Elasticity, Doc. Version 1.

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Elasticity
LongitudinalStrain/tensibleorcompressivestrain:
Theratioofchangesinlengthtotheoriginallengthofthebody
undertheactionofdeformingforce/normalstressisknownas
longitudinalstrain.
i.e.Longitudinalstrain=
L
L

Volumestrain/Volumetric/Bulk/Hydraulicstrain:
Therationofchangeinvolume,Itotheoriginalvolumeofthe
bodyundertheactionofdeformingforce/normalstress,isknownas
volumetricstrain.
i.e.Volumetricstrain=
v
v

Shearstrain/Tangentialstrain:
Itistheratiooflateraldisplacement(x)totheperpendicular
distance(l)between s lacedsurfaceandfixedsurface. di p
i.e.Shearstrain=
x
I

Alsof i , romf gure

tan 0 =
x
I

When0isverysmallthen0 = 0
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0 =
x
I

i.e.Shearstrain= 0 =
x
I

Hence,Shearstraincanalsobedefinedastheangle(inradian)through
whichaline(plane)originallyperpendiculartothefixedsurfaceis
turned.

PointtoRemember:Onincreasingtemperature,elasticproperty
decreasesandviceversa.

ElasticLimit:
Theupperlimitofthedeformingforceuptowhichifthe
deformingforceisremovedthebodyregainsitsoriginalformbeyond
whichifthedeformingforceisincreasedandremovedthenbodyloses
itselasticpropertyandgetspermanentlydeformedisknownaselastic
limit.

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Hooke'sLaw
RobertHookeperformedanexperimentoncoiledspring,metallic
rodormetallicwiresetcandgavealawknownasHooke'slaw.Itstates
that,"Therestoringforcedevelopedonabodyisdirectlyproportional
totheelongatio ducedonit,withintheelasticlimit." npro
. i.e F x
F= -Kx| wbcrc K is proportionolity constont]
YoungmodifiedHooke'sstatementandstatedas,"Withinelastic
limit,thestressdevelopedonthebodyisdirectlyproportionaltothe
strainproducedonit."
Stress i.e. Strain
onstont Stroin or,Stress=C

Stcss
Stun
= E
Where,Eisproportionalityconstantknownasmodulusof
elasticity.ItsunitisN/m2orPa.Itsvaluedependsuponthematerial
andtypeofdeformationproducedonthebody.

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ExperimentalVerificationofHookesLaw
ConsidertwoidenticalmetallicwiresAandB
onwhichmainscaleandvernierscalesarefixedand
thewiresaresuspendedfromrigidsupport.
ThekinksproducedonthereferencewireA
andexperimentalwireBareremovedbyloading
weightattheirfreeendsknownasdeadloadswith
thehelpofmeterscalelength(l)atwireBis
measuredandwiththehelpofmicrometerscrew
gaugeitsradius(r)isalsomeasured.
Now,mainscalereadingandvernierscalereadingsarenoted.The
equalloadsareaddedonthepanofwireBandcorrespondingreading
arenoted.Let,w
1
,w
2
,w
3
andw
4
betheweightsonthewireBande
1
,
e
2
,e
3
ande
4
arecorrespondingelongationsproduced,withinelastic
limit.
Since, =
P
A
,
I
I
,
=
PI
n
2
c

IfagraphisplottedbetweenFande,astraightlinefromhorizonis
obtainedwhoseslope
P
c
iscalculatedandwehave = Slopc
I
n
2
then,
theratio
wcght
LI uton ong
iscalculatedandfoundthat,
P
c
= constont
F
i. c.
c
=
c
constont
F
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Also,ifagraphisplottedbetweenweightFandelongatione,astraight
linepassingthroughtheoriginisobtainedwhoseslope
P
c
isconstant,
whichverifiesHookeslaw.

Pointtoremember:Stressmeasuresdeformingforcewhereasstrain
measuresdeformation.
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Stressstrain(curve):
Thediagramshowsthestress
straincurveforaductilematerial.
FromthefirstpartOAitisclear
thatStrcss Stroin.So,uptothe
pointA,knownasproportionality
limit,Hookeslawisobeyed.On
furtherincreaseinstress,strainalso
increasesbuttheyarenotincre
proportionally.Ifthewireis
unloadeduptothepointB,it
regainsitsoriginalshapeandsize,
sothepointBisknownaselasticlimitoryelledpoint.

ased
BeyondBifthestressisincreasedthestrainincreaseslargely,if
thewireisunloadeditdoesntregainsitsoriginalform,i.e.thecurve
retracesfromCtoO
1
showingpermanentset.Andbodyshowsthe
plasticbehavior.Onfurtherincreaseinstress,thestrainproduces
largelyuptothepointEatwhichstressissaidtobebreakingstress.
BeyondEevenastressisdecreased,thestrainisincreasedandfinally
atDknownasfracturepointthewireisfractured.
FromOtoBthebodyundergoesplasticdeformationwhichforms
BtoD,itundergoesplasticdeformation.Iftheplasticdeformationfrom
elasticlimitBandfracturepointDislargethenthebodyissaidtobe
ductileifitissmallthebodyisbritile.

ModuliiofElasticity:
Dependingonthenatureofdeformationi.e.typeofstrainthe
modulusofelasticityisclassifiedas,

Youngsmodulus(Y):
Itistheratioofnormalstresstothelongitudinalstrainwithin
elasticlimit.
i.e.Youngsmodulus(y) =
NomuI Stcss
gtudonuI stun Lon
(i)
Considerametallicrodoflength(l)andareaofcrosssectionAon
whichnormalforceF ppliedthathproducestheelongationbyl. isa
Then,Normalstress=
P
A

AndLongitudionalstrain=
I
I

Puttingabovevaluesintheequation(i), =
P
A
,
I
I
,

Whenthewireisloadedthen,y =
PI
AI
.(ii)
Wekn ow,F=mg

mgI
A
y =
I

=
mgI
n
2
I

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DeterminationofYoungsModulusofElasticity(Y):
Avernierapparatusisusedtodeterminethe
Youngsmodulusofelasticityofamaterial.Avernier
apparatusconsistsofavernierscaleandamain
scale.ThematerialwhoseYoungsmodulusistobe
determinedistakenintheformofthinuniformwire.
TwowiresAandB,ofthematerialeachof2meter
lengtharetaken.Oneofwires(say)Aisconnec
tothemainscaleMandtheotherwireBis
connectedtothevernierscale.Theapparatusisthe
suspendedbyarigidsupportwhichisattheheightmorethan2meter.
TwoscalepansP
1
andP
2
areprovidedwiththeblocksofmainscalean
vernierscale.

ted
n

Principle:Wehav
PI
e =
IA

, F =
A
I
or . l
Foragi
A
I
venwire

isconstant.
Hence,F = Kl.Thisequationisastraightlinepassingthroughthe
origin.So,ifweplotagraphbetweenFandlforagivenwire,a
straightlineisobtained.Theslopeofthelinethusobtainedisusedto
calculatethevalueof Y.
ThatisK(slope)=
A
I
=
P
L
(fromgraph)
=
KI
A

SinceKiscalculatedfromthegraph,
lismeasuredwiththehelpofameter
scaleandAcanbecalculatedby
measuringthediameterofthewirethe
valueofYcanbecalculated.

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BulkModulus(B):
Theratioofnormalstresstothevolumetric/Bulkstrainproduced
onthebodywithinelasticl it bulkmodulus. im isknownas
i.e.Bulkmodulus(B)=
NomuI stcss
voIumctc stcss

Considerabodyofvolume(V)isintheliquidonwhichnormalforceF
actsequallyfromallsides,whichchangesitsvolumeby-I.
Now,
Normalstress=
P
A
=
Volumetricstrain=
-v
v
P - Cbongc in prcssurc

Byputtingthese ine ation(i).Weget, values qu

B =
P
A
,
=
P
-v
v
,

-v
v
,
B =
-vP
v

Compressibility:
Thereciprocalofbulkmodulusisknownascompressibilityi.e.
Compressibility=
1
duIus BuIk mo

C =
1
B

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ShearModulusorModulusofRigidity(6)
Theratiooftangentialstresstotheshearstrainproducedinthe
bodywithintheelasticli knownasshear o ul . mit is m d us
hearmodulus(0) =
1ungcntuI stcs
Shcu stun
=
P
A
,
0
=
P
A0
i.e.S
Also,0
I
=
I

Hence,0 =
PI
IA

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Energystoredinastretchedwire:
Whenametallicwireisstretchedthenworkhastobedone
againstrestoringforce.ThisworkdoneisstoredinthewireasaPE
knownaselasticPE.
Considerawireoflength(l)andareaofcrosssection(A)on
whichdeformingforceF plied h sultselongation(x). isap whic re
Now,Youngsmodulus,
Stcss
=
P
A
,
x
I
,
=
PI
Ax
=
Stun
So,F =
.A
I
x.(A)
SupposethewireisfurtherstretchedbysmallamountJxforwhich
smallworkhastobedone.WhichisJw = F. Jx.Ifthewireis
stretchedbylthentotalworkdonecanbeobtainedbyintegrating
aboveequa i t on.
= ] F
I
]Jw Jx
x=0


A
or, w = ]
L
. xJx
0
I
j]x
n
Jx =
x
n+1
n+1
[
or, w =
A
] xJx
I

I
0
or, w =
A
I
j
x
2
2
[
I

0
or, w
A
=
I
j
x
2
2
-
0
2
2
[
1
2
=
1
2
Ax
2
I

Itistheelasticpotentialenergyperunitvolumeofstretchedwire.
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PoissonsRatio(o)
Whenawireisstretchedthenitslengthincreasesbutatthe
sametimeitsdiameterdecreases.
Theratioofchangeinlength(l)tooriginallength(l)isknownas
longitudinalstrain.Theratioofchangeindiameter(J)totheoriginal
diameterisknownaslateralstrain.
Itisfoundthatthelateralstrain([)isdirectlyproportionaltothe
longitudin in(o)withinelasticlimit. alstra
i.e. [ o
oo or, [ =
o =
[
u

Hence,Poissonsratioistheratiooflateralstraintothelongitudinal
strainwithin clim elasti it.
Since,o =
I
I
a [ =
d
nd
d

Then,
[
=
d
d

I
I
= [
I
d
[
d
I
o =
u

I
d

d
I

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Waterismoreelasticthanair,why?
Asubstanceissaidtobemoreelasticifthemodulusofelasticityis
greater.Fluidhasonlyvolumeelasticity.Waterismoreelasticthanair
duetofollowingreasons:
Thereciprocalofbulkmodulusofelasticity(K)iscalledthe
compressibilityofthesubstance.Compressibilityofwaterislessthan
thatofair.Thatswhywaterismoreelasticthanair.
Or
Fluidresistsachangeofvolumebutnotshapeandpossessesonly
volumeelasticity.Liquidshavealargebulkmodulusbutpracticallyno
rigidityorshearmodulus.Gaseshaveonlyasmallamountofbulk
modulusandpracticallynorigidityorshearmodulus.Sowaterismore
elasticthanair.

Howcanyousaythat,glassismoreelasticthanrubber?
Glassismoreelasticthanrubberbecauseforagivenstressor
appliedforceperunitarea,strainproducedinaglassismuchlessthan
thatinrubber.
Fortwomaterials, A mainingsame, F, andL re
E
g
=
P
A
,
c
g
L
=
PL
Ac
g
, E

=
PL
Ac
r

e
g
=elongationproducedinglass
e
r
=elongationproducedinrubber
Here, r>e
g
e
E
g
>E
r
Hence,glassismoreelasticthanrubber.

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Whyaspringismadeofsteelandnotofacopper?
Workingprincipleofaspringisbasedonelasticity.Modulusof
elasticityofsteelismorethanthatofcopper.Thereforeforequal
appliedforce,theelongationofthesteelislessthanofcopperforsame
initiallength.Thereforesteelspringmaybearthelargertensionbefore
elasticlimitiscrossed.Thatiswhyspringismadeofsteel.

Whybridgesaredeclaredunsafeafteralonguse?
Abridgewhichiscontinuouslysubjectedtoavarietyofstrains
maylossitselasticpropertiesafterasufficientlongtime.Inthatcaseit
willshowunusuallygreaterstrainforsmallstressandislikelyto
collapseifnotdeclaredunsafe.Thatswhybridgesaredeclaredunsafe
afteralonguse.

Whydoesspringshowwrongreadingsafterlonguse?
Whenbodyisrepeatedlystressedandunstresseditbecomes
weaker.Asaresult,thestrainproducedbycertainstresswillincrease.
Thenitgiveswrongreadings.

Whyarerubbersusedasvibrationabsorber?/Whyrubbersheetsare
usedinashockabsorber?
Elastichysteresishasanimportantapplicationinshockabsorber.
Thelargeelastichysteresisofsometypesofrubbermakesthese
materialsveryvaluableasvibrationabsorbers.Ifapaddingof
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vulcanizedrubberisplaced
betweenapieceofvibrating
machineryandfloororflat
boardtherubberis
compressedandreleasedin
everycycleofvibration.As
energyisabsorbedinthe
rubberineachcycle,onlya
partoftheenergyof
vibrationsistransmittedto
theboardorfloor.

Whatiselastichysteresis?
Lackofcoincidenceofthecurvesforincreasinganddecreasing
stressisknownaselastichysteresis.
Or
Straininamateriallagsbehindthestresstowhichissubjected.Thislag
betweenstressandstrainiscalledelastichysteresis.

Whenrubbersheetsareusedinashockvibrator,whathappenstothe
energyofvibration?
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Rubbersheetsabsorbvibrationalkineticenergy.Someenergyis
dissipatedbymaterialasheat.Onlysmallamountofenergyofvibration
istransmittedtothefloororboard.

Someworkhastobedoneinstretchingwire,whereisthiswork
stored?
Whenawireisstretched,workhastobedonetodeformthewire;
workdoneisstoredupaselasticpotentialenergy.

WhatisthevalueofYoungsmodulusforaperfectlyrigidbody?
Thev Youngsmodulu fora idbodyis, alueof s perfectlyrig
=
LongtudnuI stcss
LongtdunuI stun
=
P
A
,
0
L
,
= ininity
Hence,Youngsmodulusforaperfectlyrigidbodyisinfinity.

Whatisshearmodulusofliquid?
Fluidhasonlybulkmodulusandpracticallyzeroshearmodulus.

WhatistheeffectofriseoftemperatureinYoungsmodulusof
elasticity?
TheYoungsmodulusofelasticityisgivenby =
PL
A6L

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Letobethecoefficientoflinearexpansionofthewireoforiginal
lengthLando0betheriseoftemperature,thentheincreaseinlength
oI = Ioo0j o =
6L
L60
[
Underthegivenload,therewillbemoreextensionandhencevalueof
Ywilldecreasewithriseoftemperature.Invarsteelisamaterialwhose
elasticbehaviorisnotaffectedbyriseintemperature.

Whatarethetwodifferencesbetweenelasticandplasticbody?
Elasticbody Plasticbody
Withinelasticlimit,strainis
proportionaltostress
Strainisnotproportionaltostress
Thebodyregainsitsoriginalits
originalconditionsonremovalof
deformingforce.
Thebodydoesntregainitsoriginal
conditionsonremovalof
deformingforce

Whydoyouuserubberbandstoholdpaperstogether?
Adistinctlydifferentstressedstrainrelationexistsforavulcanized
rubber.Thematerialremainselasticevenwhenitisstretchedtoover
severaltimesitsoriginallength.Hence,arubberbandisusedtohold
papertogether.Rubberstretchedveryeasilycomparestometalandit
ismuchlessstiffthanthemetal.

Isitpossibletodoublethelengthofametallicwirebyapplyinga
forceonit?
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Itisnotpossiblebecausewithintheelasticlimitstrainisoforder10
3
.
Wirewillsnapwellbeforeitisstretchedtoitsdoublelength.

Whenawireisbentbackandforth,itbecomeshot.Why?
Whenawireisbentbackandforthitsdeformationarebeyondits
elasticlimit.Theworkdoneagainstinteratomicforcesisnomore
storedfullyintheformofpotentialenergy.Beyondelasticlimit,
crystallinestructureofthewiregetsaffectedandworkdoneis
convertedintoheatenergy.