.
-ontinuing his argumentE he Luotes the ,ara'le .no*n as
the Handful of SiXsa,J !ea0esE to highlight the ,rin+i,le
that guided the Buddha in His numerous dis+ourses. The
Buddha ,i+.ing u, a handful of siXsa,J lea0es d*elt on
the fa+t that *hat he had +om,rehended *as mu+h moreE
li.e the siXsa,J lea0es in the forestE and the little that He
had re0ealed *as +om,ara'le to the handful of lea0es in
His hand. A++ording to himE the Buddha *as a ,ragmatistE
'e+ause He neither found timeE nor He had a need to
unra0el meta,h1si+al su'tleties. He *as thus ,ra+ti+al in
8@4
His tea+hing.
. N. ?a1atille.e strongl1 holds that the Buddha *as a
,ragmatist. He addu+es man1 an instan+e from the +anon
together *ith the Para'le of the Arro*E the Para'le of the
#aftE and the Nuestions to 'e Set Aside <a01J.ata= in su,8@>
,ort of his 0ie*. To -on]eE ho*e0erE Buddhist ,ragmatism
is of a different .indE *hi+h he introdu+ed as Gdiale+t
8@5. Nuoted in EBT ,,. >@A9C
8@8. O,. -it.
8@4. O"Ph. ,. 8>C
8@>. EBT ,. >>C ff
878
i+al2E G,ragmati+2 and G,s1+hologi+al2. -on+luding his o'ser0ation
he sa1s&
P)e +an thereforeE sa1 *ith some truth that Buddhist
thin.ing tends in the dire+tion *hat *e +alled
8@:
,ragmatism.Q
Although Buddhism ad0o+ates a ,ragmati+ and utilitarian
religious ,ra+ti+e of its o*nE free from ,ra1er and *orshi, as
*ell as rites and ritualsE one has to 'e +autious *hen using
the e,ithets G,ragmati+2 and Gutilitarian2 to Lualif1 Buddhism
in its entiret1. Be+auseE the use of these t*o terms *ould
tem,t one to +onsider that Buddhism is on ,ar *ith t*o +ontem,orar1
,hiloso,hi+al s1stems .no*n as ,ragmatism and
utilitarianism. There ma1 'eE of +ourseE some ,hiloso,hi+al
tenets +ommon to all the three s1stems. Ne0ertheless
*hen ta.en as de0elo,ed ,hiloso,hi+al s1stemsE fundamentall1
the1 are different from one another. Therefore
the use of these t*o terms in relation to Buddhism is am'iguous.
A,,arentl1E in Buddhist +onte/tE the1 are to 'e
understood in their general sense. Hen+eE in order to
a0oid an1 +onfusionE it is ,lausi'le to understand *hat
these t*o s1stems of ,hiloso,h1 are.
Utilitarianism D Pragmatism& An O0er0ie*
The English ,hiloso,hers ?erem1 Bentham <8C:7987>4=
and ?ohn Stuart Bill <8757987C>= *ere the initial e/,onents
of utilitarianismE *hi+h attem,ts to la1 do*n an o'Ie+ti0e
,rin+i,le for determining *hether a gi0en a+tion is
8@:. Buddhism its Essen+e and De0elo,mentE ,,. 8@9A
874
right or *rong. Prin+i,all1E an a+tion is right insofar as it
tends to ,rodu+e the greatest ha,,iness for the greatest
num'er. Although later *e find de0iations from the original
inter,retationE 'oth of them inter,reted Gha,,iness2 as a
form of hedonisti+ ,leasure. Hen+e the theor1 amounts to
sa1ing that an a+tion is right if it is ,rodu+ti0e of the greatest
amount of ,leasure for the greatest num'erR other*ise it is
*rong. Essentiall1E utilitarianism is a ,hiloso,h1E *hi+h la1s
stress u,on the effe+ts of an a+tion. "f an a+tion 'ears 'enefi+ial
results o0er harmful onesE then it is +onsidered right.
The most note*orth1 thing in this +onne+tion is the se,aration
of moti0e and intention from an a+tion. As the1 argueE
Hitler might ha0e a+ted *ith good intention to im,ro0e
German1E 'ut his a+tion led to tortureE geno+ide of ?e*s and
+reated ,ani+ all o0er the *orldE ultimatel1 ruining German1
itself. Therefore his a+tion is not a utilitarian one. Thus utilitarianism
as a moral theor1 distinguishes the rightness or
the *rongness of an a+tion from the goodness or 'adness
of a doer *ho ,erforms the a+tion.
-harles Saunders Peir+e <87>69868:= and )illiam
?ames <87:498685= are the founders of ,ragmatismE *hi+h
later ela'orated '1 ?ohn De*e1 <87@6986@4= and others.
Pragmatism is a ,hiloso,h1 de0elo,ed against traditional
,hiloso,hi+al thought. ?ust after the -i0il )arE 1oung
Ameri+a *as 0igorousl1 loo.ing for a ,hiloso,h1 +ondu+i0e
to their mar+h to*ard ,rogress. The1 argued that traditional
,hiloso,h1 *as se,arated from dail1 life and needs. The
immediate +on+ern of the ne* nation *as to find a ne*
,hiloso,h1E *hi+h *ould harness them to attain su++ess.
Therefore the1 formulated the ne* theor1 as a method of
87>
sol0ing intelle+tual ,ro'lems. TheoriesE a++ording to themE
are instrumentsR the ,ro'lems must 'e sol0ed *ith their
hel,. Sin+e a theor1 is true onl1 if it +an sol0e ,ro'lemsE a
true theor1 has a ,ragmati+ 0alue. The +riterion of Iudging
the truth%0alue of a theor1 is s+ien+e. There is a relationshi,
'et*een truth and goodE and that *hi+h 1ields good results
in terms of e/,erien+e is a ,ragmati+ truth. "t *as De*e1
*ho de0elo,ed the theor1 +onsidera'l1 in man1 res,e+ts.
sol0ing intelle+tual ,ro'lems. TheoriesE a++ording to themE
are instrumentsR the ,ro'lems must 'e sol0ed *ith their
hel,. Sin+e a theor1 is true onl1 if it +an sol0e ,ro'lemsE a
true theor1 has a ,ragmati+ 0alue. The +riterion of Iudging
the truth%0alue of a theor1 is s+ien+e. There is a relationshi,
'et*een truth and goodE and that *hi+h 1ields good results
in terms of e/,erien+e is a ,ragmati+ truth. "t *as De*e1
*ho de0elo,ed the theor1 +onsidera'l1 in man1 res,e+ts.
No*E *ith this 'a+.ground in mindE *e +an ,ro'e into the
Buddhist +anoni+al te/ts to see ho* far it is ,ragmati+ and
utilitarian and not as ela'orated in these t*o s1stems of
,hiloso,h1E 'ut in the general a,,li+ation of the terms in
+ommon use. Buddhism is ,ragmati+E 'e+ause it en0isages
a ,ra+ti+a'le *a1 for ,ra+ti+e. "t is utilitarianE 'e+ause it
enun+iates onl1 *hat is useful to ,ra+tise for the realisation
of the goal. Time and again the Buddha ,ro+laimed
the utilitarian and ,ragmati+ 0alues of the do+trine *ith
em,hati+ terms.
"n the 0er1 first dis+ourseE *here the 3our No'le Truths
are introdu+ed for the first timeE it is stated that those truths
ha0e three +ir+les <ti,ari0aKKa= and t*el0e modes <d0JdasJ.Jra=.
The .no*ledge of ea+h No'le Truth is one of the
three +ir+les amounting to four modes. Then *ith regard to
the 3irst TruthE it should 'e +om,rehended <,ariTTe11aX=
and has 'een +om,rehended <,ariTTJtaX=. The Se+ond
should 'e a'andoned <,ahJta''aX= and has 'een a'andoned
<,ahinaX=. The Third should 'e realised <sa++hi
87:
.Jta''aX= and has 'een realised <sa++hi.ataX= and the
3ourth should 'e de0elo,ed <'hJ0eta''aX= and has 'een
de0elo,ed <'hJ0itaX=. The anal1sis of these t*el0e modes
*ould su'stantiate the fa+t that the tea+hing of the Buddha
is not a mere ,hiloso,hi+al h1,othesisE 'ut a do+trine to 'e
understood and ,ra+tised. Therefore the .no*ledge and
,ra+ti+e of these t*el0e modes are .no*n as Gseeing things
as the1 reall1 are2 <1athJ'hVtaTJFadassana=.
.Jta''aX= and has 'een realised <sa++hi.ataX= and the
3ourth should 'e de0elo,ed <'hJ0eta''aX= and has 'een
de0elo,ed <'hJ0itaX=. The anal1sis of these t*el0e modes
*ould su'stantiate the fa+t that the tea+hing of the Buddha
is not a mere ,hiloso,hi+al h1,othesisE 'ut a do+trine to 'e
understood and ,ra+tised. Therefore the .no*ledge and
,ra+ti+e of these t*el0e modes are .no*n as Gseeing things
as the1 reall1 are2 <1athJ'hVtaTJFadassana=.
PA'stention from all e0ilE +ulti0ation of good and
,urifi+ation of one2s mind S this is the Tea+hing of
the BuddhasQ.
<Sa''a,J,assa a.araFaX S
.usalassa u,asam,adJ
Sa+itta,ari1oda,anaX S
8@@
etaX 'uddhanasJsanaX=.
Then again it is stressed&
PStri0ing should 'e done '1 1oursel0esE the Tathagatas
are onl1 tea+hers. The meditati0e onesE *ho enter the
*a1E are deli0ered from the 'onds of BJraQ.
<Tumhehi .i++aX Jta,,aX S
a..hJtJro TathJgatJ
PaKi,annJ ,amo..hanti S
8@A
IhJ1ino mJra 'andhanJ=.
8@@. Dh,. 87>
8@A. Dh,. 4CA
87@
Bere re+itation of the s+ri,tures *ithout ,ra+ti+e is +riti+ised
and the ,erson *ho engages onl1 in re+itation is
+om,ared to a +o*herd *ho does not deri0e the 'enefit
of rearing +o*s&
PThough mu+h he re+ites the Sa+red Te/tsE 'ut a+ts
not a++ordingl1E that heedless man is li.e a +o*herd
*ho +ounts others2 .ine. He has no share in
the hol1 lifeQ.
<Bahum2 ,i +e sahitaX 'hJsamJno S
na ta..aro hoti naro ,amatto
Go,o20a gJ0o gaF1aX ,aresaX S
8@C
na 'hJga0J sJmaTTassa hoti=
"n the same toneE it is said that the *iseE '1 degreesE little '1
littleE from time to timeE should remo0e their taintsE Iust as a
8@7
smith remo0es the dross of sil0er. "n Buddhist ethi+al +ondu+tE
until one realises the su,reme stateE one is +alled a
moral trainee <se.ha=E 'e+ause he is still on the ,ath of
,ra+ti+e. Onl1 after the realisation of the o'Ie+ti0e he is +alled
a moral ade,t <ase.ha=. The Buddha2s +all to ,ra+tise
the Dhamma is again found in the DhammadJ1Jda%sutta of
the BaIIhima%ni.a1a&
PBeditateE O mon.sE under these foot of trees and in
these remote lodgings lest 1ou re,ent after*ardsQ.
"n the AlagaddV,ama%suttaE it has 'een stated +ategori+all1
*ith the Para'le of the #aft that the do+trine should
8@C. Dh,. 86
8@7. Dh,. 4>6
87A
'e ta.en as a means to an end and not to 'e ta.en as an
end in itself. HereinE *e are reminded of )illiam ?amesE
*ho asserted that theories should 'e instruments to sol0e
the ,ro'lems of da1 to da1 life. Buddhism s,ea.s of its
threefold +hara+teristi+& !earning <,ari1atti=E Pra+ti+e <,aKi,atti=
and #ealisation <,aKi0edha=. These three are related to
one another.
There *ould not 'e ,ra+ti+e *ithout learning and realisation
*ithout ,ra+ti+e. The self%same ,ragmati+ a,,roa+h
is seen in the des+ri,tion of Gradual Dis+i,line <anu,u''asi..hJ=E
Gradual A+tion <anu,u''a.iri1J= and Gradual Training
<anu,u''a,ati,adJ=.
aen Baster On Pragmatism
A aen mon. *as sitting in Beditation on+e for a *hole da1.
His Baster as.ed him *hat he sought.
PB1 desire is to 'e+ome a BuddhaEQ said the mon..
Baster ,i+.ed u, a ,ie+e of 'ri+. and 'egan to ,olish it on a
stone. As.ed to e/,lain his a+tionE the Baster said he
*ished to ma.e a mirror.
PBut no amount of ,olishing a 'ri+. *ill ma.e it into a mirrorEQ
said the mon..
P"f soE no amount of sitting +ross%legged *ill ma.e thee into a
Buddha.Q
Sure.ha V. !ima1e
aen <Buddhism= and B1sti+ismE ,. @A
87C
No Anthro,ologi+al Dimension in Buddhism
PSo far as earl1 Buddhism is +on+erned it does not
,resent the essential as,e+ts of antiLue religionsE
as illustrated in Eg1,tE Ba'1lon and BohenIodaroR it is
de0elo,ed form of religion. Hen+e the anthro,ologi+al
in0estigations into the origins of religions are more
a,,li+a'le to the "ndus Valle1 religion and the earliest
strata of the Vedi+ religion than to the Ti,ita.a
Buddhism.Q
Vish0anath Prasad Varma
Earl1 Buddhism and its OriginsE ,,. 4C97
877
45. 45.
BuddhismE among other religionsE +ults and religious 'elief
s1stemsE is one of the *orld religions ,ossessing a histor1 of
*ell o0er t*o and a half millennia. "t started in a s,e+ifi+
,eriod in a ,arti+ular territor1 in the "ndian su'+ontinent
'1 a uniLue human ,ersonalit1 ,o,ularl1 .no*n as Buddha.
He *as 'orn to human ,arents and li0ed an e/em,lar1
earthl1 lifeE ins,iring an a*areness in others to 'e oneself
and Gstri0e for one2s o*n 'etterment '1 oneself. "n +onsideration
of His e/traordinar1 +ondu+t and *isdom *ith
*hi+h He addressed to human reasonE He *as and still is
honoured as an in+om,ara'le Tea+her of human.ind the
*orld has e0er ,rodu+ed. Sin+e the do+trine that He
,rea+hed for fort1%fi0e 1ears of His earthl1 +areer is 'ased
on a theor1 dis+o0ered '1 Himself and is related to ,ra+ti+eR
it is 'oth ,hiloso,hi+al and religious in ,o,ular a,,li+ationsE
of the terms and is .no*n +olle+ti0el1 as Buddhism.
)hat is Philoso,h1H
As *e .no* toda1E ,hiloso,h1 is one of the a+ademi+
dis+i,lines for higher studies in the *orld o0er. Sin+e the
su'Ie+t of ,hiloso,h1E in the +ourse of +enturiesE has gro*n
out of ,ro,ortionE it has 'een de,artmentalised into fi0e
'ran+hes of stud1. The1 are .no*n as meta,h1si+sE ethi+sE
aestheti+sE e,istemolog1 and logi+. Beta,h1si+sE ha0ing t*o
su'di0isions +alled ontolog1 and +osmolog1E deals *ith
first ,rin+i,lesE and thereforeE de0iates from Buddhism2s
a,,roa+h to realit1. Buddhism a'ounds in ethi+al and
876
aestheti+ e/hortations ,arti+ular to itself together *ith a
+ogent ,resentation of e,istemologi+al data on a sound
footing. #egarding logi+E Buddhism adheres to indu+tion
*hile finding fault *ith dedu+tion as a 0alid means of
.no*ledge. Ho*e0erE on an em,iri+al le0elE logi+al +oheren+e
and +onsisten+1 of ,ro,ositions are en+ouraged for
'etter understandingE 'ut s,e+ulati0e reasoning and a'stra+tions
on su+h reasoning are dis+ouraged. BesidesE in
some instan+esE diale+ti+sE tooE has 'een em,lo1ed as a
logi+al a,,aratus for the ,ur,ose of highlighting the ,ragmati+
as,e+t of His do+trine. Buddhism has interest in
neither ontolog1 nor +osmolog1R ho*e0erE the des+ri,tions
of ,lanes of e/isten+e found in the +anoni+al te/tsE
are referred to as Buddhist +osmolog1 '1 some *riters. "n
,hiloso,hi+al studies +osmolog1 is a stud1 of the origin
and stru+ture of the uni0erse. Sin+e the Buddhist des+ri,tion
of ,lanes of e/isten+e does not deal *ith the origin or
stru+ture of the uni0erseE Buddhism has no +osmolog1 in
the sense that it has 'een used in ,hiloso,h1.
The English *ord G,hiloso,h12 is deri0ed from a Gree.
term meaning Glo0e of .no*ledge or *isdom2. Ne0erthelessE
at ,resentE a,art from using it to introdu+e the dis+i,line
.no*n '1 the name G,hiloso,h12E the term is used to
denoteE Gan attitude to*ard +ertain a+ti0it1 and +on+e,ts
underl1ing a+ademi+ dis+i,lines2. Therefore the term is
,o,ularl1 used together *ith other dis+i,lines su+h as histor1E
la*E religionE so+iolog1 and so on to name the underl1ing
train of thought of those su'Ie+tsE e. g.E ,hiloso,h1 of
histor1E ,hiloso,h1 of la*E ,hiloso,h1 of religion and
,hiloso,h1 of so+iolog1. )hen *e ta.e ,hiloso,h1 as a
865
se,arate 'ran+h of stud1 *ith its su'di0isionsE it 'eing a
sort of mental ad0enture is 'uilt on s,e+ulati0e reasoning
that ,ro'es into things 'e1ond our ,henomenal e/,erien+e.
Parti+ularl1E meta,h1si+s in ,hiloso,h1 is +uriosit1
moti0ated. ThereforeE -. E. B. ?oadE ans*ering the Luestion
,osed '1 himselfE P)h1 *e stud1 ,hiloso,h1HQ asserts&
PThere is onl1 one ans*er to the Luestion.
8@6
To satisf1 the im,ulse of +uriosit1.Q
"s Buddhism a Philoso,h1H
The Pali *ord GdiKKhi2 stands for ,hiloso,h1E and literall1
means Ga 0ie*2. T*o .inds of 0ie*s are distinguished& )rong
Vie* <mi++hJ diKKhi= and #ight Vie* <sammJ diKKhi=. )hile
)rong Vie* hinders one2s ,ath to li'erationE #ight Vie*
lights u, one2s ,ath. Ver1 often than not a s,e+ulati0e 0ie*
is +hara+terised as Gthi+.et of 0ie*sE the *ilderness of
0ie*sE the +ontortion of 0ie*sE the 0a+illation of 0ie*s and
the fetter of 0ie*s2. And further it is stated that 'e+ause of
a 0ie* adhered to '1 an untaught ordinar1 ,ersonE he is
not freed from 'irthE ageingE deathE sorro*E lamentationE
,ainE grief and des,air. "n shortE he is not freed from the
mass of suffering he is ,resentl1 undergoing. <See B. "E ,. 6=.
#ight Vie* isE ho*e0erE eLuated *ith G0ision2 <dassana=.
Therefore a Buddhist is ad0ised to gi0e u, 0ie*s and to 'e
endo*ed *ith 0ision <diKKhiX +a anu,agamma dassanena
sam,anno=. "t is *ell .no*n ho* the Buddha anal1sed
si/t1%t*o ,hiloso,hi+al 0ie*s in the BrahmaIJla%sutta of
the Digha%ni.a1a. All those 0ie*s *ere in 0ogue in +on
8@6. ?oad -.E.E Philoso,h1E ,. 8A
868
tem,orar1 "ndiaE the Buddha reIe+ted them on the ground
that the1 *ere mere 0ie*s or s,e+ulati0e ,hiloso,hies
ser0ing no su'stantial ,ur,ose.
tem,orar1 "ndiaE the Buddha reIe+ted them on the ground
that the1 *ere mere 0ie*s or s,e+ulati0e ,hiloso,hies
ser0ing no su'stantial ,ur,ose.
folds
a theor1 leading to *isdom. The ,ath of ,ra+ti+e en0isaged
in Buddhism +ulminates in *isdomE *hi+h is other*ise
+alled Ginsight2. Among different .inds of ,hiloso,hi+al
s1stems in the *orldE Buddhism o++u,ies a uniLue ,osition.
"t is not a ,hiloso,h1 as ,hiloso,h1 ,er se. Sin+e it is a ,ra+ti+al
,hiloso,h1E it has not engaged in mere s,e+ulation
on man and his destin1. "t ,oints out a *a1 for his ,erfe+tionE
*hi+h is to 'e ,ra+tised in his dail1 life. "t is a ,hiloso,h1
*ith a tinge of moralit1 influen+ing man2s +ondu+t.
)hat is #eligionH
The *ord Greligion2 is defined in di+tionaries *ith a theisti+
'ias. A++ording to di+tionariesE thereforeE it is a s1stem of
'eliefsE re,osing +onfiden+e in a su,ernatural 'eing. The
definitions gi0en in di+tionariesE ho*e0erE do not e/haust
all forms of *orshi, and moral ,ra+ti+es .no*n '1 the
term Greligion2 toda1. )hen *e e/amine *orld religions
indi0iduall1E *e see that Buddhism is de0oid of t*o
fundamentals found in almost all the religions .no*n to
us. The1 are the +on+e,t of a +reator god and the theor1
of Soul. "t is 'elie0ed that the +on+e,t of god in monotheisti+
sense has originated from ,ol1theism as in "ndiaE
Gree+e and #ome. !aterE god *as +on+ei0ed not onl1 as
the ar+hite+t of the uni0erseE 'ut also as one *ho a+ti0el1
864
inter0ened in natural for+es and the destin1 of humanit1.
Brahmanism <later Hinduism=E ?udaismE -hristianit1 and
"slam +laim that god is re0ealed in their s+ri,tures. -hristian
theolog1 addu+es se0eral arguments to ,ro0e the e/isten+e
godE *hi+h ha0e 'een thoroughl1 e/amined and +riti+ised
'1 inde,endent thin.ers. Buddhism dismisses the
theor1 of +reation as a m1th and refutes the +on+e,t of
3irst -ause or Un+aused -auseE the name gi0en to godE on
the 'asis of Buddhist tea+hing +alled -ausal Genesis. Soul
theor1 has ta.en different forms in different religions. Some
religions s,ea. of a ma+ro+osmi+ soul and a mi+ro+osmi+
soulE the latter is said to 'e merged *ith the ma+ro+osmi+
soul at the end. $et some other religions sa1 that it is the
mani.in in manE *hi+h is sa0ed '1 god for eternal life.
Buddhism reIe+ts all forms of 0ie*s on soul and +lassifies
the human ,erson into fi0e aggregates and esta'lishes the
fa+ts of im,ermanen+e and suffering related to aggregates.
#eligion 'egan *ith ,rimiti0e lifeE ,ro'a'l1 *ith animisti+
'eliefs and magi+E and e0ol0ed throughout human
+i0ilisation. So+iologist #ee+e B+Gee identified four t1,es
of religions e/isting toda1&
8. Sim,le su,ernaturalism
4. Animism
>. Theism
:. Trans+endental idealism
Sin+e Buddhism em,hasises good +ondu+t and self%+ulture
dire+ted to*ards a trans+endental ideal stateE it falls into
the fourth t1,e. As it is ethi+al from 'eginning to the endE
it en0isages ethi+al and moral ,ra+ti+e in e0er1 ,hase
86>
of man2s ,ilgrimage to ,erfe+tion. "t is a religion free from
either monotheism or monism. "t ,ro0ides a graduated
+ourse of moral a+tion for the realisation of the ideal it o'Ie+tifies.
#adha.risnan in his G"ndian Philoso,h12 named
Buddhism as GEthi+al "dealism2.
Buddhism as a #eligion
)hate0er 'e the di+tionar1 meaning gi0en to the term
Greligion2 from the )estern angleE Buddhism is re+ognised
as a *orld religion. A,art from the 'elief of an almight1
god to *hom one should ,ra1 for one2s sal0ation and the
+on+e,t of soulE Buddhism entertains man1 of the +hara+teristi+s
of a religion. "t la1s do*n a mode of ,ra+ti+e <,aKi,adJ=
for the adherent to follo*E *hi+h is ,o,ularl1 .no*n
as GBiddle Path2 <maIIhimJ ,aKi,adJ=. He or she is o'liged
to o'ser0e Buddhist ,ra+ti+eE *hi+h go0erns his or her +ondu+t.
#eligiosit1 and the ,ra+ti+e 'egin *ith the a0o*ed
,ronoun+ement of allegian+e to go to the refuge of the
BuddhaE the do+trine and the +ommunit1 of mon.s. Then
he or she 'e+omes a male or female la1 de0otee <u,Jsa.a
or u,Jsi.J= follo*ing the religion ,rea+hed '1 the Buddha.
The *ord literall1 means Gone *ho sits near'12 <from
u,a[0
eas to sit=. B1 o'ser0ing the fi0e elementar1 ,re+e,tsE
he 'e+omes a 0irtuous adherent. This fa+t *as made
+lear '1 the Buddha to BahanamaE the Sa.1an *ho inLuired
the Buddha&
P!ordE ho* a ,erson 'e+omes a la1 dis+i,leHQ
P)henE BahanamaE a ,erson has found refuge in the
BuddhaE found refuge in the DhammaE found refuge
86:
in the OrderE then that ,erson is a la1 dis+i,le.Q
P!ordE ho* is a la1 dis+i,le 0irtuousHQ
P)henE BahanamaE a la1 dis+i,le a'stains from
ta.ing lifeR a'stains from ta.ing *hat is not gi0enR
a'stains from se/ual mis+ondu+tR a'stains from
l1ingR and a'stains from into/i+ating drin.sE *hi+h
8A5
+auses indolen+eR then a la1 dis+i,le is Virtuous.Q
B1 ta.ing refuge in the BuddhaE Dhamma and SanghaE
one tends to 'e+ome morall1 o'liged to underta.e the
res,onsi'ilit1 of o'ser0ing the ,re+e,ts resulting in him to
8A8
'e 'orn in a hea0enl1 *orld. Be+ause of e0il +ondu+t in
'od1E *ord and mindE one is 'ound to 'e 'orn in a *oe
8A4
ful state. This sho*s that Buddhism is a religion enun+iating
a *a1 of life.
)h1 is #eligion Blended *ith Philoso,h1H
P"n other *ordsE the aim of stud1ing ,hiloso,h1 is not merel1
to gratif1 theoreti+al +uriosit1E ho*e0er disinterested that
+uriosit1 ma1 'eR it is also to li0e the right .ind of lifeE
+ons+iousl1 adIusting one2s +ondu+t to one2s intelle+tual
+on0i+tions. "t is in this sense of dogma or su,erstitionE that
religion is 'lended *ith ,hiloso,h1 in "ndia.Q
B. Hiri1anna
The Essentials of "ndian Philoso,h1E ,,. 4@9A
8A5. A. """. ,. 445
8A8. S. "VE ,. 4C5
8A4. A. ". ,. @A
86@
PPatirV,a.JrU bhura0J
UKKhJtJ Vindate bhanaXQ
PToiling S reIoi+ing S sorro*ingE
On*ard through life he goesR
Ea+h morning sees some tas. 'eginE
Ea+h e0ening sees its +loseR
Something attem,tedE something doneE
Has earned a night2s re,ose.
Than.sE than.s to theeE m1 *orth1 friendE
3or the lesson thou ,ast taught\
Thus at the flaming forge of our life
Our fortunes must 'e *roughtR
Thus on its sounding an0il sha,ed
Ea+h 'urning deed and thought\Q
Henr1 )ads*orth !ongfello*
The Village Bla+.smith
86A
48. 48. h
Peo,le 0er1 often s,ea. of e+onomi+ +risis that dominates
e0er1 Luarter of the *orld. )hat the1 mean to sa1 is 'usiness
enter,rises and e+onomi+ management are e/,erien+ing
tremendous set'a+.s +reating finan+ial diffi+ulties
for e0er1one in 'oth +ommer+ial and ,ri0ate se+tors in
so+iet1.
Bar.et e+onom1E the lega+1 of industriali]ationE has
Ieo,ardi]ed e+onomi+ a+ti0it1 in man1 ,arts of the *orld
in man1 res,e+ts due to reasons 'e1ond the +ontrol of
industrial magnates and the res,e+ti0e states. The ,ro'lem
is ho* to find an antidote to alle0iate this *oe of 'usiness
entre,reneurs and the +ommon ,eo,le.
Behind de,ressionE there +an 'e some Pin0isi'le
mani,ulati0e ,o*ersQ as *ell as some e/or'itant measures
ta.en '1 a go0ernment. But on the ,ersonal le0elE
let us loo. at the ,ro'lem in Buddhist ,ers,e+ti0e and
see ho* far man himself is res,onsi'le for the situation
in *hi+h he thin.s that he is denied of Gaffluent lifest1le2
and *hat +ould 'e man2s +ontri'ution to remed1 the
situation. )e +an see that this is an age%old *oe 'ased
on man2s insatia'le desire originated from his hoarding
+ons+iousness.
)hat is to 'e noted in this regard is the Buddhist ,aradigm
in e+onomi+ managementE *hi+h is totall1 a,,li+a'le
to e0er1one and e0er1 'usiness underta.ing 'eginning
from small%s+ale ,ersonal 0entures to larges+ale multimillion
dollar enter,rises.
86C
3a+ing the Situation *ith Understanding
3a+ing the Situation *ith Understanding
8A>
se+urit1 free from sorro* and free from taints.
Gain and lossE Iust as mu+h as fame and disre,uteE
,raise and 'lameE ha,,iness and sorro*E are +om,onent
,arts of human e/,erien+e. Hen+e the1 +ome under the generi+
Buddhist term Gdu..ha2. One is ad0ised to +ondition
one2s mind to fa+e the situation *ith understanding.
Human ,ro'lems are e0er1*here. ?ust as the1 are here in
the ,resentE the1 *ere there in the ,ast and *ill 'e there in
time to +omeE too. )hat the Buddha has said some t*o
and half millenniums ago on e+onomi+ management to
those *ho sought his ad0i+eE *hen ta.en out from +ontem,orar1
"ndian +onte/tE is thereforeE rele0ant e0en to modern
so+iet1. Sin+e human greed e/tends 'e1ond the 'ounds of
human needs in alarming ,ro,ortionsE man is e0er 'ound
to e/,erien+e dissatisfa+tion and disa,,ointment in the
0entures he has underta.en.
Among the fifteen +hara+ter%'uilding Lualities in the
Betta%suttaE the Buddha delineated four Lualities to 'e +ulti0ated
'1 one *ho is treading the Buddhist ,ath. The1 are
dire+tl1 +onne+ted *ith ameliorating the finan+ial *oes of
8A>. Sn. ,. :A ff.
867
an1 indi0idual. A++ordingl1E one should 'e +ontented <santussa.a=E
easil1 su,,orta'le <su'hara=E of less underta.ing
8A:
<a,,a.i++a= and of sim,le li0ing <sallahu.a0utti=.
"n Buddhist senseE +ontentment does not mean la+. of
interest or im,assi0it1 or ina+tion in an1 0enture amounting
to doing nothing for one2s o*n ,rogress. "t is the Lualit1
of the mind that ,re,ares one to fa+e 'oth ad0antageous
and disad0antageous situations *ith eLual satisfa+tion.
"n order to .ee, one2s head a'o0e *ater one ought
to .no* the limits of one2s needs. )e ma1 'e ha0ing man1
*antsE 'ut less needs. Therefore *hat is ne+essar1 is to
readIust one2s mindset more for one2s needs a'o0e *ants
and tailor the *ants to ,ossi'le minimum limit. "nsatia'le
desire for *ants ma1 lead one to utter disa,,ointment.
)hen one understands the realit1 that life in the *orld is
8A@
in+om,leteE insatia'leE the sla0e of +ra0ingE one is more
eligi'le to fa+e the situation *ith understanding.
The Blue,rint of Su++essful !i0ing
!et us see *hat the Buddha has said to DighaIanu the
olianE *hen he +alled on the Buddha. DighaIanu said&
P)e householders are immersed in the round of
,leasure. )e are en+um'ered *ith our +onsorts
and +hildren. )e delight in muslin and sandal*ood
from Benares. )e de+. oursel0es *ith
flo*ers. !ordE su+h as usE let the E/alted One tea+h
Dhamma *hi+h *ill 'e to our ad0antage and
8A:. Sn. 8::
8A@. PVno lo.o atitto taFhJdJsoQ S B. ""E ,. AC
866
ha,,iness here on earth and for our ad0antage
and ha,,iness in the ne/t *orld after death.Q
ha,,iness here on earth and for our ad0antage
and ha,,iness in the ne/t *orld after death.Q
ness
in this life. E0en at a glan+eE one +an see not onl1 the
rele0an+e of these +onditions in the form of guidelines to
man2s e+onomi+ lifeE 'ut also the +larit1 and ,re+ision
*ith *hi+h the1 ha0e 'een ,rea+hed.
8. A+hie0ement in alertness <uKKhJnasam,adJ=
4. A+hie0ement in +onser0ation <Jra..hahasam,adJ=
>. Good +om,an1 <.al1JnamittatJ=
:. E0en life <samaIi0i.atJ=
A++ording to the first +onditionE a ,erson *ho earns his li0ing
*hether '1 tilling the soil or '1 +attle%rearing or '1 ar+her1
or '1 ser0i+e to the state or '1 an1 of the +raftsE he must
'e energeti+E tireless and gifted *ith an inLuiring turn of
mind into *a1s and means of doing the *or. in hand. He
must 'e +a,a'le of +arr1ing out his Io' *ith interest and
,erse0eran+e. He mo'ili]es his energ1 for the a+hie0ement
of 'est of results. "t is Phe *ho is energeti+E 'ears the
8AA
'urden and does *hat is 'efitting enIo1s *ealthQ.
The se+ond +ondition deals *ith the +onser0ation of
*hat is earned '1 effort and ]ealE +olle+ted '1 the strength
of one2s arm and '1 the s*eat of one2s 'ro*E Iustl1 o'tained
in a la*ful manner. The third s,ea.s of the asso+i
8AA. P,atirV,a.Jri dhura0J S uKKhJtJ 0indate dhanaXQ S Sn. 87C
455
ation *ith friends *ho are morall1 good and sound of
heart. The fourthE Ge0en life2E deals *ith an admonition to
'alan+e one2s 'udget. The +lansman *ho e/,erien+es gain
and loss should +ontinue his 'usiness serenel1E not 'eing
undul1 elated in high in+ome or de,ressed '1 lo* in+ome.
He should 'e 0igilant in o'ser0ing that his e/,enditure
does not e/+eed his in+ome. )ithout 'eing miserl1 or
e/tra0agantE he must 'e attenti0e to ma.e 'oth ends meet.
Both inlets and outlets of one2s in+ome and e/,enditure
ha0e to 'e *at+hed *ith attention to minimi]e *aste.
A Ban for All Seasons
Out of these four +onditionsE 8E 4 and : deal *ith ,ersonal
fa+tors of alertnessE +onser0ation and s,ending *hi+h are
to 'e de0ised '1 ,ersonal moti0ation. The third is the so+ial
fa+tor that 'oosts one2s self%+onfiden+e to 'e +onsiderate
in asso+iating friendsE a fa+t that has 'een anal1]ed
in the Buddhist tea+hing in numerous instan+es. Together
the four guidelines +hara+teri]e a man for all seasons.
The BuddhaE des+ri'ing the fourth +onditionE dra*s a
+lear%+ut line 'et*een the t*o e/tremes of e/tra0agant
e/,enditure and miserliness. "t is stated that a ,erson ha0ing
small earnings and li0es on a grand s+ale uses u, his
*ealth as a Gfig%tree glutton2 <udum'ara.hJda.a=E *ho 'eing
desirous of eating fig fruitsE sha.es the tree 0iolentl1E
+ausing man1 fruits to fallE ri,e and ra*. Not to s,ea. of
the ra* fruitsE a large ,art of the ri,e fruits is also *asted.
Be+ause of one2s e/tra0agant lifest1leE one soon e/hausts
*hat is in one2s +offers Iust as the Gfig%tree glutton2. A
,erson ha0ing a great in+ome and li0es stingil1 *ithout
458
s,ending e0en for 'are ne+essitiesE *ill die li.e a star0eling
<aIaddhumJri.a=E ha,less and negle+ted. Therefore one *ho
a'stains from 'oth sLuandering and stinginess and ,rone
to ma.e 'oth ends meet is a man for all seasons.
s,ending e0en for 'are ne+essitiesE *ill die li.e a star0eling
<aIaddhumJri.a=E ha,less and negle+ted. Therefore one *ho
a'stains from 'oth sLuandering and stinginess and ,rone
to ma.e 'oth ends meet is a man for all seasons.
A++ording to BuddhismE there is nothing *rong in 'e+oming
ri+hE 'ut in BuddhismE the means '1 *hi+h one 'e+omes
ri+h and the *a1 '1 *hi+h one should use one2s
ri+hes are ta.en into +onsideration. "n the Dhamma,ada it
is stated that one *ho has not li0ed the moral life and not
earned *ealth in 1outh .ee,s on 'rooding in one2s old
age li.e an old heron at a mudd1 ,ondE and also li.e a
8AC
*orn out 'o* sighing after ,ast. "n the SigJlo0JdasuttaE
the la1man is s,e+ifi+all1 as.ed to earn *ealth e0en
as 'ees +olle+ting hone1 and termites 'uilding an anthill
and s,end it *isel1. "t runs thus&
PTo him amassing *ealthE li.e ro0ing 'ee
"ts hone1 gathering and hurting naught
#i+hes mount u, as ant%hea, gro*ing high.
)hen the good la1man *ealth has so amassed
A'le is he to 'enefit his +lan
"n ,ortion four let him di0ide that *ealth
So 'inds him to himself life2s friendl1 things.
One ,ortion let him s,end and taste the fruit.
His 'usiness to +ondu+t let him ta.e t*o
And ,ortion four let him reser0e and hoardR
So there *ill 'e *here*ithal in times of needsQ.
8AC. Dh,. 8@@E 8@A
454
One might thin. that the e+onomi+ ,lanning together *ith
sa0ing for future use as en0isaged '1 the Buddha are
dire+tl1 +ontrasted *ith the Buddhist +on+e,t of renun+iation.
"t is +ertainl1 not so. #enun+iation is one thingE leading
a ha,,1 famil1 life is another. Buddhism is sometimes
misre,resented as a religion of ,essimisti+ outloo. ha0ing
a *orld%negating attitude. Buddhism is not a religion solel1
for a monasti+ +ommunit1E it em'ra+es la1 <'oth male
and female= +ommunit1 as *ell. Therefore this is one of
the glaring instan+es *here the Buddha has sho*n ho*
e+onomi+ ,lanning is ine0ita'le for e+onomi+ se+urit1 of
an1 indi0idual in so+iet1.
The in0estment of t*o ,ortions of one2s earnings is
re+ommended in anti+i,ation of a 'etter in+ome to meet
the demands in time to +ome. A ,ortion of the in+ome is
to 'e de,osited for use during une/,e+ted +alamitiesE *hi+h
*ould hel, one to 'e at ease in future 'eing free from
thoughts of fore'oding. "t ma1 'e li.e ,ur+hasing insuran+e
,oli+ies or de,ositing in 'an.s. As the +ommentar1
e/,lainsE one fourth of one2s in+ome is to 'e ta.en not
onl1 for one2s o*n su'sisten+e 'ut also for other ,ett1
e/,enses and to hel, the need1 and to gi0e a*a1 in
8A7
+harit1. "n fa+tE a ,erson *ho *hile 'eing e+onomi+all1
sound does not maintain his aged ,arents is termed as a
8A6
man of mean +hara+ter.
Sin+e e+onomi+ ,lanning is so indis,ensa'le to leading
a ha,,1 and su++essful la1 lifeE the Buddha ,ointed out to
the millionaire Anatha,indi.aE e+onomi+ sta'ilit1 <atthisu.ha=
8A7. DA. """E Se+. 4A@ S -haKKhasangJ1anJE -D%#OB
8A6. Sn. 84@
45>
*hi+h results from ,ro,er management and Iust and righteous
enter,rises <ana0aIIasu.ha= are +ontri'utor1 to one2s
ha,,iness. EnIo1ing the 'liss of not 'eing inde'ted <ananasu.ha=
one must 'e a'le to enIo1 one2s *ealth *ith friends
and relati0es <'hogasu.ha=. Sharing of one2s *ealth *ith
the need1 and the +lerg1 are highl1 +ommended 0irtues in
8C5
Buddhist ethi+s.
The Uses D A'uses of )ealth
As it is de,i+ted in the +anoni+al s+ri,turesE the Buddha is
also +on+erned not onl1 *ith the usesE 'ut the a'uses of
one2s earnings as *ell. E/,laining the A+hie0ement of Generosit1
<+Jgasam,adJ= to the millionaireE the Buddha outlines
the *a1s of utili]ing one2s *ealth ,rofita'l1E not onl1 for
8C8
one2s o*n 'enefitE 'ut for others2 'enefit as *ell. As des+ri'ed
further in the Buddha2s addressE Gone has to li0e at
home *ith heart free from taint of stinginessE o,en%handedE
,ure%handedE delighting in self%surrenderE 'eing a ,erson to
as. a fa0our ofE and dis,ensing +harita'le gifts2. -ertainl1E
*ealth is to 'e rightfull1 and la*full1 earned. G"t is to 'e
a+Luired '1 energeti+ stri0ingE amassed '1 strength of armE
*on '1 s*eatE la*ful and la*full1 gotten2 and not '1
e/,loitation of la'our or '1 illegal traffi+.ing of an1 .ind or
'1 an1 fraudulent means li.e 'la+. mar.eting or smuggling
or em'e]]lement. )ith the *ealth thus Iustl1 a+Luired Ghe
ma.es himself se+ure against all misfortunes *hatsoe0erE
su+h as ma1 ha,,en '1 *a1 of fireE *aterE the .ingE a ro'
8C5. A. ""E ,. A7
8C8. A. ""E ,. AA
45:
'erE an ill dis,osed ,erson or <e/,e+tant= heirE and de0ises
defense and se+urit1 for him2.
'erE an ill dis,osed ,erson or <e/,e+tant= heirE and de0ises
defense and se+urit1 for him2.
8.
)ith the *ealth one has la*full1 earnedE he ma.es the
motherE fatherE *ife and +hildrenE ser0ants and *or.menE
friends and +omrades ha,,1.
4.
He ma.es himself se+ure against all misfortunes su+h
as ma1 ha,,en '1 *a1 of fireE *aterE the .ingE ro''er
and ill dis,osed ,erson.
>.
He ,erforms fi0efold offerings <'ali=& to relati0es <TJti=E
to guests <athiti=E to de,arted ones <,u''a,eta=E to
.ings <rJIa= and to deities <de0atJ=.
:.
He gi0es a*a1 in +harit1 to re+luses and 'rahmins *ho
,ra+tise a'stinen+e from sloth and negligen+eE *ho
are 'ent on .indness and for'earan+eE *ho stri0e to
8C4
tameE +alm and +ool themsel0es from defilement.
The *ealth of an1one s,ent *ithout these four deeds of
merits is +alled *ealth that has failed to sei]e its o,,ortunit1E
failed to *in merits and unfittingl1 used. "n man1 a dialogue
of the BuddhaE *a1s of a'using mone1 are detailed.
"n so+iologi+al ,ers,e+ti0eE dissi,ating earnings amounts to
a +rime *ithout 0i+tims. Ne0erthelessE a'use of *ealth ruins
oneself at the 'eginning and then lea0es its im,a+t on so+
8C4. A. ""E ,.AC
45@
iet1 at the end. Peo,le a'use their *ealth not onl1 '1
hoardingE 'ut also using it e/tra0agantl1 in ,ursuits of +hea,
sensual satisfa+tionE *hi+h are dis+ussed in the SigJlo0adasutta
under Si/ Doors to )oe <+ha a,J1amu.ha=. On the
,ersonal le0el as *ell as so+ial le0elE adulter1E addi+tion to
drugs and al+hoholi+ drin.sE gam'lingE 'ad +om,an1 and
numerous other 0i+es detrimental to one2s o*n and so+iet12s
*elfare are +onsidered a'uses of *ealth. A ,erson
,roud and sno''ish <dhanatthaddha= due to his ri+hes also
a'uses his *ealth '1 negle+ting *hat is to 'e done there'1
8C>
+ausing his o*n do*nfall. The 0anit1 of su+h thoughts is
sho*n *ith em,hati+ ,hraseolog1. 3or it is stated& PA fool
ma1 *orr1 thin.ing that he has sons and *ealth 'ut a+tuall1
s,ea.ingE *hen he himself is not his o*nE ho* +an
8C:
there 'e sons and *ealthHQ
Bla+. Bone1E Dirt1 Bone1 D Eas1 Bone1
There is an im,ortant dis+ourse addressed to a headman
+alled #asi1a *here the a++umulation of *ealth is dis+ussed
*ith referen+e to the Biddle Path. #asi1aE in front
of the BuddhaE ,oses the Luestion *hether the Buddha
+ensures and a'uses do*nright all .inds of as+eti+ism and
as+eti+s *ho lead austere as+eti+ mode of life. Herein the
Buddha assertsE those *ho re,resent him as one *ho +ensures
and a'uses do*nright all .inds of as+eti+ ,ra+ti+esE
*ho lead austere as+eti+ mode of lifeE are *rong and do
not s,ea. in a++ordan+e *ith his 0ie* 'ut misre,resent him.
8C>. Sn. 85:
8C:. Dh,. A4
45A
Then e/,laining the e/treme ,ra+ti+e of self%indulgen+e as
lo*E 0ulgarE ,ra+ti+e of the man1fol.E igno'le and not 'ound
u, *ith *elfareE e/,lains the self%mortifi+ationE as ,ainfulE
igno'le and not 'ound u, *ith *elfare. The e/,lanation
is Iust the same as the one *e find in the first dis+ourseE
the Turning of the )heel of !a*. Then ,ro+eeds on to
outline the No'le Eightfold Path and des+ri'es the means
'1 *hi+h ,eo,le earn and ma.e use of *ealth.
Then e/,laining the e/treme ,ra+ti+e of self%indulgen+e as
lo*E 0ulgarE ,ra+ti+e of the man1fol.E igno'le and not 'ound
u, *ith *elfareE e/,lains the self%mortifi+ationE as ,ainfulE
igno'le and not 'ound u, *ith *elfare. The e/,lanation
is Iust the same as the one *e find in the first dis+ourseE
the Turning of the )heel of !a*. Then ,ro+eeds on to
outline the No'le Eightfold Path and des+ri'es the means
'1 *hi+h ,eo,le earn and ma.e use of *ealth.
,e+t
of a la1man2s life. No*E in a++ordan+e *ith the means
that +ommon%fol. em,lo1 to earn *ealthE the1 fall into
three +ategories&
8. Those *ho em,lo1 unla*ful and 0iolent means.
4. Those *ho em,lo1 'oth unla*ful and la*ful means.
>. Those *ho em,lo1 onl1 la*ful means.
"n regard to the first and se+ond +ategories of ,eo,leE
*ealth earned '1 unla*ful and 0iolent means is illegitimate
and illegalE and +onsidered as 'la+.E dirt1 and eas1
mone1E *hi+h is 'lame*orth1R *hereas the se+ond and third
+ategoriesE *hat is la*full1 earned is legalE legitimateE righteous
and ,raise*orth1. "n the long anal1sis of the issue
found in the dis+ourseE Buddha +riti+ises the illegal means
of a+Luisition in s,ite of the fa+t that it is s,ent generousl1
for others2 *elfare.
45C
Thus mone1E for that matterE *ealth or ,ro,ert1 is not
an end in itself. Until one thin.s that it is onl1 a means to an
endE one is e0er in disa,,ointment. Hoarding +ons+iousness
or e/tra0agant lifest1le leads one no*here. The most
de,lora'le thing in our so+iet1 isE man is su'Ie+ted to the
demands of modern li0ing o0er and a'o0e so+ial norms
and 0alues. As long as he is alienated from his moral +hara+terE
he is 'ound to e/,erien+e diffi+ulties in e+onomi+
management for a +ontented li0ing.
E0er1'od12s #eligion
P)hen it is a Luestion of mone1E e0er1'od1 is of the same
religion.Q
Voltaire
457
A,,endi/
A,,endi/
-ha,ter 8
M
Pi1adassi Ven. 9 The Buddha2s An+ient PathE -ha,. 8 9
The BuddhaE ,,. 88944.
M
Narada Ven. 9 The Buddha and His Tea+hingsE -ha,. 8 9
The BuddhaE ,,. 894>> <A +om,rehensi0e a++ount on BirthE
renun+iationE struggle for EnlightenmentE lineageE relati0esE
ministr1 and dail1 routine is gi0en in this +ha,ter=.
M
Gnanarama P. Ven. 9 The Bission A++om,lishedE -ha,. 7 9
Tra+es of Do+eti+ ElementsE ,,. 7596A <The +ha,ter deals *ith
some of the mis+on+e,tions of )estern Buddhist s+holars *ho
+onIe+tured that the Buddha ne0er e/istedE and the su,ernatural
elements that gre* around the histori+al Buddha=.
M
Thomas E. ?. 9 The !ife of BuddhaE ,,. 89 A8. <Here the author
deals *ith the life of Buddha on materials dra*n from Pali
+anoni+al s+ri,tures=.
-ha,ter 4
M
)iIese.ara O. H. DeA. 9 The Three SignataE Ani++aE Du..haE
AnattaE Buddhist Pu'li+ation So+iet1E and1. <This 'oo.let gi0es
a 'rief 'ut an authoritati0e a++ount of the three +hara+teristi+s=
M
The Basi+ 3a+ts of E/isten+e "E +olle+ted Essa1sE Buddhist
Pu'li+ation So+iet1E and1. <Essa1 *ritten '1 Ven. Bhi..hu
cJFaIi0i.o is an a,,roa+h to the to,i+ of im,ermanen+e from
the stand,oint of modern )estern ,hiloso,h1=
M
Narada Ven. 9 The Buddha and His Tea+hingsE ,,. @:>9@@8
-ha,ter >
M
)iIese.ara O.H.DeA. 9 The Three SignataE Ani++aE Du..haE
AnattaR Buddhist Pu'li+ation So+iet1E and1.
M
Narada Ven. 9 The Buddha and His Tea+hingsE -ha,. 8AE
,,. >8>9>44
456
M
M
-ha,ter :
M#ahula ). Ven.%)hat the Buddha TaughtE -ha,. V"E
The Do+trine of No%SoulE ,,. @89AA
M
The Three Basi+ 3a+ts of E/isten+e """ <A +olle+tion of arti+les on
the Buddhist tea+hing of egolessness and its inter,retation '1
eminent Buddhist s+holarsE Buddhist Pu'li+ation So+iet1E
and1E Sri !an.a.=
MN1anatilo.a Ven. 9 Buddhist Di+tionar1 <on Ganatta2=
M
Balalase.era G.P. 9 The Truth of Anatta <)heel 6:E ,u'lished
'1 Buddhist Pu'li+ation So+iet1E and1E Sri !an.a.=
M
Hiri1anna B. 9 Outlines of "ndian Philoso,h1E -ha,. 4E ,,. :797>
-ha,ter @
M#ahula ). Ven. 9 )hat the Buddha TaughtE -ha,. "E ,,. 8A946
M
Pi1adassi Ven. 9 The Buddha2s An+ient PathE -ha,. >E ,,. >C9@>
M
Thomas E ?. 9 The !ife of BuddhaE -ha,. V""E ,,. 7596A
M
Thouless #o'ert H. 9 -hristianit1 and BuddhismE ,. @
<Buddhist #esear+h So+iet1E Singa,ore=
-ha,ter A
M#ahula ). Ven. 9 )hat the Buddha TaughtE ,,. 469>:
M
Pi1adassi Ven. 9 The Buddha2s An+ient PathE ,,. >C9@>
M
Narada Ven. 9 The Buddha and His Tea+hingsE ,,. 7:E 65E >4@9A
-ha,ter C
M
Narada Ven. 9 The Buddha and His Tea+hingsE -ha,s. >:E >@E
,,. :659@88
M
Pi1adassi Ven. 9 The Buddha2s An+ient PathE -ha,. @E ,,. AC9CA
M
#ahula ). Ven. 9 )hat the Buddha TaughtE -ha,. "VE ,,. >@9::
485
-ha,ter 7
M
Pi1adassi Ven. 9 The Buddha2s An+ient PathE -ha,. C98:E
,,. 7C9487 <A detailed a++ount on the No'le Eightfold Path is
gi0en in this 'oo.=
M
Narada Ven. 9 The Buddha and His Tea+hingsE -ha,. 8CE
,,. >4> 9>>4
M#ahula ). Ven. 9 )hat the Buddha TaughtE -ha,. VE ,,. :@9@5
-ha,ter 6
M
Narada Ven. 9 The Buddha and His Tea+hingsE -ha,. 4@E
,,. :86 9:>4. The +ha,ter gi0es a detailed des+ri,tion of the
"nterde,endent Origination.
M
?a1atille.e . N. 9 Earl1 Buddhist Theor1 of no*ledgeE
Se+tions CA49C77E ,,. ::@9 :A8. The se+tions dis+uss the
theories of +ausation in different "ndian ,hiloso,hi+al s1stems
and ,ro0ide an e/hausti0e stud1 on the su'Ie+t. He sho*s ho*
the theor1 has 'een misunderstood '1 the )estern s+holars.
-ha,ter 85
M
Narada Ven. 9 The Buddha and His Tea+hingsE -ha,.4CE
,,. :>A9::@
M
Ba,tist Egerton -. 9 >8 Planes of E/isten+eE Buddhist -ultural
-entreE -olom'o <The 'oo. deals *ith the a'odes of 'eings in
detail=
M
Narada Ven. 9 Banual of A'hidhammaE ,,. 4>:94:AE
Singa,ore Buddhist Beditation -entre <S,an of life in ea+h
,lane is des+ri'ed here=
M
?a1atille.e . N. 9 3a+ets of Buddhist ThoughtE BPSE and1E
Sri !an.a <"he first essa1 of this 'oo.let entitled GThe Buddhist
-on+e,tion of the Uni0erse2 is a s+ientifi+ stud1 of the material
on *orld s1stems found in Pali +anoni+al te/ts of the Thera0ada
tradition=
M
Gnanarama P. Ven. 9 The Bission A++om,lishedE ,,. 8:@98:A
<A short note on de0as=
488
-ha,ter 88
M
?a1atilla.e . N. 9 Ethi+s in Buddhist Pers,e+ti0eE ,,. 88:E BPSE
Sri !an.a
M
Dharmasiri Guna,ala Prof. 9 A Buddhist -ritiLue of the
-hristian -on+e,t of God. ,. :4 and :@ff.
M
Gnanarama P. Ven. 9 An A,,roa+h to Buddhist So+ial
Philoso,h1. -ha,. 4
-ha,ter 84
M
arunaratne ). S. 9 Buddhism its #eligion and Philoso,h1E
-ha,. 8:E ,,. 6:988>E The Buddhist #esear+h So+iet1 8677E
Singa,ore
M?a1atille.e . N. 9 3a+ets of Buddhist ThoughtE ,,. CA968E The
)heel Pu'li+ation No. 8A4O8A>O8A:E BPSE and1E Sri !an.a
-ha,ter 8>
M
?a1atille.e . N. 9 Earl1 Buddhist Theor1 of no*ledgeE
-ha,ter V"" on !ogi+ and Truth and -ha,ter V""" on Authorit1
and #eason )ithin Buddhism
-ha,ter 8:
M
?a1atille.e . N. 9 Ethi+s in Buddhist Pers,e+ti0eE -ha,. "VE
BPSE Sri !an.a
M
Dharmasiri Guna,ala 9 3undamentals of Buddhist Ethi+sE
-ha,. >E The Buddhist #esear+h So+iet1E Singa,ore
M
Gnanarama P. Ven. 9 As,e+ts of Earl1 Buddhist So+iologi+al
ThoughtE -ha,. CE Singa,ore
-ha,ter 8@
M
?a1atille.e . N. 9 Earl1 Buddhist Theor1 no*ledgeE ,. >A: ff.
-ha,ter 8A
M
?a1atille.e . N. 9 Earl1 Buddhist Theor1 no*ledgeE ,,. :@>9:A8
M
#adha.rishnan S. 9 "ndian Philoso,h1E ,,. >@69A5
M)arder A. . 9 "ndian BuddhismE ,,. 4669>54
484
-ha,ter 8C
M
?a1atille.e . N. 9 Earl1 Buddhist Theor1 of no*ledgeE
,,. :549>
M
#adha.rishnan S. 9 "ndian Philoso,h1E ,,. >@69>A5
M
Gnanarama P. Ven& As,e+ts of Earl1 Buddhist So+iologi+al
ThoughtE ,,. 4C9 :5
-ha,ter 87
M
)iIese.era O .H. DeA. 9 Buddhist and Vedi+ StudiesE -ha,. @E
Buddhism and So+iet1E ,,. @>9C5
MNo. :8 SJle11a.a suttaE BaIIhima%ni.a1aE Vol. "E ,,. 47@ ff.
-ha,ter 86
M
?a1atille.e . N. 9 Earl1 Buddhist Theor1 of no*ledgeE
,. >@C ff.E ,. :C8
MHiri1anna B. 9 Outlines of "ndian Philoso,h1E ,,. 8>C98:C
-ha,ter 45
M
Gnanarama P. Ven. 9 As,e+ts of Earl1 Buddhist So+iologi+al
ThoughtE -ha,. 8E ,,. 89:@
M-on]e Ed*ard 9 Buddhism& "ts Essen+e and De0elo,mentE
"ntrodu+tionE ,,. 88987
-ha,ter 48
M
S+humar+her E. 3. 9 Small is BeautifulE under PBuddhist
E+onomi+sQE ,,. >79 :A
M
Gnanarama P. Ven. 9 An A,,roa+h to Buddhist So+ial
Philoso,h1E -ha,. 85 9 The Buddhist Attitude to Po0ert1E
)ealth and E+onomi+ #esour+esE ,,. 84A98:5
48>
A''re0iations
A. Anguttara Ni.J1a
AA. Anguttara Ni.J1a AKKha.athJ <Banoratha,VraFi=
D. Digha Ni.J1a
DA. Digha Ni.J1a Attha.atha <Sumangala0ilJsinf=
DB. Dialogues of the Buddha
Dh,. Dhamma,ada
Dh,A. Dhamma,ada AKKha.athJ
DhSA. Dhammasangani AKKha.athJ
DPPN. Di+tionar1 of Pali Pro,er Names
EBT. Earl1 Buddhist Theor1 of no*ledge
"B. "ndian Buddhism
"Ph. "ndian Philoso,h1
"t. "ti0utta.a
h,A. hudda.a,JKha AKKha.athJ
S. indred Sa1ings
B. BaIIhima Ni.J1a
BA. BaIIhima Ni.J1a AKKha.athJ <Pa,aT+asVdani=
Bil. Bilinda,aTha
B!DB. Biddle !ength Dialogues of the Buddha
B!S. Biddle !ength Sa1ings
O"Ph. Outlines of "ndian Philoso,h1
PTS. Pali Te/t So+iet1
S. SaX1utta Ni.J1a
SA. SaX1utta Ni.J1a AKKha.athJ <SJrattha,,a.Jsini=
Sn. Suttani,Jta
SnA. Suttani,Jta AKKha.athJ <Paramattha Ioti.J=
The Path The Path of Purifi+ation
Ud. Udana
UdA. Udana AKKha.athJ <Paramatthadi,ani=
Vin. Vina1a
VinA. Vina1a AKKha.athJ <Samanta,JsJdi.J=
Vis. Visuddhimagga
48: