Flaws in Euclid

The Five Axioms

Given two distinct points P and Q, there is a line

through P and Q.

Any line segment can be extended indefinitely.

Given two distinct points P and Q, a circle

centered at P with radius PQ can be drawn.

All right angles are congruent.

Given any line l and a point P not on l, there

exists a line through P that is parallel to l.
Using these axioms, try to prove that points
and lines exist.

Given two distinct points P and Q, there is a line

through P and Q.

Any line segment can be extended indefinitely.

Given two distinct points P and Q, a circle

centered at P with radius PQ can be drawn.

All right angles are congruent.

Given any line l and a point P not on l, there

exists a line through P that is parallel to l.
Using these axioms, try to prove that given a
line l, there exists a point lying on l.

Given two distinct points P and Q, there is a line

through P and Q.

Any line segment can be extended indefinitely.

Given two distinct points P and Q, a circle

centered at P with radius PQ can be drawn.

All right angles are congruent.

Given any line l and a point P not on l, there

exists a line through P that is parallel to l.
Using these axioms, try to prove that given a
line l, there exists a point !T lying on l.

Given two distinct points P and Q, there is a line

through P and Q.

Any line segment can be extended indefinitely.

Given two distinct points P and Q, a circle

centered at P with radius PQ can be drawn.

All right angles are congruent.

Given any line l and a point P not on l, there

exists a line through P that is parallel to l.
"trictly, under Euclidean
Geometry, we have no guarantee
that points and lines exist.
#t is also $ust based on our
%unfounded& assumptions that
lines contain points.
A simple abstract axiomatic
system

Undefined terms: Fe's Fo's, and the

relation belongs to

Axiom 1: There exist exactly three

distinct Fe's in this system.

Axiom 2: Two distinct Fe's belong to

exactly one Fo.

Axiom 3: Not all Fe's belong to the

same Fo.

Axiom 4: Any two distinct Fo's contain

at least one Fe that belongs to both.
Prove the ollowing Theorems.

Fe-Fo Theorem 1. Two distinct Fo's contain

exactly one Fe in common.

Fe-Fo Theorem 2. There are exactly three Fo's.

Fe-Fo Theorem 3. !ach Fo has exactly two

Fe's that belong to it.
#n proving the results in the
previous slide, you may have
imagined dots or dashes on a sheet
of paper. 'e will ta(e the point of
view that these dots and dashes
are a model for the given
geometry.
)ore generally, given an axiom
system, we can interpret the
undefined terms in some way
%does not have to be dots or
dashes&. #f the axioms are satisfied
based on our interpretation, then
we can call our interpretation a
model.
"ample )odel*
Designate the Fe's as people and the Fo's as
committees.

Axiom 1: There exist exactly three distinct

people.

Axiom 2: Two distinct people belong to exactly

one committee.

Axiom 3: Not all people belong to the same

committee.

Axiom 4: Any two distinct committees contain

at least one person who belongs to both.
"ample )odel*
Designate the Fe's as books and the Fo's as bags.

Axiom 1: There exist exactly three distinct

books.

Axiom 2: Two distinct books belong to exactly

one bag.

Axiom 3:Not all books belong to the same bag.

Axiom 4: Any two distinct bags contain at least

one book that is on both.
The "se o models

All theorems in the system are also correct

statements in the model.

Fe-Fo Theorem 1. Two distinct Fo's contain

exactly one Fe in common.

Fe-Fo Theorem 2. There are exactly three

Fo's.

Fe-Fo Theorem 3. !ach Fo has exactly two

Fe's that belong to it.
The "se o models

All theorems in the system are also correct

statements in the model.

Fe-Fo Theorem 1. Two distinct committees

contain exactly one #erson in common.

Fe-Fo Theorem 2. There are exactly three

committees.

Fe-Fo Theorem 3. !ach committee has

exactly two #ersons that belong to it.
The use of models

)odels are +laboratories, for experimenting

with the axiomatic system.

)athematicians often discover that one model

has applications to completely different models.
-ac( to Euclid.s Elements
/onstruct an e0uilateral triangle 12roposition 34
based on the following 1Euclidean4 axioms.
3.Given two distinct points P and Q, there is a
line through P and Q.
5.Given two distinct points P and Q, a circle
centered at P with radius PQ can be drawn.
The first proposition
3.To construct an e0uilateral triangle on a
given finite straight line.
There is a flaw in the logic because of the assumption that the
two circles will have a point of intersection.

6uite a few of Euclid.s proofs, such as the

construction of an e0uilateral triangle or the "A"
theorem, are based on reasoning from
diagrams.

7owever, as we.ve shown, diagrams can be

deceptive.

A larger system of explicit axioms is needed.

!ne of the first set of axioms introduced to

remedy the defects of Euclid.s wor( was given by
)orit8 2asch in 3995.

ote: This was around 5;;; years after Euclid.s

Elements.
<avid 7ilbert %39=5>3?@A&

2resented not the

first, but perhaps the
most intuitive set of
axioms, closest in
spirit to Euclid.s.
!ne must be able to say at all
timesBinstead of points, lines and
planesBtables, chairs and beer
mugs.
> <avid 7ilbert
Euclid.s axioms in this sense
3.Given two distinct tables P and Q, there is a
chair through P and Q.
5.Given two distinct tables P and Q, a circle
centered at P with radius PQ can be drawn.
/an you (now use these to construct an
e0uilateral triangle*
Euclid still relied on visual
reasoning.

2oint C that which has no part

Dine C breadthless length

"urface C that which has length and breadth

only
#n an axiomatic method

2oints, lines and planes are undefined terms.

'e use models to represent these terms.

#n this system, points are not necessarily

represented as dots, and lines are not
necessarily represented as long straight stro(es.
The Five sets of 7ilbert.s axioms

Axioms of #ncidence

Axioms of -etweenness

Axioms of 2arallels

Axioms of /ongruence

Axioms of /ontinuity
An exercise

/onsider the following proof %found in some

high school geometry texts& that the base angles
of an isosceles triangle are congruent.

Det the bisector of / meet A- at <.

A/< is congruent to -/< by "A".

A is congruent to -.

Find the flaw in the proof.

7ow do we (now that < lies
between A and -*
'e need -etweenness axioms to prove that the bisector
of / does meet A- in a point between A and -.
-etweenness Axioms %7ilbert&

otation A E - E / to mean +point - is between

points A and /,
3. #f A E - E /, then A, -, and / are three distinct
points lying on the same line, and / E - E A.
1fills a gap in one flaw above4
-etweenness Axioms %7ilbert&
2. Given any two distinct points - and <, there
exists points A, /, and E lying on -< such that A
E - E <, - E / E <, and - E < E E.
1ensures that there are points between - and
<, and that the line -< does not end at - or <4
3. #f A, -, and / are three distinct points lying on
the same line, then one and only one of the
points is between the other two.
1ensures that a line is not circular4
Exercise
Given two points A and -, consider the two rays
A- and -A.
a.<raw diagrams to show that A- -A F A-,
and A- -A F A-.
b.2rove these formulas. Use the definitions of
segment and ray, as given on the next slide.

Given two points A and -. The segment A- is

the set whose members are A, -, and all the
points that lie on line A- that are between A and
-.

The ray A- is the following set of points on A-:

all points on segment A- and all points / on A-
such that A E - E /.