Famous Scientists

638-548 B.C. Thales of Miletus - Greek philosopher !e"elope! theor# of

matter $ase! upon %ater recor!e! the attracti"e properties of
ru$$e! am$er an! lo!estone.
c.54&-4'5 B.C. (eraclitus - Greek philosopher first of the Greeks to !e"elop a
theor# of the human soul he praise! its creati"e resources an!
spoke of the importance of self-e)ploration he spoke of the lo*os
that is common to all an! sai! that the uni"erse is rule! $# lo*os
he al%a#s ur*e! that close attention $e *i"en to the polarites an!
conceale! structures emo!ie! in lan*ua*e.
(is famous claim that an i!i"i!ual can an! cannot step into the
same ri"er t%ice re"eals an interest in criteria of unit# an!
i!entit# e"en thou*h all material constituents ha"e un!er*one
chan*e+ it is still+ in a sence+ the same ri"er. Preoccupied with
change, he declared that fire is the central element of the universe,
and he postulated a world with no beginning and no end...
58,-4-' B.C. .#tha*oras - Greek philosopher an! mathematician hel! that
num$ers %ere $asic to matter the .#tha*orean Theorem is
name! for his *eometric formulation !e"elope! atomic theor#
stu!ents of his philosoph# emphasi/e! *eometrical form as a
$asic propert# of atoms !e"elope! mathematical relationships
%hich le! to musical harmon#.
c.4-&-c.43& B.C. 0mpe!ocles - Some su**est 1c.484-c.4243 - Greek !octor+ poet an!
philosopher. To account for real chan*e+ he assume! that there
must $e more than one kin! of matter+ an! he postulate! four
roots as elements earth+ air+ fire+ an! %ater. 4o"e an! hate %ere
consi!ere! principles of attraction an! repulsion that alternatel#
!ominate! the uni"erse in a recurrin* c#cle. 0mpe!ocles
presente! a kin! of $iolo*ical theor# of natural selection in an
ima*inati"e poem+ On Nature. (e also pla#e! an import5ant role
in the !e"elopment of the 6estern or Sicilian school of Greek
me!icine. (e cure! a pla*ue at the Sicilian cit# of Selinus an!
claime! he %as a *o!. 7ne le*en!+ %hich forms the $asis of
Matthe% 8rnol!9s poem Empedocles on Etna+ hel! the
0mpe!ocles+ tire! of life an! %antin* people to $elie"e that the
*o!s ha! taken him %ith them+ committe! suici!e $# leapin* into
the crater of Mt. 0tna.
4'&-3-- B.C. Socrates - Greek philosopher emphasi/e! the stu!# of human
nature in relationship to societ# influence the *ro%th of science
throu*h stan!ar!s for clear !efinitions an! classifications+ for
lo*ic an! or!er+ an! for pru!ent skepticism.
46&-3'& B.C. :emocritus of 8$!era - Greek philosopher pupil of 4eucippus
!e"elope! atomic theor# ela$orate! i!ea that matter consiste! of
atoms ha"in* ph#sical si/e an! shape %hich constantl# mo"e! in
a "oi! an! interacte! in !ifferent %a#s Greek %or! atoma means
in!i"isi$le.
c.45& B.C. 4eucippus - propose! an atomic concept of matter.
428-34' B.C. .lato - Greek philosopher pupil of Socrates !ealt %ith the
nature of the uni"erse !e"elope! atomic theor# of chemical
chan*e ascri$e! *eometric forms compose! of $oun!in* planes
to the elements of earth+ fire+ air an! %ater $ase! upon their
ph#sical properties hel! that elements coul! con"ert into one
another throu*h rearran*ement of $oun!in* planes use!
!e!ucti"e reasonin* as a learnin* metho!.
384-322 B.C. 8ristotle - up!ate! en*ra"in* Greek philosopher+ e!ucator an!
scientist un!ertook a lar*e-scale classification of plants an!
animals intro!uce! a metho! of scientific thinkin* that still pla#s
a role to!a#.
34,-2'& B.C. 0picurus - Greek philosopher foun!e! the s#stem kno%n as
0picureanism. (e stu!ie! %ith follo%ers of .lato an! :emocritus
$efore openin* his school in 8thens. The school+ later calle! the
Gar!en+ accepte! %omen an! sla"es. This+ couple! %ith
0picurus9 teachin*s concernin* pleasure+ le! to pu$lic criticism of
the school as a scene of !e$aucher#. ;n realit#+ life there %as fairl#
austere. Most of the %ritin*s of 0picurus ha"e $een lost.
Fra*ments from his most important %ork+ Peri physeos 17n
<ature3+ %ere reco"ere! from the charre! pap#ri of
(erculaneum+ $urie! $# an eruption of =esu"ius in 8: '-.
c.336-264 B.C. >eno of Cition - Greek philosopher foun!e! the Stoic school of
philosoph# %hich hel! that matter+ space+ etc. %ere continuous.
c.-5-c.55 B.C. Titus 4ucretius Carus
6--3& B.C. Cleopatra =;; - e)perimente! %ith poisons influence!
alchemists.
354-43& 8urelius 8u*ustinus - 1Saint 8u*ustine3 - <orth 8frica %as the
first to report that the forces e)erte! $# ru$$e! am$er an! $#
lo!stone are !ifferent properties.
c.'6&-c.8,5 ?a$ir i$n-(a##an - @Ge$er@
c.85&-c.-25 8l-Aa/i - @Aha/es@
-'--,&3' ;$n-Sina - 8"icenna - ;slamic ph#sician an! philosopher author
of nearl# 2&& %orks in me!icine+ alchem#+ lan*ua*e+ philosoph#
an! reli*ion.
c.,3-'-c.,468 ?ohann Guten$er* - a craftsman from Main/+ German#. Bet%een
,43& an! ,444 he %as in Stras$our*+ pro$a$l# %orkin* as a
*ol!smith+ an! here he ma# ha"e $e*un printin*.
;n ,438 he entere! a contract %ith three others to !e"elop a
refine! printin* techni5ue an! $ecame the in"entor of mo"ea$le-
t#pe mechanical printin* in 0urope. (e printe! the 42-line
Guten$er* Bi$le 1c.,4553 $ut in the en! he lost a suit from one of
his cre!itors+ %ho confiscate! the t#pe for the Bi$le. The suit left
Guten$er* financiall# ruine!. 8i!e! $# Bonra! (umer#+ he %as
a$le to set up another press+ $ut little is kno%n of his %ork
thereafter.
The impact of printin* %as enormous - it le! to an almost instant
mass pro!uction of $ooks an! trul# initiate! the information a*e.
The Aeformation+ the Aenaissance+ an! the scientific perio! of
the ,'th centur# can har!l# $e contemplate! %ithout printe!
$ooks.
,4'3-,543 <icholas Copernicus - .olish astronomer re*ar!e! the foun!er
of mo!ern astronom#.
(e %as $orn in Torunac+ .olan!. (e stu!ie! mathematics an!
optics at Craco%+ then canon la% at Bolo*na+ $efore $ecomin*
canon of From$ork.
Copernicus !isco"ere! the mathematicall# #et unpro"en
heliocentric solar s#stem. ;n his treatise+ 97n the Ae"olutions of
the Celestial Spheres9 he postulate! that the planets+ inclu!in* the
earth+ re"ol"e aroun! the sun+ an! that the earth re"ol"e! aroun!
its a)is once e"er# !a#. The %ork ha! a hostile reception %hen it
%as pu$lishe! 1,5433+ as it challen*e! the ancient teachin* of the
0arth as the centre of the uni"erse. ;n the ,6&&9 Galileo an!
Bepler $e*an to !e"elop the ph#sics that %oul! pro"e Copernicus
ri*ht.
,4-3-,54, .hillippus 8ureolus .aracelsus 1Theophrastus Bom$ast "on
(ohemheim3 - S%iss ph#sician contro"ersial fi*ure in me!icine
an! alchem# promote! the pro!uction of chemical me!icines for
illnesses of the human $o!# sa% the human $o!# as a chemical
s#stem monitore! $# spiritual alchemists !e"elope! man#
me!ical reme!ies !e"elope! theoretical chemistr# throu*h sets of
metal e)periments %hich pro!uce! salt solutions a!!e! salt to
mercur# an! sulphur as components of metals.
,4-4-,555 Geor* Bauer - @8*ricola@ - German e!ucator+ cit# official+ an!
ph#sician Geor*ius 8*ricola 14atini/e! for of Geor*e Bauer3 is
$est kno%n as the author of De re metallica 1,5563+ a treatise on
minin* an! metallur*#. The treatise %as translate! into 0n*lish
in ,-,2 $# future C.S. presi!ent (er$ert (oo"er an! his %ife+
4ou (enr# (oo"er. 8*ricola stu!ie! me!icine at 4eip/i*
Cni"ersit#. (e $ecame a !e"ote! follo%er of 0rasmus+ %ho %rote
a fore%ar! to 8*ricola9s first $ook on minin* an! metallur*#
1,-3&3. 6hile to%n ph#sician of ?oachimsthal 1no% ?ach#mo"+
C/ech Aepu$lic3+ he $ecame intensel# intereste! in all aspects of
the minin* an! metallur*# in!ustr# $# %hich the to%n thri"e!
an! $e*an a 25-#ear stu!# of the su$Dect+ %hich culminate! in hos
posthumousl# pu$lishe! masterpiece. The ,2-chapter treatise
inclu!e! 2-2 %oo!cult illustrations carfull# e)ecute! $# Blasius
6effrin*. 8*ricola also %rote a num$er of %orks on me!icine+
*eolo*#+ mineralo*#+ politics+ an! economics.
,5,4-,564 8n!reas =esalius
,54&-,6&3 6illiam Gil$ert - Some sa# 1,544-,6&33 - 0n*lish ph#sician
kno%n for his earl# stu!ies on electricit# an! ma*netism. (is De
magnete 1,6&&3 propoun!e! the theor# that the earth %as a *iant
lo!estone %ith north an! south ma*netic poles. (is theor# that
the earth e)erte! a ma*netic influence throu*hout the solar
s#stem %as a precursor to the mo!ern conception of *ra"it# as an
attractin* force $et%een masses. Gil$ert %as amon* the first to
!i"i!e su$stances into electrics 1spar+ *lass+ am$er3 an!
nonelectrics.
c.,54&-,6,6 8n!reas 4i$au - @4i$a"ius@
,56,-,626 Francis Bacon - 0n*lish philosopher an! scientist intro!uce! the
i!ea that an un!erstan!in* of the natural %orl! coul! $e *aine!
from !irect o$ser"ation an! e)perimentation.
,564-,642 Galileo Galilei
,5'--,644 ?ohann Baptista "an (elmont - Flemish chemist first to
!istin*uish chemicall# pro!uce! *ases processes stu!ie! inclu!e!
com$ustion an! fermentation coine! the term @*as@.
,5-2-,655 .ierre Gassen!i
,5-6-,65& Aene :escartes - French mathematician an! philosopher
!e"elope! atomic theor# throu*h e)planations of properties of
matter.
,6&2-,686 7tto "on Guericke
,6&4-,668 ?ohann Au!olf Glau$er
,6&8-,64' 0"an*elista Torricelli - ;talian ph#sicist an! mathematician
in"ente! the $arometer 1,6433.
,6,4-,6'2 Fran/ :e le Boe 14atin name+ Franciscus S#l"ius also+ Francois
:u Bois3 - German ph#sician+ anatomist an! chemist $ase!
!ia*noses an! treatment of patients on $loo! aci!s+ alkali an!
salts.
,62&-,682 ?ean .icar! - French scientist o$ser"e! the luminous *lo% in the
Torricellian "acuum of a $arometer pro!uce! $# motion of the
mercur# %en the untstrument %as carrie! from place to place.
,623-,662 Blaise .ascal - French mathematician an! scientist for %hom the
S; unit of pressure 1.ascal3 %as name!.
,62'-,6-, Ao$ert Bo#le - 0n*lish ph#sicist an! chemist e)perimente! in
pneumatics throu*h research+ he reDecte! the accepte! !efinition
of matter propose! Bo#le9s 4a% 1,6623.
E-,6-2 (enni* Bran!
,63&-,684 0!me Mariotte
,635-,682 ?ohann ?oachim Becher
,642-,'2' ;ssac <e%ton - 0n*lish mathematician an! scientist !e"elope!
theor# of matter first to !emonstrate the color components of
%hite li*ht %ith a prism an! the reconstruction of these colors
into %hite li*ht %ith a secon! prism researche! the optical
characteristics of chemical su$stances stu!ie! *ra"itation an!
motion !e"elope! the la% of *ra"itation.
,644-,',& 7le Christensen Aoemer - :enmark %as the first to sho% that
the "elocit# of li*ht is finite. (is conclusion %as $ase! on the
"ariations of the time inter"als $et%een consecuti"e eclipses of
one of the moons of ?upiter !urin* the course of the re"olution of
the earth aroun! the sun.
c.,65&-,',5 Thomas Sa"er#
,656-,'43 0!mun! (alle# - 0n*lish astronomer !isco"ere! the proper
motion of stars an! the perio!icit# of comets. (is acti"ities also
ran*e! from the stu!#in* of archaeolo*# to ser"in* as !eput#
comptroller of the mint at Chester. (e %as a "er# important part
of the 0n*lish scientific communit# at the hei*ht of its acti"it#. 8
*ra!uate of 7)for!+ he $ecame a mem$er of the Ao#al Societ# at
the a*e of t%ent# t%o. ;n ,6'6 to ,6'8 from the islan! of Saint
(elena+ he catalo*e! the positions of a$out 35& Southern
(emisphere stars an! o$ser"e! a transit of Mercur#. (e %orke!
out a theor# of cometar# or$its an! conclu!e! that the comet of
,682+ other%ise kno%n as (alle#9s comet+ %as perio!ic an!
correctl# pre!icte! that it %oul! return in '6 #ears. ;n ,',&+ he
compare! current star positions %ith those liste! in .tolem#9s
catalo*+ he !etermine! that the stars must ha"e a sli*ht motion of
their o%n.
(alle# %as appointe! Sa"ilian professor of *eometr# at 7)for! in
,'&4+ an! in ,'2& he succee!e! ?ohn Flamstee! as astronomer
ro#al. 8t the Green%ich 7$ser"ator# he use! the first transit
intrucment an! !e"ise! a metho! for !eterminin* lon*itu!e at
sea $# means of lunar o$ser"ations.
(alle# pla#e! an acti"e role in the e"ents an! contro"ersies of his
time. (e supporte! ;saac <e%ton morall# an! financiall#+
pacifie! astronomer ?ohannes (e"elius re*ar!in* the !ispute!
accurac# of metho!s for measurin* stellar positions+ an!
infuriate! Flamstee! $# schemin* %ith <e%ton to pu$lish
Flamstee!9s o$ser"ations $efore the# %ere complete. 8mon*
(alle#9s har!ships %ere the mur!erin* of his father+ a prosperous
salter an! soapmaker+ in ,684+ an! the !eath of his mother in
,6'2.
,66&-,'34 Geor* 0rnest Stahl
,663-,'2- Thomas <e%comen - (e is famous for in"entin* a steam en*ine in
%hich steam a!mitte! to a c#lin!er %as con!ense! $# col! %ater
an! the piston !ri"en $# atmospheric pressure. ;t %as the first
en*ine of it9s time that %oul! %ork on lo%-pressure steam. (e
%orke! on this %ith ?ohn Calle# at first an! then Doine! %ith
Thomas Sa"er#.
Thomas Sa"er# in"ente! a steam en*ine also+ $ut his ran on hi*h-
pressure steam %hich %as "er# !an*erous. <e%comen9s en*ine
%as further impro"e! near the en! of the ei*hteenth centur# $# a
man name! ?ames 6att.
<e"ertheless <e%comen9s in"ention %as important $ecause man
no lon*er ha! to !epen! on horses or the %in! or the non-
consistent ener*# source of constantl# runnin* %ater. ;nstea!
man coul! count on the steam pro!uce! $# simpl# $oilin* of
%ater. The steam ener*# %as the ke# factor in %hat $ecame
kno%n as the ;n!ustrial Ae"olution.
<e%comen9s steam en*ine %as especiall# useful in mines. ;t %as
use! for transportin* metals an! other minin* pro!ucts. ;t !i!
this "er# %ell an! "er# efficientl#. Sa"er# an! <e%comen
com$ine! their i!eas to come up %ith the in"ention that starte!
an entire ne% $ranch of !isco"eries $ecause of the steam en*ine+
chemists no% %on!ere! a$out other chemicals an! fire. 6h#
some thin*s %oul! $urn an! others %oul! not.
,668-,'38 (ermann Boehaa"e
,6''-,'6, Stephen (ales
,6-4-,'68 Geor*e Bran!t
,6-8-,'3- Charles Francois !e Cisterna# !u Fa#
,'&&-,'82 :aniel Bernoulli - S%it/erlan! %as the first to !e"ise a
5uantitati"e kinetic theor# of *ases.
,'&6-,'-& BenDamin Franklin - 8merican statesman an! philosopher
e)perimente! %ith electricit# intro!uce! the terms @positi"e@
an! @ne*ati"e@+ instrumental in esta$lishin* the 8merican
.hilosophical Societ# of .hila!elphia+ the first C.S. science
societ# sho%e! that electricit# coul! ma*neti/e an! !ema*neti/e
iron nee!les.
,',,-,'65 Mikhail =asilie"ich 4omonoso"
,'22-,'65 8)el Fre!ric Cronste!t
,'28-,'-- ?oseph Black - Scottish chemist lai! the foun!ations for
thermo!#namics %orke! %ith *ases an! sho%e! that a *as coul!
com$ine %ith a soli! reco*ni/e! the importance of accurate
%ei*hin* in chemical research.
,'3,-,8,& (enr# Ca"en!ish - 0n*lish ph#sicist an! chemist !isco"ere!
h#!ro*en 1,'663 !isco"ere! nitric aci!.
,'33-,8&4 ?oseph .riestle# - 0n*lish cler*#man an! chemist researche! the
relation amon* plants+ animals an! air !isco"ere! h#!rochloric
an! sulfuric aci! 1,''53 isolate! o)#*en 1,''43 o$taine! %ater
$# i*nitin* h#!ro*en an! o)#*en ma!e selt/er %ater $#
!issol"in* car$on !io)i!e in %ater.
,'35-,'84 Tor$ern 7lof Ber*man
,'36-,8&6 Charles 8u*ustin !e Coulom$ - French ph#sicist !isco"ere! the
la% of force $et%een t%o char*e! $o!ies. 8fter his *ra!uation
from the 0cole !u Genie at Me/ieres in ,'6,+ he ser"e! as a
militar# en*ineer in the 6est ;n!ies an! in other o$scure French
posts. ;n ,'8, he %as permanentl# statione! in .aris an! %as
a$le to !e"ote more time to research.
Coulom$ then turne! his attention to ph#sics an! pu$lishe!
1,'85--,3 se"en memoirs on electricit# an! ma*netism. (e
a!apte! a torsion $alance to measure electrical forces an!
!emonstrate! 1,'853 the in"erse-s5uare la% for attracti"e an!
repulsi"e forces in $oth electricit# an! ma*netism+ an! he later
sho%e! that the force is also proportional to the pro!uct of the
char*es--a relationship no% calle! Coulomb's Law. Coulom$ ma#
$e consi!ere! to ha"e e)ten!e! <e%tonian mechanics to a ne%
realm of ph#sics. The unit of electrical char*e is name! for him.
,'36-,8,- ?ames 6att
,'3'-,'-8 4ui*i Gal"ani - ;talian ph#sician an! ph#sicist researche! the
relation $et%een animal or*anisms an! electricit# pro!uce! an
electric current usin* a circuit ma!e up of !issimilar metals this
t#pe of electric current pro!uction+ usin* t%o metals in a moist
en"ironment+ is kno%n as @*al"anism@.
,'3'-,8,6 4ouis Bernar! Gu#ton !e Mor"eau
,'42-,'86 Barl 6ilhelm Scheele - Scheele %as a pharmacist-chemist famous
for !isco"erin* chlorine. (e also prepare! o)#*en $ut !i!n9t
recei"e cre!it $ecause he ha!n9t pu$lishe! his %ork in a timel#
manner. ;nstea! an 0n*lish scientist name! ?oseph .riestl# is
cre!ite! %ith the !isco"er# of o)#*en..
Scheele is also famous for fin!in* man# !ifferent aci!s+ all
or*anic. (is !isco"eries inclu!e the follo%in* aci!sF tartaric+
*allic+ o)alic+ citric+ malic+ lactic+ an! prussic. (e %as "er# te!ious
in his in"esti*ation. (e also !isco"ere! copper arsenate+ h#!ro*en
sulfi!e *as+ h#!rofluoric aci!+ an! h#!roc#anic.
,'43-,'-4 8ntoine 4aurent 4a"oisier - French chemist state! the first
"ersion of the la% of conser"ation of matter reco*ni/e! an!
name! o)#*en 1,''83 !ispro"e! phlo*iston theor# helpe! to
reform chemical nomenclature. 7ften referre! to as the father of
mo!ern chemistr#. (e %as the first to *rasp the true e)planation
of com$ustion. 4a"oisier conten!e! that fire %as the result of
rapi! union of the $urne! material %ith o)#*en. <othin*+
ho%e"er+ he maintaine!+ %as lost throu*h this action. (is theor#
!irectl# oppose! the phlo*istic notion that com$usti$le $o!ies lost
somethin* %hen $urne!. Foun!e! on 4a"oisier9s o)#*en theor#+ a
ne% s#stem of nomenclature %as e"ol"e! one %hich hel! that
o)#*en %as an essential constituent of all aci!s. This %e kno%
to!a# to $e erroneous. (is theories %ere the $asis for *reat
a!"ances in chemistr#. 8s a #oun* man of man# interests+ he
stu!ie! astronom#+ $otan#+ an! mathematics+ as %ell as chemistr#
at the Colle*e Ma/arin near his .aris home. 7f ke# si*nificance
in his later life %as his stu!# of la% an! his a!mission to the $ar.
This le! to an interest in French politics+ %hereupon he o$taine!
a position as ta) collector at the a*e of 26. 6hile in *o"ernment
%ork he helpe! !e"elop the metric s#stem to secure uniformit# of
%ei*hts an! measures throu*hout France. (is *o"ernmental
interests+ ho%e"er+ e"entuall# pro"e! his un!oin*. 8s one of 28
French ta) collectors 4a"oisier %as $ran!e! a traitor $#
re"olutionists in ,'-4 an! *uillotine! at the a*e of 5,. ;ronicall#+
4a"oisier %as one of the fe% li$erals in his position an! ha!
stri"en for man# #ears to alle"iate the har!ships of the peasants.
,'43-,8,' Martin (einrich Blaproth
,'45-,8,8 ?ohann Gottlie$ Gahn
,'45-,82' 8lessan!ro =olta - ;talian ph#sicist ph#sics professor
e)perimente! %ith electrical forces in"ente! first practical
$atter# usin* cells ma!e from t%o kin!s of metals this "erifie!
his theor# of !ifferin* electrical potentials for unlike metals
electric potential !ifference is kno%n as "olta*e an! its unit is the
=olt 1=3.
,'46-,8,3 .eter ?aco$ (Delm
,'46-,823 ?ac5ues-8le)an!re-Cesar Charles - French chemist+ ph#sicist+
an! in"enter in"ente! the h#!ro*en $alloon 1,'833 !e"elope!
Charle9s 4a% %hich states the relationship $et%een temperature
an! the "olume of a *as 1,'8'3.
,'48-,822 Clau!e 4ouis Berthollet
,'4--,8,- :aniel Autherfor!
,'4--,82' .ierre Somon !e 4aplace
,'53-,8,5 6illiam <icholson
,'54-,826 ?oseph 4ouis .roust
$.ca. ,'5' Marie-8nne 4a"oisier - French lin*uist translate! the %ork of
0n*lish chemists+ !re% 8ntoine9s sketches an! illustrations+ kept
his notes an! pu$lishe! his final manuscript after his !eath.
,'55-,8&- 8ntoine Francois !e Fourcro#
,'6&-,852 ?ohan Ga!olin
,'6,-,8,5 Smithson Tennant
,'62-,8&' ?eremias BenDamin Aichter
,'64-,833 Gottlie$ Si*ismun! Birchhoff
,'65-,833 ?oseph <icephore <iepce
c.,'65-,84' Charles (atchett
,'66-,828 6illiam (#!e 6ollaston - 0n*lish ph#sician an! chemist
!isco"ere! palla!ium an! rho!ium throu*h his %ork %ith
platinum metals 1,8&33 in"ente! the reflectin* *oniometer %hich
measure! the an*les $et%een cr#stal faces 1,8&-3.
,'66-,844 ?ohn :alton - 0n*lish chemist an! ph#sicist professor of
mathematics an! natural philosoph# 1,'-33 !e"elope! atomic
theor# his theor# 1,8&53 accounts for the la% of conser"ation of
mass+ la% of !efinite proportions an! la% of multiple proportions
pro!uce! the first ta$le of atomic %ei*hts color$lin! an! mostl#
self-tau*ht.
,'6'-,8,3 8n!ers Gustaf 0ke$ert
,'68-,84& 8nthon# Carlisle
,''3-,82- Thomas Goun*
,''3-,858 Ao$ert Bro%n
,''4-,836 6illiam (enr# - 0n*lish chemist formulate! (enr#9s 4a%
%hich statesF the amount of a *as that %ill $e a$sor$e! $# %ater
increases as the *as pressure increases.
,''4-,862 ?ean Baptiste Biot
,''5-,8,2 0tienne 4ouis Malus
,''6-,856 8me!eo 8"o*a!ro - (is h#pothesis state! that e5ual "olumes of
*ases+ at the same temperature an! pressure+ contain an e5ual
num$er of molecules 1,8,,3.
,'''-,838 Bernar! Courtois
,'''-,85' 4ouis ?ac5ues Thenar!
,''8-,82- (umphr# :a"# - 18lso See3
,''8-,85& ?oseph 4ouis Ga#-4ussac - French chemist an! ph#sicist
!e"elope! the la% of "olumes concernin* the com$ination of
*ases !isco"ere! $oron.
,''--,848 ?ons ?ako$s Ber/elius - S%e!ish ph#sician an! chemist
!isco"ere! cerium+ selenium+ lithium+ silicon+ titanium an!
thorium coine! the terms @isomer@ an! @isomerism@ pu$lishe!
a re"ise! "ersion of the perio!ic ta$le %ith atom %ei*hts "er#
close to to!a#9s ta$le 1,8283 propose! s#stem of elemental
s#m$ols an! chemical notation.
,'8&-,84- ?ohann 6olf*an* :o$ereiner - German chemist reco*ni/e! the
catal#tic propert# of platinum reco*ni/e! the relationship
$et%een the elements an! their atomic %ei*ht ma!e the earliest
kno%n attempt to or*ani/e the elements $# their properties.
c.,'8,-,85- ?ohn 6alker
,'85-,838 .ierre 4ouis :ulon*
,'85-,85- 6illiam .rout
,'86-,88- Michael 0u*ene Che"reul - French chemist stu!ie! the
composition of fats %hich le! to the in"esti*ation of ne%
compoun!s.
,'8'-,826 ?oseph "on Fraunhofer
,'88-,82' 8u*ustin ?ean Fresnel
,'8--,85, 4ouis-?ac5ues-Man!e :a*uerre - French artist an! in"entor
!e"elope! the !a*uerreot#pe photochemical process.
,'-,-,82& 8le)is Therese .etit
,'-,-,86' Michael Fara!a# - 0n*lish chemist an! ph#sicist !e"elope! a
process for li5uef#in* chlorine !isco"ere! $en/ene intro!uce!
the la%s of electrol#sis 1,8333 !e"elope! a primiti"e electric
motor !e"elope! the "oltmeter an! the coulometer !e"ise!
terminolo*# use! in electrochemistr# in colla$oration %ith
6illiam 6he%ell.
,'-4-,863 0ihar!t Mitscherlich
,'-4-,866 6illiam 6he%ell
,'-'-,832 <icolas 4eonar! Sa!i Carnot
,'-'-,858 Carl Gusta" Mosan!er
,'---,868 Christian Frie!rich Schon$ein
,8&&-,86& Charles Goo!#ear - 8merican in"entor !e"elope! a process for
"ulcani/ation of ru$$er.
,8&&-,8'' 6illiam (enr# Fo) Tal$ot
,8&&-,882 Frie!rich 6ohler 16oehler3 - German chemist professor of
chemistr# 1,836-,8823 s#nthesi/e! the first or*anic compoun!
1urea3.
,8&&-,884 ?ean-Baptist-8n!re :umas - French chemist stu!ie! perio!icit#
!e"elope! metho! for !eterminin* "apor !ensities isolate!
methanol !e"elope! metho! for !eterminin* he nitro*en content
of or*anic compoun!s.
,8&,-,868 ?ulius .lucker
,8&2-,85& Germain (enri (ess
,8&2-,8'6 8ntoine ?erome Balar!
,8&2-,88' ?ean-Baptist Boussin*ault - French a*ricultural chemist stu!ie!
the nutriti"e "alue of foo!s fe! to !omestic animals.
,8&3-,8'3 ?ustin "on 4ie$i*
,8&5-,86- Thomas Graham - Scottish chemist stu!ie! !iffusion of *ases
%hich le! to the formulation of Graham9s 4a% !e"elope! a
process to separate cr#stalloi!s from colloi!s+ %hich he name!
@!ial#sis@ !i! research usin* phosphoric aci! stu!ie! !iffusion
of li5ui!s.
,8&'-,853 8u*uste 4aurent
,8,&-,8'8 (enri =ictor Ae*nault
,8,,-,8-- Ao$ert 6ilhelm Bunsen - German chemist helpe! to !e"elop the
spectroscope intro!uce! the Bunsen $urner that %as !e"elope!
$# his la$orator# assistant+ .eter :esa*a 1,8553 !isco"ere! the
elements cesium 1,86&3 an! ru$i!ium 1,86,3.
,8,2-,888 8scanio So$rero
,8,3-,8'8 Clau!e Bernar! - French ph#siolo*ist stu!ie! $iochemical
phenomena.
,8,3-,885 Thomas 8n!re%s
,8,3-,8-, ?ean Ser"ais Stas
,8,3-,8-8 (enr# Bessemer - 0n*lish en*ineer an! in"entor !e"elope! an
ine)pensi"e steel-makin* process that $urne! off the impurities
in molten pi* iron throu*h the use of a hot-air $last.
,8,4-,8'8 ?ulius Ao$ert "on Ma#er - Ma#er %as $orn in the to%n of
(eil$ronn+ German#. (e %as a German ph#sician an! ph#sicist.
(e an! ?ames ?oule share! the cre!it for the !isco"er# of the
uni"ersal la% of conser"ation of ener*#+ or the first la% of
thermo!#namics. This principle sa#s that ener*# cannot $e
!estro#e!+ ener*# in other forms ten!s to $e con"erte! to heat
ener*#+ an! that a pure cr#stal at a$solute /ero %oul! ha"e a
completel# or!ere! arran*ement of atoms. There are three other
%a#s to e)press this la%F
,. 0ner*# ma# chan*e its form+ $ut it cannot $e create! nor
!estro#e!.
2. 6hen %ork is transforme! into heat+ or heat into %ork+
the 5uantit# of %ork is mechanicall# e5ui"alent to the
5uantit# of heat.
3. The heat enterin* a s#stem is e5ual to the increase in
ener*# of the s#stem plus the e)ternal %ork !one $# the
s#stem !urin* the entr#.
Ma#er pu$lishe! an article on heat an! ener*# in ,842. ?oule+ an
0n*lish ph#sicist+ ma!e the same !isco"er# %hile %orkin*
in!epen!entl#.
There is another la% of Thermo!#namics that *oes alon* %ith the
uni"ersal la% of conser"ation of ener*#. ;t is the 4a% of
:e*ra!ation of 0ner*# %hich states that it is impossi$le to
completel# con"ert a *i"en amount of heat ener*# into an e)act
amount of another form.
,8,4-,8'- (einrich Geissler
,8,5-,848 (orace 6ells - 8merican !entist first to e)periment %ith nitrous
o)i!e as an anesthetic 1,8443.
,8,'-,884 Charles 8!olphe 6urt/
,8,8-,88, (enri 0tienne Sainte-Claire :e"ille
,8,8-,884 8!olph 6ilhelm (erman Bol$e
,8,8-,-8- ?ames .rescott ?oule - 0n*lish ph#sicist !etermine! the
mechanical e5ui"alent of heat propose! ?oule9s 4a% %hich
!escri$es the rate at %hich heat is pro!uce! $# an electric
current.
,8,8-,8-2 8u*ust 6ilhelm "on (ofmann
,8,--,88& 0!%in 4aurentine :rake
,82&-,886 8le)an!re 0mile Be*u#er !e Chancourtois
,82&-,8-3 ?ohn T#n!all - ;rish ph#sicist stu!ie! the !iffusion of li*ht $#
lar*e molecules an! !ust+ kno%n as the T#n!all effect.
,82,-,8-4 (ermann 4u!%i* Fer!inan! "on (elmholt/ - German ph#sicist+
anatomist an! ph#siolo*ist !e"elope! principle of conser"ation
of ener*# stu!ie! ner"e cells an! fi$ers an! !etermine! the
spee! of ner"e impulses in"esti*ate! si*ht an! hearin*.
,822-,888 Au!olph ?ulius 0mmanuel Clausius - German mathematical
ph#sicist restate! the secon! la% of thermo!#namics coine! the
term @entrop#@.
,822-,8-5 4ouis .asteur - French chemist an! micro$iolo*ist !e"elope! the
process of pasteuri/ation.
,823-,883 Charles 6illiam Siemens - 0n*lish in!ustrialist $orn in
German# impro"e! the re*enerati"e furnace use! in the process
of makin* steel.
,824-,88' Gusta" Ao$ert Birchhoff
,824-,-&4 6illiam 6illiamson
,824-,-&' 6illiam Thompson 14or! Bel"in3 - 0n*lish mathematician an!
ph#sicist !eri"e! the secon! la% of thermo!#namics reco*ni/e!
the e)istence of a$solute /ero propose! the Bel"in temperature
scale 1,85,3.
,824-,-&' .ierre ?ules Cesar ?anssen
,824-,-,4 ?ohann 6ilhelm (ittorf
,825-,8-- 0!%ar! Franklan!
,826-,-&- (ans .eter ?or*en ?ulius Thomsen
,826-,-,& Stanislao Canni//aro
,826-,-,, Geor*e ?ohnstone Stone#
,82'-,-&2 Fre!erick 8u*ustus 8$el
,82'-,-&' Marcelin Berthelot - French chemist s#nthesi/e! or*anic
compoun!s.
,828-,886 8le)an!er Mikhailo"ich Butlero"
,828-,-,4 ?oseph 6ilson S%an - !e"elope! a process for makin*
nitrocellulose fi$ers use! in earl# electric lamps 1,-333.
,82--,886 Frie!rich 8u*ust Bekule "on Stra!onit/ - German chemist
!emonstrate! that car$on forme! four $on!s an! that this coul!
account for the formation of isomers 1,8583
,83&-,8-5 ?ulius 4othar Me#er
,83&-,-&, Francois Marie Aaoult - formulate! Aaoult9s 4a% %hich states
that colli*ati"e properties are !etermine! $# the num$er of
particles in solution rather than $# the t#pe of particle in
solution. The properties so affecte! are "apor pressure+ free/in*
point+ $oilin* point+ an! the rate of !iffusion throu*h a
mem$rane.
,83,-,8'- ?ames Clerk Ma)%ell - Scottish ph#sicist !e"elope! the fiel!
theor# of electricit# an! ma*netism !e"elope! electroma*netic
%a"e theor# of li*ht !e"elope! a theor# on "iscosit# of *ases
$ase! on the statistical $eha"ior of *as molecules.
,83,-,8-2 8rchi$al! Scott Couper
,832-,-,3 4ouis .aul Cailletet
,832-,-,- 6illiam Crookes - 0n*lish chemist an! ph#sicist (is
in"esti*ations of the photo*raphic process in the ,85&s moti"ate!
his %ork in the ne% science of spectroscop#. Csin* its techni5ues+
Crooks !isco"ere! 1,86,3 the element thallium+ %hich %on him
election to the Ao#al Societ#. (is efforts in !eterminin* the
%ei*ht of thalium in an e"acuate! cham$er le! to his research in
"acuum ph#sics.
Crooks in"ente! the ra!iometer in ,8'5 an!+ $e*innin* in ,8'8+
in"esti*ate! electrical !ischar*es throu*h hi*hl# e"aculate!
@Crookes tu$es.@ These stu!ies lai! the foun!ation for ?. ?.
Thomson9s research in the late ,8-&9s concernin* !ischar*e-tu$e
phenomena. 8t the a*e of 68+ Crookes $e*an in"esti*atin* the
phenomenon of ra!ioacti"it#+ %hich ha! $een !isco"ere! in ,8-6+
an! in"ente! a !e"ice that !etecte! alpha particles emitte! from
ra!ioacti"e material. Crookes maintaine! an interest in
a*riculture an! %arne! in ,8-8 that the %orl!9s population
%oul! face star"ation unless ne% fertili/er sources %ere
!isco"ere!. (e %as also intereste! in ps#chic phenomena. (e %as
kni*hte! in ,8-'.
,833-,8-6 8lfre! B. <o$el - S%e!ish en*ineer+ chemist an! in!ustrialist
commerciall# manufacture! chemical e)plosi"es throu*hout the
%orl! an! !i! other chemical research manufacture! *l#cer#l
nitrate - nitro*l#cerine 1,8623 the !ifficult# an! !an*er of
han!lin* li5ui! nitro*l#cerine le! him to e)periment %ith %a#s of
makin* it safer he mi)e! nitro*l#cerine %ith po%!er+ kiesel*uhr+
an! calle! it @!#namite@ 1,8663 recei"e! a patent for !#namite
1,86'3 esta$lish a fun! in his ill for the annual <o$el .ri/es+
a%ar!e! in the areas of chemistr#+ ph#sics+ ph#siolo*# or
me!icine+ literature an! international peace.
,833-,-&& .eter 6aa*e
,834-,-&' :mitri ;"ano"ich Men!elee" - Aussian chemist !e"elope! the
perio!ic ta$le $# placin* the elements in or!er of increasin*
atomic %ei*ht 1,86-3 pre!icte! the e)istence an! properties of
elements that %oul! fill the *aps left in his chart 1,8',3 these
elements %ere !isco"ere! $et%een ,8'5 an! ,885.
,835-,-&2 ?ohannes 8!olf 6islicenus
,835-,-,' ?ohann Frie!rich 6ilhelm 8!olf "on Bae#er
,836-,-&2 Cato Ma)imillian Gul!$er*
,836-,-2& ?oseph <orman 4ock#er
,83'-,8-8 ?ohn 8le)an!er Aeina <e%lan!s
,83'-,-2& ?ohn 6esle# (#att - 8merican in"entor an! $usinessman
!e"elope! celluloi!.
,83'-,-23 ?ohannes :i!erik =an !er 6aals
,838-,-&4 Clemens 8le)an!er 6inkler
,838-,-&6 Frie!rich Bonra! Beilstein
,838-,-&' 6illiam (enr# .erkin- 0n*lish chemist pro!uce! first s#nthetic
!#e+ mau"e 1,8563.
,838-,-,2 .aul 0mile 4eco5 !e Bois$au!ran
,838-,-,6 0rnst Mach
,83--,-&3 ?osiah 6illar! Gi$$s - 8merican ph#sicist research let to $asic
theories for ph#sical chemistr# state! the .hase Aule of
thermo!#namics.
,83--,-24 4ouis-Marie-(ilaire Berni*au!+ Count of Char!onnet -
!e"elope! a process for makin* silk like fi$er+ later calle! ra#on
1,8'83.
,84&-,8-- 4ars Fre!rick <ilson
,84&-,-&5 .er Theo!or Cle"e
,84,-,-2' Barl Grae$e
,842-,-,- ?ohn 6illiam Strutt 14or! Aa#lei*h3
,842-,-23 ?ames :e%ar
,844-,-&6 4u!%i* Bolt/mann
,845-,-2& 6ilhelm .feffer
,845-,-23 6ilhelm Aoent*en - German ph#sicist stu!ie! the transmission
an! photo*raphic capa$ilities of ra#s he calle! @) ra#s@ 1,8-53
recei"e! the first <o$el .ri/e 1,-&,3.
,846-,-2' ;ra Aemsen - 8merican chemist an! e!ucator carrie! out
in"esti*ations in $oth or*anic an! inor*anic chemistr#.
,846-,-2- Aaoul .ictet
,84'-,-3& ?oseph 8chille 4e Bel
,84'-,-3, 7tto 6allach - German chemist research on chemical
composition of camphors+ perfumes an! essential oils.
,848-,8-' =iktor Me#er
,848-,-,6 Frie!rich 0rnst :orn
,85&-,-3& 0u*en Gol!stein
,85&-,-36 (enri 4ouis 4e Chatelier - French in!ustrial chemist in ,888
ma!e the o$ser"ationF @8n# chan*e in one of the "aria$les that
!etermines the state of a s#stem in e5uili$rium causes a shift in
the position of e5uili$rium in a !irection that ten!s to counteract
the chan*e in the "aria$le un!er consi!eration.@
,852-,-&' Fer!inan! Fre!eric (enri Moissan
,852-,-&8 8ntoine-(enri Bec5uerel - French ph#sicist !isco"ere! natural
ra!ioacti"it# 1,8-63 share! the <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics for this
!isco"er# 1,-&33.
,852-,-,, ?aco$us (en!ricus =an9t (off
,852-,-,6 6illiam Aamsa# - 0n*lish chemist presi!ent of the Societ# of
Chemical ;n!ustr# share! !isco"er# of ar*on 1,8-43+ Br#pton
1,8-83+ an! )enon 1,8-83 in!epen!entl# !isco"ere! helium on
earth 1,8-53 recei"e! <o$el .ri/e for chemistr# for !isco"eries of
these rare+ or @no$le@ elements 1,-&43.
,852-,-,- 0mil (ermann Fischer - German or*anic chemist anal#/e!
structures of car$oh#!rates+ proteins+ en/#mes an! amino aci!s.
,853-,-26 (eike Bamerlin*h 7nnes
,853-,-32 Frie!rich 6ilhelm 7st%al!
,854-,-&' (en!rik 6illem Bakhius Aoo/e$oom
,854-,-,5 .aul 0hrlich - German chemist an! $acteriolo*ist propose! a
chemical e)planation of immunit#.
,854-,-32 Geor*e 0astman
,856-,-4& ?oseph ?ohn Thomson - 0n*lish ph#sicist researche! atomic
structure !isco"ere! that atoms containe! particles %hich he
calle! @electrons@ !e"elope! the @plum pu!!in*@ or @raisin
muffin+@ mo!el of the atom %hich consiste! of electrons
em$e!!e! in a positi"e sphere of matter 1,-&43 recei"e! <o$el
.ri/e for ph#sics 1,-&'3 !e"elope! the mass spectro*raph %ith
Francis 6illiam 8ston 1,-,-3.
,856-,-3, 0!%ar! Goo!rich 8cheson
,85'-,8-4 (einrich Au!olf (ert/
,85'-,-25 0l%oo! (a#es
,858-,-2- Carl 8uer 1Baron "on 6els$ach3
,858-,-4& Ao$ert 8$$ot (a!fiel!
,85--,-&6 .ierre Curie - French ph#sicist researche! ra!ioacti"it#+ he an!
%ife+ Marie+ !isco"ere! ra!ium an! polonium 1,8-83 the# share!
the <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics 1,-&33 %ith 8ntoine-(enri Bec5uerel.
,85--,-2' S"ante 8u*ust 8rrhenius - S%e!ish ph#sicist an! chemist
ori*inate! the mo!ern theor# of ioni/ation of electrol#tes
recei"e! the <o$el .ri/e for chemistr# 1,-&33.
,862-,-4' .hilipp 0!uar! 4enar!
,863-,-,4 .aul 4ouis Toussaint (eroult
,863-,-,4 Charles Martin (all - 8merican chemist an! manufacturer first
to in"ent a practical electrol#tic process to e)tract aluminum
from ores forme! the .itts$ur*h Ae!uction Compan# 1,8883
%hich e"entuall# $ecame the 8luminum Compan# of 8merica+
84C78.
,863-,-44 4eo (en!rik Baekelan!
,863-,-4- Fre!erick Stanle# Bippin*
,864-,-4, 6alther (ermann <ernst
,864-,-43 Geor*e 6ashin*ton Car"er - 8merican a*ricultural chemist.
,866-,-,- 8lfre! 6erner
,866-,-4' Moses Gom$er*
,86'-,-34 Marie Curie - French ph#sicist researche! ra!ioacti"it# she an!
hus$an!+ .ierre+ !isco"ere! ra!ium an! polonium 1,8-83 the#
share! the <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics 1,-&33 %ith Bec5uerel Marie
recei"e! the <o$el .ri/e for chemistr# 1,-,,3.
,86'-,-52 =la!imir <ikolae"ich ;patieff
,868-,-28 Theo!ore 6illiam Aichar!s - 8merican chemist - reco*ni/e!
!urin* his lifetime as the lea!in* authorit# in atomic-%ei*ht
!eterminations. 8 (ar"ar! Cni"ersit# *ra!uate+ he ser"e! as full
professor at (ar"ar! from ,-&, to ,-28. Csin* superior
*ra"imetric metho!s an! appl#in* ph#sicochemical principles+ he
!etermine! the atomic %ei*hts of a lar*e num$er of elements
%ith an accurac# ne"er surpasse!. (is !etection of the "ar#in*
atomic %ei*ht of lea! in ,-,3 coinci!e! %ith the !isco"er# of
isotopes $# Fre!erick So!!#. Aichar!s %as a%ar!e! the ,-,4
<o$el .ri/e for chemistr#. 1?anuar# 3,+ ,868 - 8pril 2+ ,-283
,868-,-34 Frit/ (a$er
,868-,-53 Ao$ert 8n!re%s Milikan
,86--,-,& Aichar! 8$e**
,86--,-3& Frit/ .re*l
,86--,-4& .hoe$us 8aron Theo!or 4e"ene
,8'&-,-2' Bertram Bor!en Bolt%o!
,8'&-,-3- 6illiam ?ackson .ope
,8'&-,-42 ?ean Baptiste .errin
,8'&-,-54 Botaro (on!a
,8'&-,-6& Geor*es Clau!e
,8',-,-3' 0rnest Autherfor! 1Baron Autherfor! of <elson3 14or!
Authorfor!3 - British ph#sicist from <e% >ealan! !isco"ere!
se"eral ra!ioacti"e isotopes %ith collea*ues 1,8---,-&53
classifie! forms of ra!iation as alpha+ $eta+ an! *amma recei"e!
<o$el .ri/e for chemistr# 1,-&83 %orke! on su$marine !etection
!urin* 66;; !e"elope! atomic theor# 1,-,,3 researche!
transmutational effects of alpha particles on *ases 1ca. ,-,-3 an!
other elements.
,8'2-,-,- Mikhail Semeno"ich Ts"ett
,8'2-,-38 Geor*es Cr$ain
,8'2-,-42 Aichar! 6illstatter
,8'3-,-52 <e"il =incent Si!*%ick
,8'4-,-4& Barl Bosch
,8'4-,-4- 8n!re 4ouis :e$ierne
,8'4-,-52 Chaim 6ei/mann - Aussian-$orn chemist %ho %orke! in Great
Britain.
,8'5-,-46 Gil$ert <e%ton 4e%is - 8merican ph#sical chemist !e"elope!
atomic theor# propose! the octet rule an! the electron !ot
metho! of sho%in* "alence electrons important contri$utor to
aci!-$ase theor# an! thermo!#namics.
,8'6-,-46 8lfre! Stock
,8'6-,-5- 8!olf 6in!aus
,8''-,-44 Charles Glo"er Barkla
,8''-,-45 Francis 6illiam 8ston - 0n*lish ph#sicist an! chemist -
!isco"ere! in ,-,- that sta$le elements of lo% atomic %ei*ht are
mi)tures of isotopes. Csin* a mass spectro*raph+ %hich he
!e"elope! %hile %orkin* %ith Sir ?oseph ?ohn Thomson in
Cam$ri!*e+ an! for %hich he recei"e! the ,-22 <o$el .ri/e for
chemistr#. 8ston also foun! that the masses of most atoms coul!
$e e)presse! as %hole num$ers %hen compare! %ith o)#*en
1mass ,63. 6ith a more accurate spectro*raph+ ho%e"er+ 8ston
!etecte! in ,-2' a sli*ht !e"iation from this %hole-num$er rule.
B# *raphin* an in!e) of the !e"iation 1calle! the packin*
fraction3 a*ainst the closest %hole-num$er mass of an element+
8ston !eri"e! important information concernin* its structure
an! sta$ilit#. 1Septem$er ,+ ,8'' - <o"em$er 2&+ ,-453
,8''-,-56 Fre!erick So!!# - British ph#sicist recei"e! 1,-2,3 the <o$el
.ri/e for chemistr# for the conception of isotopes an! the
!isplacement la% of ra!ioacti"e chan*e. 6ith 0rnest Autherfor!
he !e"elope! the !isinte*ration theor# of ra!ioacti"it#+ %hich
e)plaine! ra!ioacti"it# as the !eca# of atoms to form other
elements. So!!# propose! the isotope concept--that atoms coul!
ha"e the same chemical i!entit# $ut !ifferent atomic %ei*hts. (is
!isplacement la% of ra!ioacti"e chan*e su**ests that an element
emittin* an alpha particle $ecomes a ne% element %ith a lo%er
atomic num$er+ %hereas emission of a $eta particle raises the
element9s atomic num$er. 1Septem$er 2+ ,8'' - Septem$er 22+
,-563
,8''-,-5' (einrich 7tto 6ielan!
,8'8-,-36 ?ulius 8rthur <ieu%lan!
,8'8-,-68 4ise Meitner - 8ustrian ph#sicist to*ether %ith her nephe% 7tto
A. Frisch+ pu$lishe! a theoretical interpretation of nuclear fission
in ,-3- colla$orate! %ith 7tto (ahn of German# to !isco"er
protactinium 1,-,'3 the element from %hich actinium is forme!
$ecame hea! 1,-,'-,-383 of the ph#sics !epartment of the Baiser
6ilhelm ;nstitute for Chemistr# in Berlin also colla$orate! %ith
(ahn an! Frit/ Strassmann to accomplish the fission of uranium
1,-383 Fleein* <a/i persecution+ she resume! her %ork at
S%e!en9s <o$el ;nstitute her theoretical %ork helpe! clarif# the
relationships $et%een $eta an! *amma ra#s an! stimulate! (ahn
an! Frit/ Strassmann in their !isco"er# of the fission of hea"#
nuclei..
,8'--,-4' ?ohannes <icolaus Bronste! - :anish chemist+ $est kno%n for his
theor# of aci!s an! $ases 1,-233+ accor!in* to %hich an aci! is a
proton !onor an! a $ase is a proton acceptor. 6hile professor
1,-&8-,-4'3 of ph#sical an! inor*anic chemistr# at the Cni"ersit#
of Copenha*en+ he pro!uce! outstan!in* papers in
thermo!#namics 1heat an! its relationship to other forms of
ener*#3 an! kinetics 1the effect of forces upon the motion of
material $o!ies.
,8'--,-55 8l$ert 0instein - 8merican ph#sicist $orn in German# e)plaine!
Bro%nian mo"ement pu$lishe! a paper that e)plaine! the
photoelectric effect 1,-&53 %hich pro"i!e! the foun!ation for
5uantum theor# an! resulte! in the in"ention of the photoelectric
cell pu$lishe! his *eneral theor# of relati"it# 1,-,53 %hich
containe! a ne% !escription of *ra"it# recei"e! the <o$el .ri/e
for ph#sics for his %ork in 5uantum ph#sics 1,-2,3.
,8'--,-6& Ma) Theo!or Feli) "on 4aue
,8'--,-68 7tto (ahn - German chemist-ph#sicist share! the ,-44 <o$el
.ri/e %ith Frit/ Strassmann in chemistr# for their !isco"er# of
the fission of hea"# nuclei 1first to reco*ni/e nucleur fission3. (e
$e*an his research %ork in ra!iochemistr# in Sir 6illiam
Aamsa#9s la$orator# at Cni"ersit# Colle*e+ 4on!on+ ,-&4. There+
in the process of e)tractin* ra!ium from a sample of $arium salt+
(ahn !isco"ere! ra!iothorium. (e o$taine! a research position
at McGill Cni"ersit# %ith Sir 0rnest Autherfor!+ an! in ,-&5 he
a*ain e)hi$ite! his talent for !isco"er# $# fin!in* ra!ioactinium.
Aeturnin* to German# in ,-&6+ (ahn %as appointe! professor at
the Cni"ersit# of Berlin in ,-,&. 8fter he %as name! 1,-,23 hea!
of the ra!ioacti"it# !epartment at the Baiser 6ilhelm 1later Ma)
.lanck3 ;nstitute+ (ahn an! 4ise Meitner+ his colla$orator of 3&
#ears %ho Doine! him in ,-&'+ !isco"ere! more ra!ioelements. ;n
,-,' the# !isco"ere! the most sta$le isotope of element -,
1protactinium3+ the su$stance that helpe! resol"e the comple)
actinium series. (ahn then $ecame in"ol"e! in the i!entification
of artifical ra!ioacti"e materials an! their !eca# patterns. ;n
colla$oration %ith Frit/ Strassmann+ (ahn !isco"ere! 1,-383 that
the transformation of uranium 1element -,3 artificiall# in!uce!
$# neutron $om$ar!ment pro!uce! $arium 1element 563.
Because $arium is far remo"e! from the ori*inal parent element+
this !isco"er# %as consi!ere! at the time contrar# to all
theoretical e)pectations. This phenomenon+ kno%n as fission+ le!
!irectl# to the !e"elopment of the atomic $om$.
,88,-,-45 (ans Fischer
,88,-,-55 8le)an!er Flemin* - Scottish $acteriolo*ist isolate! l#so/#me
from tears 1,-223 o$ser"e! a mol!+ he name! penicillin+ that
pre"ente! $acterial *ro%th.
,88,-,-5' ;r"in* 4an*muir - 8merican chemist impro"e! incan!escent
lamp 1,-,33 recei"e! <o$el .ri/e for chemistr# 1,-323 for his
stu!# of monomolecular films e)perimente! %ith clou!-see!in*
1,-5&3 helpe! refine theor# of chemical $on!in*.
,88,-,-65 (ermann Stau!in*er
,882-,-45 ?ohannes (ans 6ilhelm Gei*er - German ph#sicist occasionall#
colla$orate! %ith 0rnest Autherfor! helpe! to !e"elop first
successful counter of alpha particles 1,-&83 impro"e! !esi*n of
this instrument $ecame kno%n as the Gei*er counter 1,-283.
,882-,-6, .erc# 6illiam Bri!*man
,882-,-'& Ma) Born - German ph#sicist recei"e! the <o$el .ri/e for
ph#sics for his %ork in 5uantum mechanics 1,-543.
,884-,-4- Frie!rich Barl Au!olf Ber*ius
,884-,-', Theo!or S"e!$er* - S%e!ish colloi! chemist.
,885-,-62 <iels (enrik :a"i! Bohr - :anish ph#sicist his mo!el of atomic
structure propose! that electrons or$it the nucleus in fi)e! or$its
that are !iscrete ener*# states recei"e! the <o$el .ri/e for
ph#sics for his %ork in atomic structure an! ra!iation 1,-223.
,886-,-5& 8rthur ?effre# :empster
,886-,-56 Clarence Bir!se#e - 8merican in"entor an! $usinessman
!e"elope! metho! for preser"in* foo!s $# 5uick-free/in* 1,-,6-
,-283 forme! General Foo!s Compan# 1,-243.
,886-,-'5 Ao$ert Ao$inson
,88'-,-,5 (enr# G%#n-?effre#s Mosele# - 0n*lish ph#sicist !isco"ere!
Mosele#9s la% of characteristic )-ra# spectra of elements 1,-,33
!emonstrate! that the num$er of electrons in an element is the
same as the atomic num$er+ esta$lishin* the si*nificance of the
atomic num$er.
,88'-,-6, 0r%in Schroe!in*er - 8ustrian ph#sicist !e"elope! atomic
theor# of %a"e mechanics 1,-263 share! <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics
%ith ..8.M.:irac 1,-333.
,888-,-'& Chan!rasekhara =enkata Aaman - ;n!ian ph#sicist !e"elope! a
spectroscopic techni5ue name! after him 1,-283 the scatterin*
effect of li*ht that a compoun! causes !urin* Aaman
spectroscop# *i"es information a$out its molecular structure
recei"e! <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics 1,-3&3.
,888-,-'3 Selman 8 6aksman - 8merican soil $acteriolo*ist .rofessor of
micro$iolo*#.
,88--,-44 Thomas Mi!*le# ?r.
,8-&-,-84 ?ohn Aock - 8merican o$stetrician-*#necolo*ist performe! first
successful in "itro fertili/ation of a human o"um 1,-443.
,8-,-,-5' 6alther 6ilhelm Bothe - German ph#sicist+ recei"e! the ,-54
<o$el .ri/e for ph#sics for !e"elopin* an! appl#in* the
coinci!ence metho!. Csin* this metho!+ Bothe an! (ans Gei*er
!emonstrate! 1,-243 that the conser"ation of momentum an!
ener*# is "ali! in certain elementar# processes an! !iscre!ite!
the h#pothesis that these ph#sical properties are conser"e! onl#
statisticall#. ;n ,-2-+ Bothe an! 6erner Bolhorster !emonstrate!
the e)istence of hi*h-ener*# particles in cosmic ra!iation+ an! the
follo%in* #ear Bothe+ %ith (. Becker+ !etecte! a ne% ra!iation+
%hich ?ames Cha!%ick i!entifie! as the neutron. Bothe tau*ht
ph#sics in Berlin an! Giessen an! !irecte! the Ma) .lanck
;nstitute at (ei!el$er*+ German#+ from ,-34 until his !eath.
1?anuar# 8+ ,8-, - Fe$ruar# 8+ ,-5'3
,8-,-,-'4 Sir ?ames Cha!%ick - 0n*lish ph#sicist !isco"ere! the neutron
recei"e! the <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics for this !isco"er# 1,-353.
,8-2-,-58 4ouis-=ictor !e Bro*lie - French ph#sicist !emonstrate!
mathematicall# that electrons an! other su$atomic particles
e)hi$it %a"elike properties 1,-2'3 this particle-%a"e !ualit# %as
!eri"e! from the %ork of 8l$ert 0instein an! Ma) .lanck
recei"e! <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics 1,-2-3.
,8-2-,-62 8rthur (oll# Compton - 8merican ph#sicist !isco"ere! the
Compton 0ffect+ %hich sho%e! that a proton has momentum. (e
%as a%ar!e! the <o$el pri/e for ph#sics Dointl# %ith C.T.A.
6ilson 1,-2'3.
,8-2- :mitri =la!imiro"ich Sko$elts#n - Aussian ph#sicist o$taine!
the first clou!-cham$er photo*raphs of cosmic ra#s. These
sho%e! that the ra#s either %ere+ or pro!uce!+ man# char*e!+
hi*h ener*# particles.
,8-3- Christopher ;n*ol!
,8-3-,-8, (arlol! Cla#ton Cre# - %as a%ar!e! the ,-34 <o$el .ri/e for
chemistr# for the !isco"er# an! isolation of !euterium 1hea"#
h#!ro*en3. Because of this reco*nition as a <o$el laureate an! his
e)perience in isotope separation+ Cre# %as $rou*ht into the
%artime Manhattan .roDect as hea! of the *aseous-!iffusion
proDect for uranium separation. Soon after the %ar he $e*an to
speak out a*ainst the misuse of nuclear ener*#. (is later research
in"ol"e! such !i"erse fiel!s as *eochemistr#+ astroph#sics+ an!
the ori*in of life.
,8-4-,-'& Marietta Blau - 8ustrian ph#sicist %as the first to use nuclear
track plates.
,8-5-,-64 Gerhar! :oma*k
,8-5-,-82 6illiam Francis Giau5ue - 8merican ph#sical chemist# !i!
si*nificant %ork in chemical thermo!#namics+ particularl# on the
$eha"ior of su$stances at "er# lo% temperatures+ for %hich he
%as a%are! the ,-4- <o$el .ri/e for chemistr#.
Giau5ue !etermine! accuratel# the entrop# of a lar*e num$er of
su$stances near a$solute /ero+ an! he pro"e! that the thir! la% of
thermo!#namics+ %hich states that at a$solute /ero a perfect
cr#stal has a /ero entrop#+ %as a fun!amental la% of nature. (e
also !isco"ere! ho% a stron* ma*net coul! $e use! to pro!uce
temperature "er# close to a$solute /ero.
,8-6-,-3' 6allace (ume Carothers
,8-6-,-5' Gert# Cori - 8merican $iochemist $orn in C/echoslo"akia.
,8-'-,-56 ;rene ?oliot-Curie - French ph#sicist !au*hter of Marie an!
.ierre Curie !isco"ere! artificial ra!ioacti"it# alon* %ith
hus$an! Fre!eric ?oliet-Curie.
,8-'-,-6' ?ohn :ou*las Cockcroft - 0n*lish ph#sicist kno%n for his earl#
%ork %ith 0rnest 6alton on atomic particle accelerators+ for
%hich the# recei"e! the ,-5, <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics. 8 *ra!uate
of Cam$ri!*e Cni"ersit# 1,-343+ Cockcroft ser"e! as professor of
natural philosoph# at Cam$ri!*e 1,-34-,-463+ !irector of the
8tomic 0ner*# Aesearch 0sta$lishment 1,-463+ an! presi!ent of
the Cni"ersit# of Manchester ;nstitute of Science an! Technolo*#.
;n ,-32+ Cockcroft an! 6alton achie"e! the first successful
!isinte*ration of atomic nuclei $# artificial means. Csin* a
"olta*e multiplier to *enerate ,5&+&&& "olts of electricit#+ the#
$om$ar!e! lithium atoms %ith accelerate! protons to pro!uce
$er#llium. The $er#llium imme!iatel# split into t%o alpha
particles+ %hich %ere i!entifie! $# $ri*ht scintillations on a /inc-
sulfi!e screen an! $# the !ensit# of their tracks.
,8-'-,-'4 .atrick Ma#nar! Stuart Blackett - 0n*lish ph#sicist o$taine!
the first clou!-cham$er tracks of the in!uce! transmutation of
nitro*en an! of other elements+ an! late ma!e man# cosmic-ra#
stu!ies. (e %as a%ar!e! the <o$el pri/e for ph#sics 1,-483.
,8-8-,-4, Au!olf Schoenheimer
,8-8-,-68 Sir (o%ar! 6alter Flore#+ Baron Flore# - British patholo*ist an!
co!isco"erer of penicillin. Born in 8!elai!e+ 8ustralia+ an!
e!ucate! in me!icine at the Cni"ersit# of 8!elai!e+ he later
stu!ie! an! tau*ht in 0n*lan!. ;n ,-35 he %as appointe! !irector
of the :unn School of .atholo*#+ Cni"ersit# of 7)for!. Flore#
stu!ie! naturall# occurrin* anti$acterials+ of %hich the
.enicillum mol! !isco"ere! $# Sir 8le)an!er Flemin* seeme! the
most promisin*. ;n ,-3- Flore# an! the German-British
$iochemist 0rnst Boris Chain isolate! the acti"e a*ent+ penicillin+
from a fraction of the mol! an! formulate! proce!ures for
e)traction an! pro!uction. 6ith British in!ustries affecte! $#
6orl! 6ar ;;+ Flore# took his process to the Cnite! States+ %here
pri"ate an! *o"ernment la$oratories pro!uce! sufficient
5uantities to com$at $acterial infection in %oun!e! sol!iers. For
his %ork he %as kni*hte! in ,-44+ share! the <o$el .ri/e in
ph#siolo*# or me!icine n ,-45 %ith Chain an! Flemin* an! %as
electe! presi!ent of the Ao#al Societ# in ,-6&.
,8-8-,-'3 Barl >ie*ler - German chemist <o$el 4aureate in Chemistr#
1,-633 for their !isco"eries in the fiel! of the chemistr# an!
technolo*# of hi*h pol#mers.
,8-8- ;si!or ;saac Aa$i - 8ustrian+ 8merican ph#sicist ma!e prescise
!eterminations of nuclear ma*netic moments in $eams of atoms
$# his ra!io fre5uenc# resonance metho!. (e %as a%ar!e! the
<o$el pri/e for ph#sics 1,-443.
,8---,-'5 .erc# 4a"on ?ulian - 8merican chemist researche! the Cala$ar
$ean plant successfull# s#nthesi/e! ph#sosti*mine+ %hich %as
use! to treat *laucoma 1,-353.
,8---,--8 Thomas (ope ?ohnson - 8merican ph#sicist in ,-3, he o$taine!
cr#stal !effraction of a $eam of h#!ro*en atoms. ;n ,-33 ?ohnson
an! ?a$e/ Curr# Street 1,-&6-,-8-3 o$ser"e! that the cosmic-ra#
intensit# from the %est e)cee!e! that from the east. This east-
%est as#mmetr# sho%s that there is an e)cess of positi"el#
char*e! particles in the primar# cosmic-ra# $eam.
,-&&-,-58 Fre!eric ?oliot-Curie - French nuclear ph#sicist <o$el 4aureate
in Chemistr# 1,-353 in reco*nition of the s#nthesis of ne%
ra!ioacti"e elements.
,-&&-,-58 6olf*an* .auli - 8ustrian theoretical ph#sicist one of the
foun!ers of mo!ern ph#sics. (e is most famous for his @.auli
e)clusion principle.@ %hich states that no t%o electrons in an
atom can ha"e the same four 5uantum num$ers. For his %ork in
this area he %as a%ar!e! the ,-45 <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics.
6hile an un!er*ra!uate stu!ent in ph#sics at Munich+ .auli
%rote a comprehensi"e article on the theor# of relati"it# that
$ecame the classic treatment of the su$Dect. ;n ,-24 he propose! a
ne% 5uantum num$er 1relate! to spin3 for electrons+ an! the
follo%in* #ear he enunciate! the e)clusion principle. ;n ,-28+
.auli %as name! professor of theoretical ph#sics at the >urich
Technical Cni"ersit#+ %here+ in ,-3,+ he pre!icte! that
conser"ation la%s !eman!e! the e)istence of the neutrino+ a
particle later foun!. 8fter $ein* at .rincton Cni"ersit# !urin*
6orl! 6ar ;;+ .auli $ecame a C.S. citi/en+ $ut he spent his last
#ears in >urich.
,-&&-,-65 .aul Muller - S%iss chemist !isco"ere! that
!ichloro!iphen#ltrichloroethane or ::T+ a kno%n s#nthetic
chemical su$stance+ %as useful as an insectici!e 1,-3-3.
,-&&-,-6' Aichar! Buhn - S%iss chemist <o$el 4aureate in Chemistr#
1,-383 for his %ork on carotenoi!s an! "itamins. 1Cause! $# the
authorities of his countr# to !ecline the a%ar! $ut later recei"e!
the !iploma an! the me!al.3
,-&,-,-54 0nrico Fermi - 8merican ph#sicist $orn in Aome researche! the
transmutation of elements throu*h neutron $om$ar!ment his
team pro!uce! the first controlle! nuclear chain reaction at the
Cni"ersit# of Chica*o recei"e! the <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics for
the !e"elopment of neutron-in!uce! nuclear reactions 1,-383.
,-&,-,-58 0rnest 7rlan!o 4a%rence - 8merican ph#sicist recei"e! <o$el
.ri/e for ph#sics for the in"ention an! !e"elopment of the
c#clotron @atom smasher@ 1,-3-3.
,-&,-,-6' Ao$ert ?emison =an :e Graaff - 8merican ph#sicist constructe!
the first relia$le+ hi*h "olta*e+ electrostatic *enerator for nuclear
research - @=an :e Graaff Generator@.
,-&,-,-'6 6erner Barl (eisen$er* - German ph#sicist pu$lishe! the first
theor# of 5uantum mechanics 1,-253 postulate! the @uncertaint#
principle 1,-2'3 recei"e! <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics 1,-323.
,-&,-,-'8 =incent !u =i*neau! - 8merican chemist <o$el 4aureate in
Chemistr# 1,-553 for his %ork on $iochemicall# important
sulphur compoun!s+ especiall# for the first s#nthesis of a
pol#pepti!e hormone.
,-&,-,-82 Aene ?ules :u$os - 8merican $acteriolo*ist $orn in France.
,-&,-,--4 4inus Carl .aulin* - 8merican $iochemist applie! H-ra#
!iffraction+ electron !iffraction an! 5uantum mechanics to
chemistr# !e"elope! theories of rare *as compoun!s !e"elope!
mechanistic theor# of en/#mes 1,-463 !etermine! the ph#sical
structure of proteins as helical 1,-5,3 !e"elope! an! applie!
some of the la%s of structural chemistr# in %ork %ith proteins
researche! the structure of :<8 recei"e! <o$el .ri/e for
chemistr#1,-543 for research of the nature of chemical $on!s
recei"e! <o$el .ri/e for peace 1,-623 for %ork in $annin*
nuclear %eapons testin* recei"e! <ational Me!al of (onor
1,-'53 share! in the 5uantum mechanical !e"elopment of
"alence an! resonance theor# intro!uce! concept of
electrone*ati"it# foun!e! the 4inus .aulin* ;nstitute of Science
an! Me!icine 1,-'33 researche! =itamin C an! nutrition.
,-&,-2&&& 4ouis 4e.rince-Ain*uet - French ph#sicist o$taine! the first
clou! cham$er photo*raph of a meson-electron collision+ from
%hich the mass of the meson coul! $e !e!uce!.
,-&2-,-', 8rne 6ilhelm Baurin Tiselius - S%e!ish chemist <o$el
4aureate in Chemistr# 1,-483 for his research on electrophoresis
an! a!sorption anal#sis+ especiall# for his !isco"eries concernin*
the comple) nature of the serum proteins.
,-&2-,-84 .aul 8!rien Maurice :irac - 0n*lish ph#sicist pu$lishe!
.rinciples of Iuantum Mechanics 1,-3&3 recei"e! <o$el .ri/e
for ph#sics for his research in %a"e mechanics 1,-333.
,-&2-,--5 0u*ene .aul 6i*ner - (un*arian ph#sicist pu$lishe! the first of
a lon* series of important papers on the application of *roup
theor# in 5uantum mechanics. (e %as a%ar!e! the <o$el pri/e
for ph#sics Dointl# %ith Maria Ma#er an! ?.(.:. ?enson 1,-633
,-&3-,-6- Cecil Frank .o%ell - 0n*lish ph#sicist !isco"ere! the pi-meson.
.o%ell %as a%ar!e! the <o$el pri/e for ph#sics in ,-5&.
,-&3-,-'- Giulio <atta - ;talian Chemist in"esti*ate! catal#tic reactions
like the s#nthesis of methanol+ of formal!eh#!e from methanol
an! of $ut#lal!eh#!e from prop#lene+ %hich %ere use! on an
in!ustrial scale. (e also %orke! on s#nthetic ru$$er an! on the
pol#merisation of olefins %ith or*anometallic catal#sts !e"elope!
$# Barl >ie*ler $# %hich he o$taine! pol#prop#lenes of hi*hl#
re*ular molecular structure. 8%ar!e! the <o$el .ri/e 1,-633 in
chemistr#+ Dointl# %ith Barl >ie*ler.
,-&3-,--5 0rnest Thomas Sinton 6alton - ;rish ph#sicist share! the ,-5,
<o$el .ri/e for ph#sics %ith Sir ?ohn :. Cockcroft for achie"in*
1,-323 the first artificial transmutation of elements. 6alton
recei"e! his .h.:. from Trinit# Colle*e+ :u$lin+ an! Doine! Sir
0rnest Autherfor! at the Ca"en!ish 4a$orator#+ Cam$ri!*e
Cni"ersit#. There+ %ith Cockcroft+ he !e"ise! a metho! of
acceleratin* protons %ith hi*h "olta*es an! use! them to
$om$ar! lithium nuclei. (e correctl# interprete! the appearance
of helium nucei as a result of the splittin* of the lithium atoms.
,-&4-,-6' ?ulius Ao$ert 7ppenheimer - 8merican ph#sicist !irector of the
Manhattan .roDect in 4os 8lamos+ <M 1,-42-,-453!irector of
The ;nstitute for 8!"ance! Stu!# in .rinceton+ <? 1,-4'-,-663.
,-&4-,-68 Geor*e Gamo% - Aussian $orn 8merican ph#sicist - contri$ute!
si*nificantl# to increasin* the kno%le!*e of nuclear reactions
%ithin stars. 8fter *ra!uatin* 1,-283 from the Cni"ersit# of
4enin*ra!+ he tra"ele! in 0urope. Gamo% %orke! %ith <iels
Bohr an! 0rnest Autherfor! $efore comin* to the Cnite! States
in ,-34. (e tau*ht at Geor*e 6ashin*ton Cni"erist# until ,-56
thereafter+ he %as a professor at the Cni"ersit# of Colora!o.
1March 4+ ,-&4 - 8u*ust ,-+ ,-683
,-&4-,-'- 7tto Frisch - 8ustrian-0n*lish ph#sicist a!"ance! the theor#
that uranium+ %hen $om$ar!e! $# neutrons+ $reaks into smaller
atoms coine! the term @fission@ for this process.
,-&5-,-8- 0milio Se*re - ;talian $orn 8merican ph#sicist kno%n for his
!isco"er# of the antiproton+ a ne*ati"el# char*e! particle %ith the
mass of a proton. ;n ,-38 he $e*an a life-lon* association %ith the
Cni"ersit# of California at Berkele#. From ,-43 to ,-46 he %as a
*roup lea!er at the 4os 8lamos !i"ision of the Manhattan
.roDect. ;n ,-55+ Se*re an! 7%en Cham$erlain succee!e! in
pro!ucin* an! i!entif#in* the antiproton+ for %hich the# share!
the <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics in ,-5-. :urin* his career+ Ser*re
contri$ute! to "arious fiel!s of ph#sics inclu!in* stu!# of the
>eeman effect+ atomic spectroscop#+ molecular $eams+ neutron
ph#sics+ nuclear fission+ an! elementar# particle ph#sics. (e
colla$orate! %ith other ph#sicists in the !isco"er# of the elements
technetium+ astatine+ an! plutonium-23-.
,-&5-,--, Carl :a"i! 8n!erson - 8merican ph#sicist %on the ,-63 <o$el
.ri/e for ph#sics for his %ork on cosmic ra#s. ;n his clou!
cham$er stu!ies+ 8n!erson foun! !ecisi"e proof of the e)istence
of the positron+ a positi"el# char*e! electron. ;n ,-38 he an! Seth
(. <e!!erme#er announce! the !isco"er# of the meson+ a t#pe of
su$atomic particle %hose e)istence ha! earlier $een pre!icte! $#
(i!eki Guka%a. ;n ,-48+ Cecil .o%ell foun! that in realit#
another meson+ calle! the pi-meson+ or pion+ ha! the properties of
Guka%a9s mo!el an! !eca#e! to the kno%n meson !isco"ere! $#
8n!erson.
,-&5-,--3 Bruno Bene!etto Aossi - ;talian+ 8merican ph#sicist foun! an!
initial increase %ith thickness in the cosmic-ra# intensit#
@transmitte!@ $# an o$sor$er an! e)plaine! this $# cosmic-ra#
sho%ers. 8 transition to !ecreasin* intensities %as o$ser"e!
$e#on! a certain thickness.
,-&6-,-'- Sir 0rnst Boris Chain - German+ 0n*lish $iochemist <o$el
4aureate in Me!icine 1,-453 for the !isco"er# of penicillin an! its
curati"e effect in "arious infectious !iseases.
,-&6- 4uis F. 4eloir - 8r*entine $iochemist+ $orn in France recei"e!
the <o$el .ri/e for chemistr# for the !isco"er# of su*ar
nucleoti!es an! the $ios#nthesis of car$oh#!rates 1,-'&3.
,-&'-,-8, (i!eki Guka%a - ?apanese nuclear ph#sicist postulate! the
e)istence of a short-li"e! su$atomic particle that ha! a *reater
mass than the electron 1,-353 these interme!iate particles %ere
!isco"ere! t%o #ears later an! name! @mesotrons@ the term %as
then shortene! to @mesons@ recei"e! <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics
1,-4-3.
,-&'-,--, 0!%in Mattison McMillan - 8merican nuclear chemist kno%n
for his contri$utions to the !isco"er# of the transuranium
elements neptunium an! plutonium in ,-4&+ an! for !e"elopin*
the s#nchrotron in ,-45. McMillan tau*ht at the Cni"ersit# of
California at Berkele# from ,-32 until retirin* as professor
emeritus in ,-'3 share! <o$el .ri/e for chemistr# 1,-5,3 %ith
Glenn T. Sea$or* for the !isco"er# an! isolation of neptunium
1-33 of plutonium 1-43.
,-&'-,--' Sir 8le)an!er Ao$ertus To!! - 0n*ish Biochemist
,-&8-,-8& 6illar! Frank 4i$$# - 8merican chemist %on the ,-6& <o$el
.ri/e for chemistr# for his ra!iometric a*e-!atin* techni5ue
1,-4'3+ %hich uses the isotope car$on-,4 to !ate archaeolo*ical
specimens. (e !escri$e! his %ork in his $ook Aa!iocar$on
:atin* 1,-52 2! e!.+ ,-553. (e tau*ht at the Cni"ersit# of
California at Berkele# 1,-33-,-453 an! %orke! on the Manhattan
.roDect 1,-4,-,-453. (e then Doine! the ;nstitute for <uclear
Stu!ies at the Cni"ersit# of Chica*o 1,-45-,-5-3 an! finall# the
Cni"ersit# of California at 4os 8n*eles 1,-5--,-8&3+ %here he
!irecte! the ;nstitute for Geoph#sics an! .anetar# .h#sics. 4i$$#
t%ice ser"e! on the C.S. 8tomic 0ner*# Commission.
,-&8-2&&, Geor*e :i)on Aochester - 0n*lish ph#sicist !isco"ere! =-
particles an! h#perons.
,-,&-,--4 :oroth# Cro%foot (o!*kin - 0n*lish chemist use! H-ra#
cr#stallo*raph# to !etermine the structure of or*anic su$stances+
inclu!in* penicillins. She %as the first person to !isco"er the
cr#stalline structure present in insulin+ penicillin an! "itamin B-
,2. For this !isco"er# she %as a%ar!e! a <o$el .ri/e.
,-,&-2&&2 8rcher ?ohn .orter Martin - British $iochemist %as a%ar!e!
1%ith A.4.M. S#n*e3 the <o$el .ri/e for Chemistr# 1,-523 for
!e"elopment of paper partition chromato*raph#+ a 5uick an!
economical anal#tical techni5ue permittin* e)tensi"e a!"ances in
chemical+ me!ical+ an! $iolo*ical research.
,-,,-,-88 4uis 6alter 8l"are/ - 8merican ph#sicist pro!uce! free protons
%ith a particle accelerator hea!e! a team %hich !esi*ne! a
$u$$le cham$er for !etectin* short-li"e! su$atomic particles
recei"e! the <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics 1,-683 for his ,-6& !isco"er#
of these particles+ calle! @resonances@.
,-,,-,--3 .ol#karp Busch - German ph#sicist ma!e hi*h precision
!eterminations of the ma*netic moment of the electron an! foun!
a small $ut theoreticall# si*nificant !ifference $et%een the
pre!icte! "alue an! the e)perimental results. Busch %as a%ar!e!
the <o$el pri/e for ph#sics Dointl# %ith 6.A. 4am$ 1,-553.
,-,,-,--' Mel"in Cal"in - 8merican chemist a%ar!e! the ,-6, <o$el .ri/e
for chemistr# for his stu!# of photos#nthesis+ a process $# %hich
*reen plants a$sor$ car$on !io)i!e an! con"ert it into su*ar an!
o)#*en. 8fter earl# %ork on the structure of or*anic compoun!s+
Cal"in $e*an usin* ra!ioacti"e car$on-,4 in the ,-4&9s to trace
the "arious steps of photos#nthesis. B# ,-5' he an! his associate+
?ames 8. Bassham+ ha! ma!e a !etaile! anal#sis of the man#
reactions that take place. Cal"in then turne! his attention to
formulatin* theories on the chemical e"olution of life. (e also
con!icte! solar ener*# research+ inclu!in* stu!ies of the
possi$ilities of artificial photos#nthesis. 6ith Bassham+ Cal"in
%rote The .hotos#nthesis of Car$on Compoun!s 1,-623 an!
Chemical 0"olution 1,-6-3.
,-,2-,--- Glenn Theo!ore Sea$or* - 8merican chemist share! the ,-5,
<o$el .ri/e for chemistr# %ith 0!%in McMillan for his
participation in the !isco"er# of most of the transuranium
elements. Sea$ort recei"e! his .h.:. in ,-3' from the Cni"ersit#
of California at Berkele#+ %here he remaine! an! !i! his earl#
%ork on the isotopes of common elements. (e later %orke! %ith
McMillan+ %ho isolate! 1,-4&3 netpunium 1atomic num$er -33+
the first element $e#on! uranium. Sea$or* an! his associates
later isolate! the ne)t transuranium element+ plutonium. The#
also foun! a plutonium isotope+ %hich promise! to #iel! more
fission ener*# than uranium.
;n ,-42+ Sea$or* mo"e! from Berkele# to the Cni"ersit# of
Chica*o to fin! %a#s of pro!ucin* plutonium for the atomic
$om$ proDect. (is *roup !isco"ere! 1,-443 t%o ne% elements+
americium 1-53 an! curium 1-63. These !isco"eries helpe! to
confirm Sea$or*9s h#pothesis that the transuranium elements
resem$le! one another an! so forme! a transition series 1the
actini!e series3 similar to the lanthani!e series of rare earths. ;n
,-46 he returne! to Berkele#+ an! !urin* the ne)t t%el"e #ears he
an! his colla$orators !isco"ere! si) more transuranium
elementsF $erkelium 1-'3 in ,-4-+ californium 1-83 in ,-5&+
einsteinium 1--3 in ,-52+ fermium 1,&&3 in ,-53+ menele"ium
1,&,3 in ,-55+ an! no$elium 1,&23 in ,-58. The !isco"er# of these
elements %as ma!e possi$le $# ne% particle accelerators that
allo%e! hea"# ions to $e use! as proDectiles. Sea$or# %as name!
1,-583 chancellor of the Berkele# campus in ,-6, he $ecame the
first scientist to $e chairman of the 8tomic 0ner*# Commission+
The 4a%rence Berkele# 4a$orator# in ,-',+ %here he
co!isco"ere! 1,-'43 element ,&6.
,-,3- 6illis 0u*ene 4am$+ ?r. - 8merican ph#sicist o$ser"e!+ !urin*
the course of spectral measurements of the fine structure of
h#!ro*en in the micro%a"e re*ion+ a small !isplacement 1the
@4am$ shift@3 of an ener*# le"el from its theoretical position as
pre!icte! $# :irac9s 5uantum theor# of the electron. 4am$ %as
a%ar!e! the <o$el pri/e for ph#sics Dointl# %ith .. Busch 1,-553.
,-,3- .hilip (a*ue 8$elson - collo$orate! in the !isco"er# of
neptunium 1element -33an! !e"ise! a metho! for lar*e-scale
s#nthesis of enriche! uranium for use as a po%er source in
su$marines. (e ser"e! as !irector of the Carne*ie ;nstitution of
6ashin*ton9s Geoph#sical 4a$orator# from ,-53 to ,-',.
,-,3-2&&2 Martin :. Bamen - the !isco"erer of Car$on ,4 an! the
ori*inator of man# of the techni5ues $# %hich ra!ioacti"e tracers
are use! to eluci!ate the chemistr# of $iolo*ical processes. (e
also carrie! out e)tensi"e research that un!erlies much of our
un!erstan!in* of the process of photos#nthesis. For his !isco"er#
of Car$on ,4 an! %ork on tracers+ :r. Bamen recei"e! in ,--6
the 0nrico Fermi a%ar!+ the hi*hest ph#sics honor of the Cnite!
States.
,-,4-,--4 Aichar! 4aurence Millin*ton S#n*e - <o$el 4aureate in
Chemistr# 1,-523+ Dointl# %ith 8rcher ?ohn .orter Martin+ for
their in"ention of partition chromato*raph#.
,-,4-2&&2 Ma) Fer!inan! .erut/ - <o$el 4aureate in Chemistr# 1,-623+
Dointl# %ith Sir ?ohn C. Ben!re%+ for their stu!ies of the
structures of *lo$ular proteins.
,-,4- ?ames 8lfre! =an 8llen - 8merican ph#sicist sho%e! from the
!ata o$taine! from instruments carrie! $# artificial satellites that
the earth is encircle! $# t%o /ones+ calle! =an 8llen ra!iation
$elts+ of hi*h-ener*# char*e! particles %hic are trappe! $# the
earth9s ma*netic fiel!.
,-,6- Francis (arr# Compton Crick - <o$el 4aureate in Me!icine
1,-623+ Dointl# %ith ?ames :. 6atson an! Maurice 6ilkins+ for
their !isco"eries concernin* the molecular structure of nucleic
aci!s an! its si*nificance for information transfer in li"in*
material.
,-,6- Maurice (u*h Fre!erick 6ilkins - <o$el 4aureate in Me!icine
1,-623+ Dointl# %ith ?ames :. 6atson an! Francis C. Crick+ for
their !isco"eries concernin* the molecular structure of nuclear
aci!s an! its si*nificance for information transfer in li"in*
material.
,-,'-,-'- Ao$ert Burns 6oo!%ar! - <o$el 4aureate in Chemistr# 1,-653
for his outstan!in* achie"ements in the art of or*anic s#nthesis.
,-,'-2&&2 Martin :eutsch - 8ustrian+ 8merican ph#sicist e)perimentall#
confirme! the pre!iction of the e)istence of positronium.
,-,'- 6illiam "on 0**ers :oerin* - o$taine! from the $ark of the
cinchona tree that is foun! in the 8n!es mountain ran*e of
0cua!or an! .eru. The# %ere pro$a$l# !isco"ere! $# .eru"ian
?esuits+ %ho intro!uce! 5uinine into 0urope aroun! ,64&.
(o%e"er the !estruction of these trees to o$tain 5uinine ma!e
them rare an! so a %a# of makin* it s#ntheticall# %as sou*ht.
This %as foun! in ,-44 $# Ao$ert Burns 6oo!%ar! an! :oerin*
$# s#nthesisin* 5uinine from coal tar. IuinineJs formula is
C2&(24<272.
,-,'-,--' Sir ?ohn Co%!er# Ben!re% -<o$el 4aureate in Chemistr#
1,-623+ Dointl# %ith Ma) Fer!inan! .erut/+ for their stu!ies of the
structures of *lo$ular proteins.
,-,8-,--8 Benichi Fukui - ?apanese chemist applie! the la%s of 5uantum
mechanics to chemical reactions in"ol"e! in the !e"elopment of
effecti"e !ru*s share! <o$el .ri/e for chemistr# %ith Aoal!
(offman of the Cnite! States 1,-8,3.
,-,8- Fre!erick San*er - <o$el 4aureate in Chemistr# 1,-583 for his
%ork on the structure of proteins+ especiall# that of insulin.
<o$el 4aureate in Chemistr# 1,-8&3 for contri$utions concernin*
the !etermination of $ase se5uences in nucleic aci!s.
,-2&- 7%en Cham$erlain - 8merican ph#sicist kno%n for his Doint
!isco"er#+ alon* %ith 0milio Se*re+ of the antiproton+ for %hich
$oth recei"e! the ,-5- <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics. (is *ra!uate
stu!ies at the Cni"ersit# of California %ere interrupte! $# 6orl!
6ar ;;+ at %hich time he Doine! the Manhattan .roDect to $uil!
the 8tomic $om$. ;n ,-55 Cham$erlain an! Se*re !isco"ere! the
antiproton+ a su$atomic particle %ith the same mass as the proton
$ut %ith a ne*ati"e char*e. Since that time+ he has in"esti*ate!
the interaction of antiproton or antimatter proton %ith h#!ro*en
an! !euterium.
,-2,-,--- Glenn T. Sea$or* - 8merican nuclear chemist share! <o$el
.ri/e for chemistr# 1,-5,3 %ith 0!%in Mattison McMillan for the
!isco"er# of plutonium 1-43.
,-2,- Aosal#n S.Galo% - 8merican $iochemist recei"e! the <o$el .ri/e
for !e"elopin* ra!ioimmunoassa#s as pepti!e hormones 1,-''3
secon! %oman to $e a%ar!e! the <o$el .ri/e for me!icine an!
ph#siolo*#.
,-26- :onal! 8rthur Glaser - 8merican ph#sicist ma!e the first
$u$$le cham$er. (e %as a%ar!e! the <o$el pri/e for ph#sics in
,-6&.
,-28- ?ames :e%e# 6atson - $est kno%n for his !isco"er# of the
structure of :<8 1!eo)#ri$onucleic aci!3+ for %hich he share!
%ith Francis Crick an! Maurice 6ilkins the <o$el .ri/e in
.h#siolo*# or Me!icine 1,-623. The# propose! that the :<8
molecule takes the shape of a !ou$le heli)+ an ele*antl# simple
structure that resem$les a *entl# t%iste! la!!er. The rails of the
la!!er are ma!e of alternatin* units of phosphate an! the su*ar
!eo)#ri$ose the run*s are each compose! of a pair of nitro*en-
containin* nucleoti!es.
,-2-- Au!olph 4. Moss$auer - German ph#sicist pre!icte! an! foun!
an e)tremel# small fre5uenc# sprea! in the emission of lo%-
ener*# *amma ra#s from nuclei $oun! in a cr#stal lattice. This
effect results from *i"in* the *amma-ra# recoil momentum to the
%hole lattice instea! of to an in!i"i!ual nucleus. The effect
pro"i!es a "er# hi*h precision fre5uenc# stan!ar! suita$le for
testin* se"eral pre!ictions of the special an! *eneral theories of
relati"it#. (e %as a%ar!e! the <o$el pri/e for ph#sics Dointl#
%ith A. (ofsta!ter 1,-6,3.
,-36- Samuel Chao Chun* Tin* - 8merican ph#sicist !isco"ere! a
su$atomic particle %hich he name! the @? particle@ 1,-'43 a
parallel in!epen!ent !isco"er# of the same particle %as ma!e $#
Burton Aichter %ho name! it the @psi particle@9 it is no% kno%n
as the @?Kpsi particle@ share! <o$el .ri/e for ph#sics %ith
Aichter 1,-'63.
,-36- Guan T. 4ee - 8merican ph#sicist !e"elope! a cross-$eam
molecular techni5ue that *i"es !etaile! information a$out
chemical reactions !esi*ne! a mass spectrometer !etection
s#stem to monitor the collisions an! scatterin* effects in"ol"e! in
this research techni5ue share! <o$el .ri/e for chemistr# %ith
:u!le# A. (ersch$ack 1,-863.