1

Module 2
BASIC CONCEPTS
FOR ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

The intention of this module is to lay the groundwork for the study of electric
power systems. This is done by developing some basic tools involving concepts,
definitions, and some procedures fundamental to electric power system. This module
can be considered as simply as review of topics that will be utilized throughout this
teaching module. We start by introducing the principal electrical quantities that we
will deal with.

2.1. POWER IN SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
The electric power systems specialist is almost always more concerned with
describing the rate of change of energy with respect to time (which is the definition
of power) rather than voltage and current. As the power into an element is basically
the product of voltage across and current through it, it seems reasonable to swap the
current for power without losing any information in describing the phenomenon. In
treating sinusoidal steady-state behavior of circuits, some further definitions are
necessary. To illustrate the concepts, we will use a cosine representation of the
waveform.
If the terminals of the load are designated a and n, and if the voltage and
current are expressed by
v
an
= V
max
cos et and i
an
= I
max
cos (et - u)
the instantaneous power is
p = v
an
.

i
an
= V
max
I
max
cos et cos (et -u) (2.1)
The angle u in these equations is positive for current lagging the voltage and negative
for leading current. A positive value of p expressed the rate at which energy is being
absorbed by the part of the system between the points a and n. The instantaneous
power is obviously positive when both v
an
and i
an
are positive but will become
negative when v
an
and i
an
are opposite in sign. Figure 2.1 illustrates this point.
Positive power calculated as v
an
i
an
results when current is flowing in the direction of
2
a voltage rise and mean energy is being transferred to the load. Conversely, negative
power calculated as v
an
i
an
results when current is flowing in the direction of a
voltage rise and means energy is being transferred from the load into the system to
which the load is connected. If v
an
and i
an
are in phase, as they are in a purely
resistive load, the instantaneous power will never becomes negative. If the current
and voltage are out of phase by 90
0
, as in purely inductive or purely capacitive ideal
circuit element, the instantaneous power will have equal positive and negative half
cycles and its average value will be zero.

Figure 2.1 Current, voltage, and power plotted versus time.

By using trigonometric identities the expression of Eq.(2.1) is reduced to
( ) t
I V
t
I V
p e u e u 2 sin sin
2
2 cos 1 cos
2
max max max max
+ + = (2.2)
where V
max
I
max
/2 may be replaced by the product of the rms voltage and current |V
an
|
. | I
an
| or |V| . | I

|.

For t V v
an
e cos
max
= ,
t I i
R
i
R
e u cos cos
max
max

=

Figure 2.2 shows
R an
i v plotted versus t.
Similarly,
t
I V
i v
t t I V i v
x an
x an
e u
e e u
2 sin sin
2
cos sin sin
max max
max max
=
=


3

Figure 2.2 Voltage, current in phase with the voltage, and the resulting power
plotted versus time.

which the instantaneous power in the inductance and is the second term in Eq.(2.2).
Figure 2.3 shows , ,
x an
i v and their product plotted versus t.

Figure 2.3 Voltage, current lagging the voltage by 90
0
, and the resulting power
plotted versus time

Examination of Eq.(2.2) shows that the first term, the term which contains
cos u, is always positive and has an average value of
u cos
2
max max
I V
p =
or, when rms value of voltage and current are substituted,
u cos I V p = (2.3)
P is the quantity to which the word power refers. P, the average power, is also called
the real power. The fundamental unit for both instantaneous and average power is the
watt, but a watt is such a small unit in relation to power quantities that P is usually
measured in kilowatts or megawatts.
4
The cosine of the phase angle u between the voltage and the current is called
the power factor. An inductive circuit is said to have a lagging power factor, and a
capacitive circuit is said to have a leading power factor. In other words, the term
lagging power factor and leading power factor indicate, respectively, whether the
current is lagging or leading the applied voltage.
The second term of Eq.(2.2), the term containing sin u, is alternately positive
and negative and has an average value of zero. This component of the instantaneous
power p is called the instantaneous reactive power and expresses the flow of energy
alternately toward the load and away from the load. The maximum value of this
pulsating power, designated Q, is called reactive power or reactive volt-amperes and
is very useful in describing the operation of a power system, as will become
increasingly evident in further discussion. The reactive power is
u sin
2
max max
I V
Q =
or (2.4)
u sin I V Q =
The square root of the sum of the squares of P and Q is equal to the product
of |V| and | I |, for
( ) ( ) I V I V I V Q P = + = +
2
2 2
sin cos u u
Of course P and Q have the same dimensional units, but it is usual to designate the
unit for Q as vars (for volt-amperes reactive). The more practical unit for Q are
kilovars or megavars.
We define a quantity called the complex or apparent power, designated S,
which P and Q are components. By definition,

( ) | |
| |
sin cos
sin cos
j VI S
jVI VI S
jQ P S
+ =
+ =
+ =
(2.5)
Using Eulers identity, we thus have
| j
e VI S =
or
5
S = VI /|
If we introduce the conjugate current defined by the asterisk(*)
I
*
= | I | /|
It becomes immediately obvious that an equivalent definition of complex or apparent
power is
S = VI
*
(2.6)
The use of concepts of complex power may prove advantageous in solving
problems of power system analysis.
Consider the situation with an inductive circuit in which the current lags the
voltage by the angle |. The conjugate of the current will be in the first quadrant in
the complex plane as shown in figure 2.4(a). Multiplying the phasors by V, we obtain
the complex power diagram shown in figure 2.4(b). Inspection of the diagram as well
as the previous development leads to a relation for the power factor of the circuit:

S
P
= | cos (2.7)

Example 2.1
Consider the circuit composed of a series R-L branch in parallel with
capacitance with the following parameters:
R = 0.5 ohms
X
L
= 0.8 ohms
B
c
= 0.6 siemens
Figure 2-4. Complex power diagrams.
|
-
|
I
*
V

I

|
S = V I
*
Q = VI sin |

P = VI cos |

(a) (b)
6
Assume
V = 100 /0 V
Calculate the input current and the active, reactive, and apparent power into
the circuit.

Solution
The current into the R-L branch is given by
8 . 0 5 . 0
100
j
I
Z
+
= = 106.00 /-57.99
0
A
The power factor (PF) of the R-L branch is
53 . 0
99 . 57 cos cos
0
=
= =
Z
Z Z
PF
PF |

which is a lagging power factor.
The current into the capacitance is
( )( ) A j I
c
0
90 / 60 100 6 . 0 = =
The input current I
t
is
0
0 0
01 . 28 / 64 . 63
90 / 60 99 . 57 / 00 . 106
=
+ =
+ =
t
t
Z c t
I
I
I I I

The power factor (PF) of the overall circuit is
88 . 0 01 . 28 cos cos
0
= = =
t t
PF | lagging
Note that the magnitude of I
t
is less than that of I
Z
, and that cos | is higher
than cos |
z
. This is the effect of the capacitor, and its action is called power
factor correction in power system terminology.
The apparent power into the circuit is
( )( )
VA S
S
VI S
t
t
t t
0
0
*
01 . 28 / 00 . 6364
01 . 28 / 64 . 63 0 / 100
=
=
=

In rectangular coordinates we get
7
76 . 2988 98 . 5617 j S
t
+ =
Thus the active and reactive powers are:
var 76 . 2988
98 . 5617
=
=
t
t
Q
W P


2.2 DIRECTION OF POWER FLOW
For an ac system figure 2.5 shown an ideal voltage source (constant
magnitude, constant frequency, zero impedance) with polarity marks which, as
usually, indicate the terminal which is positive during half cycle is positive
instantaneous voltage. Of course, the positively marked terminal is actually the
negative terminal during the negative half cycle of the instantaneous voltage.
Similarly the arrow indicates the direction of current during the positive half cycle of
current.





Figure 2.5 An ac cicuit representation of an emf and current to illustrate
polarity marks.

In figure 2.5a a generator is expected since the current is positive when
flowing away from the positively marked terminal. However, the positively marked
terminal may be negative when the current is flowing away from it. The approach to
understanding the problem is to resolve phasor I into a component along the axis of
the phasor E and a component 90
0
out of phase with E. The product of |E| and the
magnitude of the component of I which is 90
0
out of phase with E is Q. If the
component of I along the axis of E is in phase with E, the power is generated power
which is being delivered to the system, for this component of current is always
flowing away from the positively marked terminal when that terminal is actually
positive (and toward that terminal when the terminal is negative). P, the real part of
EI*, is positive.

+ -
I
E
(a)

+ -
I
E
(b)
8
If the component of current along the axis of E is negative (180
0
out of phase
with E), power is being absorbed and the situation is that of a motor. P, the real part
of EI*, would be negative.
The voltage and current relationship might be as shown in figure 2.5b, and a
motor would be expected. However, an average power absorbed would occur only if
the component of the phasor I along the axis of the phasor E was found to be in
phase rather than 180
0
out of phase with E, so that this component of current would
be always in the direction of the drop in potential. In this case P, the real part of EI*
would be positive. Negative P here would indicated generated power.
To consider the sign of Q, figure 2.6 is helpful. In figure 2.6a positive
reactive power equal to |I|
2
X is supplied to the inductance since inductance draws


Figure 2.6 Alternating emf applied (a) to apurely inductive element
and (b) to a purely capasitive element.

positive Q. Than I lags E by 90
0
, and Q, the imaginary part of EI*, is positive. In
figure 2.6b negative Q must be supplied to the capacitance of the circuit, or the
source with the emf E is receiving positive Q from the capacitor, I leads E by 90
0
.

2.3. BALANCED THREE-PHASE SYSTEM
A balanced three-phase voltage system is composed of three single phase
voltage having the same magnitude and frequency but time displaced from one
another by 120
0
. Figure 2.7(a) shows a schematic representation where the three
single phase voltage source appear in a Y connection; a A configuration is also
possible. A phasor diagram showing each of the phase voltage is also given in figure
2.7(b). As the phasors revolve at the angular frequency e with respect to the
reference line in the counterclockwise (positive) direction, the positive maximum
9
value first occurs for phase a and then in succession for phases b and c. Stated in a
different way, to an observer in the phasor space, the voltage of phase a arrives first
followed by that of b and then of c. For this reason the three phase voltage of figure
2.7 is said to have the phase sequence abc. This is important for certain applications.
For example, in three phase induction motors, the phase sequence determines
whether the motor turn clockwise or counterclockwise.
(a) (b)
Figure 2-7.A Y-connected three-phase system and the corresponding phasor diagram.

Current and Voltage Relation
Balanced three phase system can be studied using technique developed for
single phase circuits. The arrangement of the three single phase voltage into a Y or A
configuration requires some modification in dealing with the overall system.

Y Connection
With reference to figure 2.7 the common terminal n is called the neutral or
star (Y) point. The voltage appearing between any two of the line terminals a, b, and
c have different relationships in magnitude and phase to the voltages appearing
between any one line terminal and the neutral point n. The set of voltages V
ab
, V
bc
,
and V
ca
are called the line voltages, and the set of voltages V
an
, V
bn
, and V
cn
are
referred to as the phase voltages. Analysis of phasor diagrams provides the required
relationships.


~
~
~
a
b
120
o
120
o
120
o
c
V
cn
V
bn
V
an
Reference Line

10










Figure 2-8. Illustrating relation between phase and line voltages in a Y connection.

The effective values of the phase voltages are shown in figure 2.8 as V
an
, V
bn
,
and V
cn
. Each has the same magnitude, and each is displaced 120
0
from the other two
phasors. To obtain the magnitude and phase angle of the line voltage from a to b (i.e.,
V
ab
), we apply Kirchhoffs law:

nb an ab
V V V + = (2.8)
This equation states that the voltage existing from a to b is equal to the voltage from
a to n (i.e., V
an
) plus the voltage from n to b. Thus equation 2.8 can be rewritten as

bn an ab
V V V = (2.8 a)
Since for a balanced system, each phase voltage has the same magnitude, let us set

p cn bn an
V V V V = = = (2.9)
where V
p
denotes the effective magnitude of the phase voltage. Accordingly we may
write

0
p an
0 / V V = (2.10)

0
p bn
120 / V V = (2.11)

0
p
0
p cn
0
p
0
p cn
120 / V 240 / V V 120 / V 240 / V V = = = = (2.12)
Substituting equations 2.10 and 2.11 in equation 2.8a yield
( )
0
120 1 1 = / V V
p ab


0
30 3 / V V
p ab
= (2.13)
o
p cn
120 V V Z =
V
ab
30
o
o
p an
120 V V Z =
o
p an
0 V V Z =
11
Similarly we obtain

0
90 3 = / V V
p bc
(2.14)

0
150 3 / V V
p ca
= (2.15)
The expressions obtained above for the line voltages show that they constitute
a balanced three phase voltage system whose magnitude are 3 times the phase
voltages. Thus we write

p L
V V 3 = (2.16)
A current flowing of out line terminal a (or b or c) is the same as that flowing
through the phase source voltage appearing between terminal n and a (or n and b, or
n and c). We can thus conclude that for a Y-connection three phase source, the line
current equals the phase current. Thus

p L
I I = (2.17)
In the above equation, I
L
denotes the effective value of the line current and I
p
denotes
the effective value for the phase current.

A Connection
We consider now the case when the three single phase sources are rearranged
to form a three phase A connection as shown in figure 2.9. It is clear from inspection
of the circuit shown that the line and phase voltage have the same magnitude:

p L
V V = (2.18)
The phase and line currents, however, are not identical, and the relationship between
them can be obtained using Kirchhoffs current law at one of the line terminals.

12

Figure 2-9. A-connected three-phase source.

In a manner similar to that adopted for the Y connection source, let us
consider the phasor diagram shown in figure 2.10. Assume the phase currents to be
0
0
120 /
120 /
0 /
p ca
p bc
p ab
I I
I I
I I
=
=
=


Gambar 2-10. Illustrating relation between phase and line currents in a A connection.

The current that follows in the line joining a to a is denoted I
aa
and is given
by
ab ca a a
I I I =
'

~
~
~
a

b

c

I
aa
I
bb
I
cc
a

b

c

I
ca
I
ab
I
aa
I
ba
I
ca
V
ca
V
ab
I
bb
I
cc
V
bc
30
o
13
As a result, we have
( ) 0 / 1 120 / 1
0
=
' p a a
I I
which simplifies to
0
150 / 3
p a a
I I =
'

similarly,
0
0
90 / 3
30 / 3
=
=
'
'
p c c
p b b
I I
I I

Note that a set of balanced three phase currents yields a corresponding set of
balanced line currents that are 3 times the phase values:

p L
I I 3 = (2.19)
where I
L
denotes the effective value of any of the three line currents.

Power Relationships
Assume that the three phase generator is supplying a balanced load with the
three sinusoidal phase voltages:
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0
0
120 sin 2
120 sin 2
sin 2
+ =
=
=
t V t v
t V t v
t V t v
p c
p b
p a
e
e
e

With the currents given by
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | e
| e
| e
+ =
=
=
0
0
120 sin 2
120 sin 2
sin 2
t I t i
t I t i
t I t i
p c
p b
p a

where | is the phase angle between the current and voltage in each phase. The total
power in the load is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t i t v t i t v t i t v t p
c c b b a a
+ + =
| 3

This turns out to be
14

( ) ( ) ( ) |
( ) ( )
( ) ( )| | e e
| e e
| e e
|
+ + +
+
=
120 sin sin
120 sin 120 sin
sin sin 2
3
t t
t t
t t I V t p
p p

Using a trigonometric identity, we get
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | | { } | e | e | e |
|
+ + + = 240 2 cos 240 2 cos 2 cos cos 3
3
t t t I V t p
p p

Note that the last three terms in the above equation are reactive power terms and they
add up to zero. Thus we obtained
( ) |
|
cos 3
3 p p
I V t p = (2.20)
When referring to the voltage level of a three phase system, one invariably
understands the line voltages. From the above discussion the relationship between
the line and phase voltages in a Y connection system is
p L
V V 3 =
The power equation thus reads in term of line quantities:
|
|
cos 3
3 L L
I V p = (2.21)
We note the total instantaneous power is constant, having a magnitude of
three times the real power per phase. We may be tempted to assume that the reactive
power is of no importance in a three-phase system since the Q cancel out. However,
the situation is analogous to the summation of balanced three-phase currents and
voltages that also cancel out. Although the sum cancels out this quantities are still
very much in evidence in each phase. We thus extend the concept of complex or
apparent power (S) to three phase system by defining

*
3
3
p p
I V S =
|
(2.22)
as
| =
|
cos I V p
p p
3
3
(2.23)
| =
|
sin I V Q
p p
3
3
(2.24)
In terms of line values, we can assert that

*
3
3
L L
I V S =
|
(2.25)
and
15
| =
|
cos I V p
L L
3
3
(2.26)
| =
|
sin I V Q
L L
3
3
(2.27)

Example 2.2
A Y connected, balanced three phase load consisting of three
impedances of 10 /30
0
ohms each shown in figure 2.11 is supplied with
balanced line to neutral voltages:
V V
V V
V V
cn
bn
an
0
0
120 / 220
240 / 220
0 / 220
=
=
=

a. Calculate the phasor currents in each line
b. Calculate the line to line phasor voltages
c. Calculate the total active and reactive power supplied to the load.

Figure 2-11. Load connection for example 2.2.

Solution
a. The phase currents are obtained as
220Z0
a
b
c
Z = 10Z30
o
ohms
n
16
A I
A I
A I
cn
bn
an
0
0
0
90 / 22
30 / 10
120 / 220
210 / 22
30 / 10
240 / 220
30 / 22
30 / 10
220
= =
= =
= =

b. The line voltages are obtained as
0
0
0
0
210 / 3 220
90 / 3 220 120 30 / 3 220
30 / 3 220
240 / 220 0 / 220
=
= =
=
=
=
ca
bc
ab
ab
bn an ab
V
V
V
V
V V V

c. The apparent power into phase a is given by
( )( )
VA S
S
I V S
a
a
an an a
0
0
*
30 / 4840
30 / 22 220
=
=
=

The total apparent power is three times the phase value:
00 . 7260 69 . 12574
30 / 00 . 14520 30 / 3 4840
0 0
j S
VA S
t
t
+ =
= =

Thus
var 00 . 7260
69 . 12574
=
=
t
t
Q
W P


Example 2.3
Repeat example 2.2 as if the same three impedance were connected in
a A connection.

Solution
From example 2.2 we have
17
0
0
0
210 / 3 220
90 / 3 220
30 / 3 220
=
=
=
ca
bc
ab
V
V
V

The currents in each of the impedances are
0
0
0
0
120 / 3 22
120 / 3 22
0 / 3 22
30 / 10
30 / 3 220
=
=
= =
ca
bc
ab
I
I
I

The line currents are obtained with reference to figure 2.12 as
0
0
0
0
210 / 66
90 / 66
30 / 66
120 / 3 22 0 / 3 22
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
c
bc ca c
b
ab bc b
a
a
ca ab a
I
I I I
I
I I I
I
I
I I I

The apparent power in the impedance between a and b is
( )( )
0
0
*
30 / 14520
0 / 3 22 30 / 3 220
=
=
=
ab
ab
ab ab ab
S
S
I V S

The total three phase power is then
00 . 21780 04 . 37724
30 / 43560
0
j S
S
t
t
+ =
=

As a result,
var 00 . 21780
04 . 37724
=
=
t
t
Q
W P


18

Figure 2-12. Load connection for example 2.3.


2.4 PER PHASE ANALYSIS
The stage has now been set to introduce the powerful method of per phase
analysis. The justification for the method follows directly from the following
theorem.
Balanced Three-Phase Theorem. Assume that we are given a
1. Balanced three-phase (connected) system with
2. All loads and sources wye connected, and
3. In the circuit model there is no mutual inductance between phases.
Then
(a) All the neutrals are the same potential,
(b) The phases are completely decoupled, and
(c) All corresponding network variables occur in balanced sets of the same sequence
as the sources.
Outline of Proof. The fact that the neutrals are at the same potential and the
network phases are decoupled follows that; using superposition, the number of
sources can be arbitrary. Without mutual inductance between the phases they are
decoupled and with balanced source it is clear that the responses in phases b and c
lag the corresponding responses occur in balanced sets.

a
c
Z
I
c
I
b
b
Z
Z
I
ca
I
bc
I
ab
I
a
19
Method : per Phase analysis. We next turn to the method of per phase
analysis. Given a balanced three-phase network with no mutual inductance between
phases :
1. Convert all delta-connected sources and loads into equivalent wye connections.
2. Solve for the desired phase a variables using the phase a circuit with all
neutrals connected.
3. The phase b and phase c variables can then be determined by inspection ;
subtract 120
0
and 240
0
, respectively, from the phase angles found in step 2, in the
usual case of abc-sequence. Add 120
0
and 240
0
in the case of acb-sequence
sources.
4. If necessary, go back to the original circuit to find line-line variables or variables
internal to delta connection.

Note : In using per phase analysis we always pick the neutral as datum. In this
case it is simpler to use a single-subscript notation for phase voltage. We will use V
a

rather than V
an
, etc.

Examples 2.4
Given the balanced three-phase system shown in fig. 2.13 (a), find v
1
(t) and i
2
(t)









Figure 2. 13 (a)

Solution Replace delta by equivalent Wye, Za = -j 2/3. Using per phase analysis, we
consider the per phase (phase a) circuit shown in fig. 2.13 (b). Note

that while v
1



j0.1
j1.0
n
+
-
+
-
v
1
b
1 + j0.01
c b c c b
a
-j2
n
a
o
a
45
2
350
E Z =
a
i
2
20
appears in the phase circuit, i
2
has been suppressed in the process of the A-Y
conversion. Carrying out the calculation to find v
1
, we note that the equivalent
parallel impedance from a to n is j2. Using the voltage-divider law.







Figure 2. 13 (b)
a a
E E
j j
j
v 05 , 1 .
1 . 0 2
2
1
=
+

= =
0
45 .
2
368
Z
The phasor v
1
represents the sinusoid v
1
(t) = 368 cos ( 45 t + e
0
). From the
original circuit we see that to find i
2
(t), we need to find Vab. Thus,
V
ab
= V
a,n
-V
bn
=
' ' 6 /
3
n Va j
e
t

Then using the impedance of the capacitor, we find that
0
' '
165 .
2
319
Z =
b a
I
and it follows that the corresponding sinusoidal is
( ) ( )
0
2
165 cos 319 + e = t t i

Example 2.5
In the circuit shown in figure 2.14, the source phasor voltage is V = 30 /15
0
.
Determine the phasor currents I
2
and I
3
and the impedance Z
2
. Assume that I
1
is
equal to 5 A.

Solution
The voltage V
2
is given by

+
-
o
a
45
2
350
E Z =
j0.1
+
-
v
1 j1.0
3
2
j
a
n n
a
21
( )
0
0
2
1 2
94 . 17 / 20 . 25
0 / 5 15 / 30
1
=
=
=
V
I V V


Figure 2-14. Circuit for Problem 2-1.

The current I
3
is thus
0 2
3
94 . 17 / 52 . 2
10
= =
V
I
The current I
2
is obtained using KCL. Thus
0
3 1 2
61 . 16 / 72 . 2 =
= I I I

Finally we have
ohms j
I
V
Z
26 . 5 64 . 7
56 . 34 / 28 . 9
0
2
2
2
+ =
=
=


Example 2.6
For the circuit of problem 2.5, calculate the apparent power produced by the
source and individual apparent power consumed by the 1-ohm resistor, the
impedance Z
2
, and the resistance R
3
. Show that conservation of power hold true.

Solution
The apparent power produced by the source is
1O
~
b
n
-
+
Z
2
I
2
V I
3 R
3
= 10O
I
1
a
V
2
-
+
22
( )( )
VA j
VA
VI S
s
82 . 38 89 . 144
15 / 150
0 / 5 15 / 30
0
0
*
1
+ =
=
=
=

The apparent power taken by the 1-ohm resistor is
( )( )
W I
I I
I V S
ab t
25
1
2
1
*
1 1
*
1
= =
=
=

The apparent power taken by the impedance Z
2
is
( )( )
VA j
I V S
82 . 38 37 . 56
56 . 34 / 44 . 68
61 . 16 / 72 . 2 94 . 17 / 20 . 25
0
0
*
2 2 2
+ =
=
=
=

The apparent power taken by the resistor R
3
is
( )( )
W
I V S
52 . 63
94 . 17 / 52 . 2 94 . 17 / 20 . 25
*
3 2 3
=
=
=

The total power consumed is
VA j
S S S S
t
83 . 38 89 . 144
3 2 1
+ =
+ + =

This is equal to the source apparent power, which proves the principle of
conservation of power.

Example 2.7
A three phase transmission link is rated 100 kVA at 2300 V. when operating
at rated load, the total resistive and reactive voltage drop in the link are, respectively,
2.4 and 3.6 percent of the rated voltage. Determine the rated power and power factor
when the link delivers 60 kW at 0.8 PF lagging at 2300 V.
23
Solution :

The active voltage drop per phase is
( )
3
2300 024 . 0
= = A IR V
r

The reactive drop is
( )
3
2300 036 . 0
= = A IX V
x

But the rated current is
A I 1 . 25
3 2300
10 100
3
=

=
As a result,
ohms X
ohms R
90 . 1
27 . 1
=
=

For a load of 60 kW at 0.8 PF lagging, the phase current is
A I
l
83 . 18
8 . 0 3 2300
10 60
3
=

=
The active and reactive power consumed by the link are thus
var 32 . 2020 3
43 . 1350 3
2
2
= =
= =
X I Q
W R I P
l lk
l lk

As a result, the apparent power consumed by the link is
32 . 2020 43 . 1350 j S
lk
+ =
The apparent load power is
VA j
St
000 , 45 000 , 60
8 . 0 cos /
8 . 0
10 60
1
3
+ =

=


Thus the total apparent power is now obtained by
0
47 . 37 / 74 . 77296
32 . 47020 43 . 61350
=
+ = j S
t


24
As a result
kW P
lagging
t
t
35043 . 61
79 . 0
47 . 37 cos cos
0
=
=
= |