MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1 The quality that is required from any material depends on its use: it's obvious that wires and
springs can't be manufactured out of the same metal as the former must possess ductility and the latter
elasticity. Aluminum will certainly not do for a drill but is advisable for electricity. Thus, a designer must
estimate the loads that a piece will carry and determine which material, shape and size is best suited.

2 External forces can effect solid materials in different ways, but basically their effects can be
divided into three categories: compression, tension and shear. A material is said to be stressed when an
external force tends to cause it to change shape. Sometimes the force applied is so strong that the shape
is actually permanently altered: the piece is said to be strained i.e. distorted.

3 Tests performed on specimens enable to determine their mechanical properties. Hardness, for
instance, is measured by applying a constant vertical load onto a test area (Brinell test). Tensile tests are
carried out by exerting a progressively increased load to a specimen, until elongation and finally fracture
happens. It's also possible to determine how tough a material is by means of an Izod test: a pendulum
hits the specimen with a given kinetic energy at a given speed, and the energy absorbed in bending the
specimen indicates its toughness.

4 The natural properties of materials can sometimes be widely altered by various treatments.
Thus corrosion, which attacks metals in particular, can be reduced by applying paint or by electrical
treatment such as electro-plating. Metallic elements can also be added so as to improve the original
properties: nickel added to steel increases toughness and ductility, whereas brass (a copper and zinc
alloy) is much stronger than copper though less ductile.

5 The properties of ferrous metals depend on the amount of carbon that they contain. Cast iron
contains approximately 3% carbon whereas in steel the proportion ranges from 0.1 to 1.5%. Depending
on the exact percentage of carbon and of various other metals which have been added, alloy steel can
exhibit such different properties as ductility, hardness, elasticity or plasticity.

6 Moreover, heating metals, either during or after shaping, provides them with new physical or
mechanical properties: atoms are arranged as 3-D shapes (called crystals) which determine the properties.
When heated, the structure of some crystals (especially iron) is changed, thus resulting in different
properties. The basic operation consists in heating steel (for instance) up to a determined temperature
and cooling it down more or less slowly depending on the result to be achieved.



COMPREHENSION: answer the questions
1 - When choosing a material, what must a designer always think about ?
-According to the text, which properties should wires possess ? What about springs ?
-What can aluminum be used for ?
-As a result, how does a designer choose a material ?
2 - What are the effects of external forces on materials ?
-What is the definition of 'stress' ?
-What has caused a piece to be strained ?
3 - List the tests mentioned in the paragraph.
-What are these tests for ?
4 and 5 - What can you say about the following summary ?
Various techniques enable us to alter a material properties: painting or plating develop corrosion
resistance, as well as alloying which also increases toughness and ductility. Ferrous metals may contain
various proportions of carbon, which gives them varying qualities.
6 - How can metals be supplied with new properties ?
-Which basic operations must then be carried out ?
-Explain briefly the relationship between the properties and the chemical structure of a metal.


LANGUAGE STUDY
1 Definitions

* Toughness can be defined as the ability to resist / withstand repeated bending (adjective : tough).
* A material which can be easily drawn into wires exhibits / possesses the property of ductility (adjective :
ductile).
* A material which easily breaks when subjected to impacts or elongation is said to be brittle (noun :
brittleness).
Using the same structures, make definitions and give the corresponding noun or adjective.
- malleability - can be easily given a new shape by hammering
- hardness - resistance to scratching or indentation
- elasticity - ability to return to its original shape
- plasticity - does not return to its original shape
- stiff (adjective) - resistance to deflection, in the case of springs
- density - ratio between mass and volume
- fusiblility - the material can easily melt

2 - Look at the following table.

a/ When /if normalized, steel acquires /
gains increased hardness and decreased
ductility.
Make similar sentences with the other three
operations.

b/ annealing:
* After the metal is heated (= after heating
the metal) up to 800 C, it is very slowly cooled down.
* Before the metal is very slowly cooled down (= before very slowly cooling the metal down), it is heated
up to 800 C.
Make similar sets of sentences for each of the other three operations.

3 - Transform as in the example:
If we add chromium to steel, corrosion-resisting properties are improved. --> Adding chromium to steel
results in / brings about improved corrosion-resisting properties.
-If we add nickel to steel, ductility and toughness are increased.
-If we quench a piece, hardness and strength are improved.
-If we anneal steal, ductility is increased.
-When we use tin to coat another metal, corrosion-resisting properties are enhanced (=improved).
-If we vary the proportion of carbon, steel will possess quite different properties.

4 - Transform as in the example:
If you add chromium TO steel, it'll resist corrosion. -->Steel TO WHICH chromium is added will resist
corrosion.
-If you incorporate chromium INTO steel, it'll withstand corrosion. --> Steel...
-If you apply a high load TO a piece, it'll break. --> a piece...
-If a rivet is submitted TO a shear force, the latter can break the rivet. --> a shear force ...
-If you exert a tensile force ON an elastic material, it'll return to its original shape. --> an elastic
material ...

5 - Fill in the blanks with a preposition (or [])
Brass is made ... zinc and copper. Painting iron prevents it ... rusting. The properties of steel depend ...
the amount of carbon it contains . Quenching consists ... cooling metals in water . Cast iron is not
capable ... resisting impacts. Copper can be drawn ... wires . When heated, steel is provided ... new
properties. Painting steel helps it to resist ... corrosion. When a material is subjected ... a tensile load, it
tends to extend. Adding certain properties ... steel or removing some ... it may be done by heating it.

6 - Turn into the passive - See Figure 1
If two forces act on body, each force exerts an influence on it. Each separate effect produces a total effect
which we can represent as a vector: we call this vector the resultant'. Thus we can draw a parallelogram,

in which the diagonal represents the resultant of the two forces. If we add E to the system, it produces
equilibrium, so that we say E is the equilibrant.

7 -a/ Look at Fig. 2 and write a description of the steel tensile test. You may use the following
expressions:
as the applied force increases - a rise in the extension - proportional to - return to its original shape - if
the load is removed - up to point M - general extension continues until - phenomenon called 'waisting'
( cross-sectional area becomes narrower) - notice that the load - elongation continues until - break at a
load of x KN.
b/ write a similar description of the copper tensile test.








1) Complete with the most appropriate preposition: at, in by, on, with
1) It is impossible to live in New York _____ less than $5000 a month.
2) The stone hit the speaker _____ the head.
3) Are you going by bus? - No, we are going _____ Mike's car.
4) The girl _____ her back to the camera is my younger sister.
5) How do you go to work? - It depends _____ the weather.
6) We are going to the park. Would you like to go _____ us?
7) Someone threw a stone _____ the speaker.
8) He arrived _____ London on a foggy November day.
9) There's another Picasso picture _____ the opposite wall.
10) The picture was painted _____ Picasso when he was young.
11) We can't go to the station _____ bus because of the bus strike.
12) The car stopped _____ the traffic lights and wouldn't start again.
13) If the weather is good, I go to work _____ foot.
14) Are you _____ your own (alone)? - No, I am with a friend of mine.
15) We often have fogs _____ November.
16) I saw Tom waiting for the bus, but I don't know if he got _____ the bus or not.

2) Complete with the most appropriate preposition: out of, off, with, in, on
17) How would we get _____ this room if the hotel were on fire?
18) Dan always leaves dirty dishes on the table. It gets _____ my nerves.
19) Although we were in a hurry George insisted _____ buying a newspaper.
20) Don't leave this box here. It will be _____ everyone's way.
21) Mr. Jones doesn't like it when we come late. His lessons start dead _____ time.
22) One of my buttons fell _____ when I was fighting with Jim.
23) I needed help with my car but there was no one _____ sight.
24) The horse stopped suddenly and the rider fell _____.
25) The man _____ a pipe and red hair is the brother of the girl in blue.
26) He was charged _____ driving while under the influence of alcohol.
27) She dropped her purse when she was getting _____ the car.
28) You look worried. Are you _____ some sort of trouble?
29) That's Tom over there _____ his arm in plaster.
30) Can I have Monday _____? I need to take my car to the workshop.
31) "Take your hands _____ your pockets," said the teacher strictly.
32) I don't know this area, we need to ask the conductor where to get _____.

3) Complete with the most appropriate preposition: on, in, from, into, at, under
33) You can find some Shakespeare's books in the bookcase _____ the corner.
34) He was _____ prison for 2 years for stealing his roommate's car.
35) A bullet was fired _____ the upstairs window.
36) Passengers may leave bulky items _____ the stairs with the conductor's permission.
37) What platform does the train to New York leave _____?
38) We have lived _____ 101 Rollings Street since 1998.
39) The car skidded _____ the tree, the windscreen was smashed but the driver wasn't injured.
40) He was wounded _____ the shoulder during the war.
41) He hung the picture in the hall _____ the right as you come in.
42) He sits _____ the desk all day writing something in his notebook.
43) He lived _____ this street for 10 years.
44) What's the cheapest way of getting _____ New York to Washington, D.C.?
45) John invited me to dinner _____ his club.
46) Rosa was sitting with her head _____ her hands.
47) He opened the door with a rusty key and went down the steps _____ the basement.
48) He was fined for parking his car _____ a no-parking area.