1998 IEEE Inteanational Conference on Conduction and Breakdown in Solid Dielectrics, Jnw 22-W,199$ Vkteds, Sweden

514
ON THE STATISTICAL TESTING OF SOLID DIELECTRICS
M.M. Morcos
Kansas State University
Manhattan, KS 66506
USA
INTRODUCTION
The design of insulation system for power system
equipment has been primarily deterministic in nature.
New materials were usually evaluated with a set of
values characterizing a number of properties such as
breakdown voltage, tensile strength, and melting
temperature. The deterministic approach might be
supplemented by comparison tests against an existing
design with a proven service record. Designs become
st andardkd once material properties are agreed upon by
many parties. The deterministic design approach has
been gradually replaced by probabilistic procedures.
There is a broad recognition that material properties are
variable even for identical samples of the same material.
In addition, the stresses to which the equipment will be
exposed are not constant; they vary with certain
probabilities of occurrence. Furthermore, safety factors
used in a deterministic design are often difficult to justify
and are often reduced to save money. Since a statistical
design procedure takes all such factors into account,
equipment with a projected life under specific operating
conditions can be manufactured more economically [I]
The choice of test procedure is determined by the test
objective. Constant-voltage tests provide reliable
comprehensive data for the distribution function of the
breakdown time, but determination of a life characteristic
is time consuming. Rising-voltage tests are less
expensive, but generalization of the test result is difficult
to implement. It should be pointed out that solid
insulating materials are not self-restoring; a separate test
piece is consequently needed for each individual test.
Since solid test pieces are relatively expensive, research
is forced to go with a small number of test pieces.
The application of statistical methods to the study of the
performance of cables with extruded insulation has been
thoroughly verified [2-4]. Generally, most authors agree
on the validity of the two-dimensional Weibull
distribution, which is in fairly good agreement with
experimental results. Metra et al. [4] made use of the
possibility of carrying out the largest number of tests on
K.D. Srivastava
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, BC V6T 124
CANADA
miniature cables so as to reduce to a minimum the
number of tests on full-size cables and to enable savings
on both time and costs to bema&. Full size cables were
employed in the tests elsewhere [ 5] .
BREAKDOWN IN SOLIDS
Solid insulations forman integral part of high voltage
structures. The solid materials provide the mechanical
support for conducting parts and at the same time insulate
the conductors from one another. Under normal
conditions, solid materials exhibit a wide range of
dielectric strength, depending on the conditions of the
environment and the testing method. The measured
breakdown voltage is influenced by a large number of
external factors such as temperature, humidity, test
duration, applied voltage type, pressure applied to the
electrodes, discharges in the ambient medium, and in
cavities. Several distinct mechanisms of breakdown in
solids have been identified and treated theoretically 16,
71. No single theory fully explains the process of
breakdown and predicts the breakdown stress of a given
solid insulator.
The electric strength of solid insulation can reach values
in excess of loo0 kV/cm. However, values above 100
kV/cm are rarely used in practice. The insulating
capacity of inorganic and organic insulating materials
differs considerably with respect to time dependence.
The breakdown time thereby becomes a vital variate for
technical evaluation, as well as the breakdown voltage.
Cumulative-frequency and performance functions of the
breakdown voltage can be described using different
probability distributions. If the boundary conditions of
the test vary greatly, it may bepossible for the measured
breakdown voltages to be normalized.
The dielectric strength of a systemshould not deteriorate
significantly over a long period of time. However,
because of imperfect manufacture and poor design, the
dielectric strength decreases with the time of voltage
application. It has been recommended to concentrate
upon insulation weakness under AC overvoltage testing.
0-7803-4237-2/97/$10.00 0 1997 IEEE
51 5
AC voltage, which may be several times the operating
voltage, is appliedto the equipment for one minute or
more to detect major weaknesses in the dielectric.
However, the test may initiate discharge channels and
lower thedischarge inception voltage below theoperating
voltage of the system. To overcome this difficulty,
testing under DC voltage and very low-frequency voltage
has been suggested [8 J .
Solid materials in practical insulation systems are
stressed in conjunction with oneor more other materials.
If one of the materials is gas or liquid, the measured
breakdown voltage will be influenced more by the weak
medium thanby the solid dielectric. The breakdown in
solids generally assumes a tree-like structure which can
bedemonstrated in a laboratory by applying an impulse
voltage between point-plane electrodes with the point
embedded in a transparent solid [9].
TESTING OF SOLID INSULATION
Of the many solid insulating materials used for high
voltage insulation, the epoxies, usually combined with
suitable ffiers, have gained particular prominence
because of their high mechanical and electrical strengths.
Careful test techniques were developed to determine
which material from those tested is likely to last longer
in service [ 101.
Experimental Techniques
Of the usual accelerating factors, voltage, frequency,
mechanical stress, and temperature, voltage was selected
as the most relevant to electric treeing. Two methods are
used for applying a voltage to dielectric samples in an
accelerated aging test.
(1) The constant-stress test: the applied voltage is
held constant and thetime to breakdown noted. If
Po isthe intrinsic breakdown probability of one
application of the test voltage V, the measured
breakdown probability qy) of n consecutive
applications of the test voltage V is:
(2) The stepped-stress test: consists of applying a
monotonically increasing voltage in predetermined
steps AV, with n applications at each level, and
measuring the voltage at which failure occurs. If
the intrinsic breakdown probability of a single
voltage application of test voltage Vi is PW), the
measured breakdown probability qw) at the test
voltage Vis:
q (V) =P(V) ( f: [ l --P(V)]'-l *
i -1 1
1m
with m =- (v-vo) and, v, =vo +(L - ~ ) A u .
A V
In constant-voltage tests, breakdown-time distribution
functions are generally approximated by two-parameter
Weibull distributions or log-ncmal distributions [ 1 11. It
should be pointed out that Weibull distribution has
mathematical advantages over thel og- nod distribution
when conversions are performed via the life relationship
or using the enlargement law. Moreover, the model of
extreme-value distributions carresponds more closely to
physical concepts if electrical breakdown develops from
a point of disturbance in the structure of the solid body.
It is also reasonable to consider breakdown voltages in a
step-stress test as being distributed according to a
Weibull distribution, if the time to failure is Weibull-
distributed. If the breakdown voltage has a Weibull
distribution, the time to failure can obviously beshown
to be a Weibull distribution. If the inverse power law is
not valid, then both the time to failure and the breakdown
voltage cannot be Weibull-disitributed [ 121.
The accumulation of electron space charges and the
buildup of gas pressures in voids can affect the electrical
treeing process. The dissipation of the space charge or
gas depends on properties which are not largely affected
by voltage. Therefore, the ste!pped-stress test should be
selected with care, since the test may not allow these
effects to function in a fashion analogous to operating
conditions, unless very slow rates of voltage rise are
used.
In actual test conditions, the intrinsic breakdown
probability function isunknown, and assumptions have to
be made about this function. In practice, three types of
probability functions have been used; namely, normal,
smallest-values, and Weibull types. A technique was
developed to evaluate the breakdown probability of the
test voltages [13]; the results indicated that the
breakdown probabiity of the irlsulation was a function of
the test technique used and their parameters, and the
nature of the intrinsic breakdlown probability function.
With the proper selection of' test procedure and test
parameters, withstand and breakdown voltage levels can
be established with a desired low intrinsic breakdown
probability.
516
Accelerated Agi ng Tests
An accelerated aging test is an accepted method of
estimating the long term, or service-life, characteristics
of solid dielectrics. In this test, the life of a component
is shortened by the application of stresses much higher
than would occur in normal service. Hence, accelerated
aging tests on solid insulation are often performed at
voltages much greater than operating voltage, resulting
in breakdown in a short time; a few hours or days. A
large number of tests, although expensive and time
consuming, are needed to ensure that correct
extrapolations and conclusions are made on the basis of
accelerated aging tests [14]. Tests must be designed
without altering the failure mechanism.
A statistical analysis of a high voltage endurance test on
an epoxy has been reported [lo]. The assumed failure
mechanismwas electric treeing, since the application of
interest is in a dry environment in equipment which is
operated at thehighest voltages in a power system. The
results indicated that the times to inception and failure
are three-parameter Weibull distributed. The growth
period of electric trees may beeither lognormal or three-
parameter Weibull distributed. However, statistical
analysis showed that there is much uncertainty in the
results, and this is true for most published accelerated
aging tests done to date. The statistical evaluation of the
results of aging tests of insulation materials is a powerful
tool for extracting a maximumof information; but the
common danger of mistaking assumption of knowledge
is present. A given type of statistical distribution, e.g.,
normal, long-normal or Weibull cannot always be
assumed a priori in a given case; it must be verified [ 151 -
When analyzing results from accelerated aging tests on
solid insulation exposed to the electrical treeing failure
mechanism, a significant difference between two
dielectrics must be established at probabilities of failure
common for operating components. Comparisons should
be made at a low probability of failure, 10percent or
below.
Two examples illustrate the procedure for performing
comparative tests on electrical insulation, using both
constant-stress and stepped-stress accelerated aging
procedures. Fig. l(a) shows the breakdown dataand
maximumlikelihood lines to fit this data from a constant-
stress test [16]. Fig. l@) illustrates the correct 90%
tolerance bounds. The substantial overlap of the bounds
(shaded region) shows that no significant difference can
bedetected between the two insulations. Fig. 2(a) shows
the breakdown data and best l i es for failure data from a
stepped-stress test [17], and Fig. 2@) depicts that the
90% tolerance bounds do not overlap for probabilities
I
-7J,
UNTREATED
-
0. 2-
0.11 I ' " ' ' 1 ' ' ' * ( I
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 I 2 3 1 5 I O 20 39r oSo 0 0
TI ME TO BRUUDOWN (%NUS)
Fig. 1 (a) Breakdown dataand maxi" l i kel i hood lines
to fit this data from a constant-stress test [16], (b) The
correct 90% tolerauce bounds.
30.0
20.0
" I
.- -.-
24 26 20 30 32 34 36 38 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68
UNXREENED
ELECTRIC FIELD (kV/mm)
Fig. 2 (a) Breakdown data and best lines for failure data
from a stepped-stress test [17], (b) The 90% tolerance
bounds.
517
greater than 10 %I , indicating that the screening process is
an important improvement. In both cases, extrapolation
to operating failure percentiles revealed that between the
normal and the new manufacturing processes, a real
difference could not be statistically validated [ 121.
It is difficult to definitively establish the existence of a
threshold voltage using standard progressive-stress tests.
A suggested test for measuring threshold voltage has
been introduced [18]. The technique may be used to
confirm the existence of a threshold voltage having first
estjmated it using another technique such as progressive-
stress testing.
WEIBULL STATISTICS IN TEE BREAKDOWN OF
DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
In order to assess the quality of the dielectric strength in
insulating systems two types of tests are commonly used;
static tests and dynamic tests. In static tests, a number of
identical samples are stressed at a constant electric field
and the time to breakdown of each sample is recorded.
In dynamic tests, the electrical stress applied to an
equivalent sample set is a function of time, and the
magnitude of the electric field at breakdown of each
sample is measured [19-221. A large number of samples
is required in each case since a distribution of the results
is expected.
Dynamic testing is preferred in the laboratory because
the variation in the measured results is less thanthat for
equivalent static testing. Static testing requires critical
control of the electric field as small variations in thefield
can cause significant variations in the time to breakdown.
However, static tests are useful in the determination of
the lifetime for comparable samples [2].
Weibull statistics aregenerally applied to the failure of
materials under the action of external forces such as
mechanical stress [23] and electrical stress [4, 121. The
Weibull statistics [24] are based on a stability postulate.
In Hill and Dissado [25] the statistics of dielectric
breakdown were cast into the Weibull probability form
[26] as Weibull plots are commonly used to present
experimental data. Another investigation has shown that
experimental techniques are available for the full
statistical analysis of dielectric breakdown. The
description of breakdown statistics in terms of a
compound Weibull probability function has been
validated for the case of some thi n oxide samples. Also,
evidence in support of its applicability to bulk materials
has been found [27].
Typical Weibull plots of cumulative probability of
breakdown as a function of time and of field (under ramp
conditions) arepresented [2I1]. In Fig. 3 the data has
been obtained under static conditions [29] and the
linearity of the plot indicates the applicability of the
Weibull statistics to these measurements. Three different
ramp rates are given in the data shown in Fig. 4. The
sample is cross-linked polyethylene and the ramp
gradients cover three decades.
These data have been presented to show the applicability
of the Weibull statistics to thc dynamic mode of testing
on bulk insulators. The exarnination of breakdown on
thinfilm insulators is less tinneconsuming because the
technique of a locally vaporizable electrode allows many
measurements to be made on a single sample.
99
s 90
Q, 70
50
3 30
3 1 3 10 30
E
>
3
0
Ti me (s)
Fig. 3 Weibull plot of the c:umulative probability of
breakdown as a function of t i ne for a sample of A1203
under static test ConditioIlS [29].
99
90
50
20
0, 10
>
0
a- 5
4-
- 2 3
5 l
0 0.5
1 2
Log[ f i el d at breakdown] (kV/mm)
Fig. 4 Weibull plots of the cumulative probability of
breakdown in cross-linked polyethylene under dynamic
test conditions for three ramp rates. (a) 0.20 V/mm/s;
(b) 2.20 v/"/s; (c) 20.0 v/mm/s.
518
INSULATING CAPACITY
When determining the test parameters and sample size,
assumptions should be maderegarding the expectation
and dispersion of thevariate under investigation. When
conducting an experiment, useshould be made of special
information published concerning the specific problem
and personal experience.
The choice of variate to describe the breakdown process
is not a mathematical problem; it depends on the physical
or technical problem under study. In the breakdown
process, as an example, the performance function of the
breakdown voltage wi l l becomparable with the insulation
level, the test voltages, or the distribution functions of
the overvoltages. The voltage used in the experiment
must be characterized by clear parameters. In many
situations it is recommended to consider the variate
breakdown time, where empirical distribution functions
can bedetermined and be approximated by theoretical
distribution functions.
The insulating capacity of inorganic and organic
insulating materials differs considerably with respect to
time dependence. There is a relatively small time
dependence in the case of inorganic insulating materials.
For organic materials, time dependence is very crucial
and is described by a life characteristic; the breakdown
time thereby becomes an important variate for technical
evaluation, as well as the breakdown voltage.
Solid insulating materials are not self-restoring due to
electrical discharges. Even with no discharge observed,
polarization and conductivity processes can produce
space charges that exist for a long time and can
affect the results of a subsequent test on the same test
piece. The solution is to use one test piece per stress.
The choice of sample size should beexerckd with great
care.
The independence of tests is mainly influend by the test
pieces themselves due to possible differences in the
chemical composition, the proportion of frller, the
proportion of impurities, the electrodes geometry and the
electrode gap. A close relationship exists between
insulating capacity and the mechanical stresses that may
beproduced in the solid body by the setting process and
by thedifferent coefficients of expansion of electrodes
and insulating material. Careful planning is essential in
this instance [ 111.
SUMMARY
The statistical nature of high voltage testing of electrical
insulation has long been recognized 1301. A brief
overview of the application of statistical methods to
establish theinsulation strength and life time of solid
dielectrics is reported. Accelerated aging tests on solid
dielectrics are statistical tests which have to be rigorously
analyzed in order to justify any valid conclusions. The
application of Weibull statistics for the description of
dielectric breakdown is presented.
The breakdown probability of the test voltages is a
function of the test method, of their parameters, of the
nature of thebreakdown probability function, and of the
assumed physical processes. Proper test methods and
their parameters can be selected to determine the
breakdown voltages and time to breakdown.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
F i ci al assistance from the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada is greatly
appreciated.
LIST OF REFERENCES
[l] G.C. Stone, Application of Statistical Methods to
the Design of Solid Insulation System, Annual Report,
Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric
Phenomena, CEIDP, Atnherst, NY, USA, pp. 234-249,
1985.
[2] E. Occhini, A Statistical Approach to the
Discussion of the Dielectric Strength in Electrical
Cables, IEEE Trans. Power App. and Sys., Vol. 90,
[3] G. Carrara, E. Occhini, L. Paris, andF. Reggiani,
Contribution to the Study of Insulation Coordination
From the Probabilistic Point of View, CIGRE, Paper
No. 421, 1966.
[4] P. Metra, E. Occhini, and G. Portinari, High
Voltage Cables With Extruded Insulation. Statistical
Controls and Reliability Evaluation, IEEE Trans. Power
[5] R. Lyle and J .W. Kirkland, An Accelerated Life
Test for Evaluating Power Cable Insulation, IEEE
Trans. Power App. and Sys., Vol. 100, pp. 3764-3774,
1981.
[6] H. Friihlich, On the Theory of Dielectric
Breakdown in Solids, hoc. Royal Society, Vol. A188,
[7] R. Stratton, The Theory of Dielectric Breakdown
in Solids, Progress in Dielectrics, Vol. 3, pp. 233-292,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA, 1957.
[8] J.D. Cross and K.D. Srivastava, The Effect of DC
Prestress on Impulse Flashover of Insulators in
Vacuum, Annual Report, Conference on Electrical
Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, Varennes, Quebec,
pp. 2671-2678, 1971.
App. and SYS., Vol. 94, pp. 967-975, 1975.
pp. 521-532, 1947.
Canada, pp. 242-249, 1973.
519
191 R. Cooper, Electric Strength of Solid Insulation,
Int. J. of Elec. Eng. Mucation, Vol. 1, pp. 241-265,
1963.
[lo] G.C. Stone, M. Kurtz, and R.G. van Heeswijk,
The Statistical Analysis of a High Voltage Endurance
Test on an Epoxy, IEEE Trans. Electr. I nsul . , Vol. 14,
[l 11W. Hauschild and W. Mosch, Statistical Techniques
for High-Voltage Engineering, IEE Power Series, Peter
Peregrinus Ltd., London, UK, 1992.
[12] G.C. stone and J.F. Lawless, The Application of
Weibull Statistics to Insulation Aging Tests, IEEE
Trans. Electr. Insul., Vol. 14, pp. 233-239, 1979.
1131F.A.M. Rizk and C. Vincent, Testing for Low
Breakdown Probability With Special Reference to Liquid
Insulation, IEEE Trans. Power App. and Sys., Vol. 96,
[14] K.H. Weber and H.S. Endicott, Area Effect and
its External Basis for the Electric Breakdown of
Transformer Oil, AIEE Trans. 11, Vol. 75, pp. 371-
381, 1956.
151 A. Kelen, Ageing of Insulating Materials and
Equipment Insulation in Service and in Tests, IEEE
Trans. Electr. Insul., Vol. 12, pp. 55-60, 1977.
[16] M.R. Wertheimer, L. Pa@, H.P. Schreiber, and
S.A. Boggs, Dielectric Permittivity, Conductivity, and
Breakdown Characteristics of Polymer-mica
Composites, IEEE Trans. Electr. Insul., Vol. 12, pp.
[17] G. Bahder, C. Katz, G.S. Eager, andD.A. Silver,
Development of Technology for the Manufacture of
Crosslinked Polyethylene Insulated Cables Rated 138
Through 345 kV, IEEE Trans. Power App. and Sys.,
[18] L.A. Dissado and J.C. Fothergill, Electrical
Degradation and Breakdown in Polymers, IEE Materials
and Devices Series, Peter Peregrinus Ltd., London, UK,
1992.
pp. 315-326, 1979.
pp. 1892-1900, 1977.
137-141, 1977.
Vol. 96, pp. 1741-1753, 1977.
[19] G.C. Stone and R.G. van Heeswijk, Parameter
Estimation for the Weibull Distribution, IEEE Trans.
Electr. Insul., Vol. 12, pp. 2.53-261, 1977.
[20] N.G. Trinh and (2. Vincent, Statistical
Significance of Test Methods for Low Probability
Breakdown and Withstand Voltages, IEEE Trans.
Power App. and Sys., Vol. 99, pp. 711-719, 1980.
[21] W.B. Nelson, Graphical Analysis of Accelerated
Lifetime Data With Inverse Plower Law, IEEE Trans.
Reliability, Vol. 21, pp. 2-11, 1972.
[22] L. Simoni, Voltage Endurance of Electrical
Insulation, Pitagora Editrice, Bologna, Italy, 1974.
[23] K. Trustrum and A. De S. Jayatilaka, On
Esti mati ngthe Weibull Modulus for a Brittle Material,
J. Mat. Sci., Vol. 14, pp. 1080-1084, 1979.
[24] E.J. Gumbel, Statistical Theory of Extreme
Values and Some Practical Applications, National
Bureau of Standards, App. Math. Series, Vol. 33, 1958.
[25] R.M. Hill and L.A. Dksado, Theoretical Basis
for the Statistics of Dielectric Breakdown, J. Phys. C:
Solid State Phys., Vol. 16, ppi. 2145-2156, 1983.
[26] W. Weibull, A Statistical Function of Wide
Applicability, J . App. Mechi., Vol. 18, pp. 293-297,
1951.
[27l R.M. Hill and L.A. Dksado, Exa * onofthe
Statistics of Dielectric Breakdown, J . Phys. C: Solid
State Phys., Vol. 16, pp. 44474468, 1983.
[28] L.A. Dissado, J.C. Fothergill, S.V. Wolfe, and
R.M. Hill, Weihll Statistics in Dielectric Breakdown:
Theoretical Basis, Applications and Implications, IEEE
Trans. Electr. Insul., Vol. 19, pp. 227-233, 1984.
[29] P. Solomon, N. Klein, and M. Albert, A
Statistical Method for Step and Ramp Voltage
Breakdown Tests in Insulators., Thin Solid Films, Vol.
[30] N. Hylten-Cavallius, Some Aspects About the
Information Gained FromHigh Voltage Tests, CIGRE,
Paper No. 405, 1956.
35, pp. 321-326, 1976.